INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORK EE

EEC-104
Signals and Systems
Ramanuja Panigrahi
Signals and Systems

• Interplay between Signals and Systems

System
y 
x 

Large number of systems to process and extract

desired info from the signals

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Module-1

• Size of a signal,
• Classification of signals,
• Signal operations,
• Elementary signals /Signal models,
• Even and odd functions,
• Systems,
• Classification of systems,
• Properties of systems,
• System model.

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Abstraction: Systems

Extracting from several different situations at once, what is common and what is essential to a
description of the situation.

 −   − 

Mass
y  x 
x  y 

()
x  =


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Abstraction: Signals
Extracting from several different situations at once, what is common and what is essential to a
description of the situation.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q
Nf9nzvnd1k

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Abstraction

• Look at different situations and create an abstraction.

• Now we can deal directly with the abstractions and keep aside the real context from
which the abstraction is derived.

Ex. Notion of a Numbers is an abstraction.

We don’t have numbers in real life but we abstract situations in real life by associating
numbers with them

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Definitions

• Let us complete the process of abstraction by making certain formal definitions.

What is a Signal?
• It’s a physical quantity that conveys information about a phenomenon.
• Typically exhibits variation in space or time.

() =   ( ∗ )

Dependent variable “X”

Independent variable “t”

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What is a Signal?

• Its “reasonable” function of an independent variable.

Many to-one function

• The major difference between a function and a signal is the physical relevance.

• Mapping from independent variable to dependent variable

Dependent variable “X” ∈ set of complex numbers

Independent variable “t” ∈ set of real numbers

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What is a Signal?
What about a Video?
()=2  (∗)

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Classification of Signals
Continuous-time and Discrete-time signals
Continuous time signals are defined for all time events • Discrete-time signals are defined only at discrete time
in an interval instants. However, the amplitude can have any value in the
defined range.
() =   ( ∗ ) • Can be identified as a sequence of numbers.
  = ,,,3,4, … .

  =    ≥0

Example:

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Representation of Discrete-time signals

Sequence Representation

Functional Representation

• The arrow indicates X[0]. Values to the left are x[-1], x[-2],
and so on. Values to the right are x[1],x[2] ,…
• If no arrow is marked then, the first value corresponds to x[0]

Graphical Representation

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Examples
9

2 ,   < 4 4
  =ቊ   = ሼ9, 4, , , , 4, 9}
, ℎ 

 −  −
   3 

4
 ,   ≥    = ሼ, , , 3, 4, … . } 3
  =ቊ 
, ℎ 

   3 

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Discrete-time signals
• Painting and a photo

• Two ways to get a discrete-time signal

1. Discrete by Occurrence
2. Obtained by sampling

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Example

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• The sum of two discrete-time sequences is obtained by adding the corresponding elements of sequences, i.e.,
ሼ } = ሼ } + ሼ } →  =  + 
• The product of two discrete-time sequences is obtained by multiplying the corresponding elements of the
sequences, i.e.,
ሼ } = ሼ } × ሼ } →  =  

• The product of a sequence and a constant k is obtained by multiplying each element of the sequence by that
constant, i.e.,
ሼ } = ሼ } →  = 

Example: 1  = ሼ−, .5, 3.5, } and 2  = ሼ., 7, , 4}. Determine = 1  + 2 

7 6.5
2.2 3.5

 −  −    
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 Analog and Digital Signal
• A signal whose amplitude can take on any value in a continuous
range is an analog signal.
• This means that an analog signal amplitude can take on an
infinite number of values.

• A digital signal, on the other hand, is a special case of

discrete time signal whose amplitude can take on
only a finite number of values.
• Amplitude is quantized.

• Signals associated with a digital computer are digital because they take on only
two values (binary signals).
• A digital signal whose amplitudes can take on M values is an M-ary signal of
which binary (M = 2) is a special case.
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Real and Complex Signals

A signal x(t) is a real signal if the value of the dependent variable is a real number, and a signal x(t) is a complex signal if the
value of the dependent variable is a complex number. A general complex signal x(t) is a function of the form

  = 1  + 2 ()

where x1(t) and x2(t) are real signals and j −.

  = cos  +  sin()

A similar definition also holds good for discrete-time signals.

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Deterministic and Random Signals
A signal whose physical description is known completely, in either a mathematical form or a graphical form
is a deterministic signal.

A signal whose values cannot be predicted precisely but are known only in terms of probabilistic description
is a random signal. Example: outcome of throwing a dice
In this course, we shall exclusively deal with deterministic signals.

Causal, Non- causal, Anti- causal signals

A signal that does not start before t = 0 is a causal signal. In other words, x(t) is a causal signal if
  = ;  < 
A signal that starts before t = 0 is a noncausal signal.
A signal that is zero for all t ≥ 0 is called an anti-causal signal.

Observe that an everlasting signal is always noncausal, but a noncausal signal is not necessarily everlasting.

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Even and Odd Signals

A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an even signal if

A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an odd signal if

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Even and Odd Signals

signal x(t) or x[n] can be expressed as a sum of two signals, one of which is even and one of which is
odd.

where

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Modification For Complex Signals
While a complex signal can be decomposed into even and odd components, it is more common to decompose
complex signals using conjugate symmetries.

A complex signal x(t) is said to be conjugate-symmetric if x(t) = x∗(−t). A conjugate-symmetric signal is even in
the real part and odd in the imaginary part. Thus, a real conjugate-symmetric signal is an even signal.
  =  + 
 ∗ − =  − −   −
=  − +  − −
As x(t) = x∗(−t) we get; A(t)=A(-t) and B(t)= -B(-t). Therefore, the complex signal is even in the real part and odd
in the imaginary part.

• A signal is conjugate-antisymmetric if x(t) = −x∗(−t). A conjugate-antisymmetric signal is odd in the real part
and even in the imaginary part. A real conjugate-antisymmetric signal is an odd signal.

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Modification For Complex Signals

Any signal x(t) can be decomposed into a conjugate-symmetric portion xcs(t) plus a conjugate-antisymmetric
portion xca(t).

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Transformations of the Independent Variable

A central concept in signal and system analysis is that of the

transformation of a signal.

For example, in an aircraft control system, signals corresponding to the actions of the pilot are
transformed by electrical and mechanical systems into changes in aircraft thrust or the positions of
aircraft control surfaces such as the rudder or ailerons, which in turn are transformed through the
dynamics and kinematics of the vehicle into changes in aircraft velocity and heading.

Three useful signal operations: shifting, scaling, and inversion.

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Amplitude Transformations

X(t) Amplitude inversion Y(t)=- X(t)

T
Y(t)=-X(t)
2

-2

X(t)
Y(t)=X(t) +1
3
2 Amplitude Shifting
Y(t)=X(t) +1
1

X(t) 3*X(t)
Amplitude Scaling
2 2*3=6
Y(t)=3*X(t)

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Time Inversion/ time reversal
• Consider the signal x(t) in Fig. This time reversal [the reflection of x(t) about the vertical axis] gives us the
signal φ(t).
• Observe that whatever happens in x(t) at some instant t also happens in φ(t) at the instant −t, and vice
versa.
• Therefore,
φ(t) = x(−t)

φ(t)

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Time shift

• Consider a signal x(t) and the same signal delayed by T

seconds, denoted by φ(t).
• Whatever happens in x(t) at some instant t also happens in
φ(t) T seconds later at the instant t + T.

Therefore,
Case-1
( + ) = ()  () = ( − )

To time-shift a signal by T, we replace t with t − T. Thus x(t − T)

represents x(t) time-shifted by T seconds.

Case-1: If T is positive, the shift is to the right (delay) Case-2

Case-2: If T is negative, the shift is to the left (advance)

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Time Scaling

• The compression or expansion of a signal in time is known as

time scaling.

• Case-1: compression
• Whatever happens in x(t) at some instant t also happens to
φ(t) at the instant t/2.
• Therefore,
(/) = ()  () = ()
Case-1: compression

• Case-2: Expansion
• Whatever happens in x(t) at some instant t also happens to
φ(t) at the instant 2t.
• Therefore,
() = ()  () = (/) Case-2: Expansion

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Combined Operation
• Certain complex operations require simultaneous use of more than one of the operations. The most general
operation involving all three operations is x(at − b), which is realized in two possible sequences of
operation:

1. Time-shift x(t) by b to obtain x(t − b). Now time-scale the shifted signal x(t − b) by a, i.e., replace t with at;
to obtain x(at − b).

2. Time-scale x(t) by a to obtain x(at). Now time-shift x(at) by b/a [i.e., replace t with t − (b/a)] to obtain x[a(t
− b/a)] = x(at − b).

3. In either case, if a is negative, time scaling involves time reversal.

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Example
A continuous-time signal x(t) is shown in Fig. Sketch and label each of the following signals.
(a) x(t - 2); (b) x(2t); (c) x(t/2); (d) x (-t)

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Example
A discrete-time signal x[n] is shown in Fig.. Sketch and label each of the following signals.
(a) x[n - 2]; (b) x[2n]; (c) x[-n]; (d) x[-n +2]

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Example

Sketch and label the even and odd components of the signals shown below.

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Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

A signal x(t) is said to be periodic if for some positive constant T

The smallest value of T that satisfies the periodicity condition is the

fundamental period of x(t).
Any continuous-time signal which is not periodic is called a nonperiodic
(or aperiodic) signal
Note: this definition does not work for a constant signal x (t)
(known as a dc signal). For a constant signal x (t) the fundamental
period is undefined since x (t) is periodic for any choice of T (and
so there is no smallest positive value).

important property of a periodic signal x(t) is that x(t) can be generated by periodic
extension of any segment of x(t) of duration T (the period).

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33
Determine whether or not each of the following signals is periodic.

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• Periodic discrete-time signals are defined analogously. A sequence (discrete-time signal)
x[n] is periodic with period N if there is a positive integer N for which

The fundamental period N0 of x[n] is the smallest positive integer N for which x[n] is positive. Any
sequence which is not periodic is called a nonperiodic (or aperiodic) sequence.

Note-1: a sequence obtained by uniform sampling of a periodic continuous-time signal may not be periodic.
Note-2: the sum of two continuous-time periodic signals may not be periodic
Note-3: that the sum of two periodic sequences is always periodic.

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Homework

Thus, x[n] is periodic if the ratio of the sampling interval and the fundamental period of x(t) ,i.e., Ts / T0 is a rational
number.
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Homework

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Size of a Signal

• The size of any entity is a number that indicates the largeness or strength of that entity.

Generally speaking, the signal amplitude varies with time. How can a signal that exists over
a certain time interval with varying amplitude be measured by one number that will indicate
the signal size or signal strength?

Amplitude
Area under a signal x(t)

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Size Energy

• Signal Energy is defined as

This definition simplifies for a real-valued signal x(t) to

∞
 = න  2  
∞
The signal energy as defined does not indicate the actual energy (in the conventional sense) of the signal because the
signal energy depends not only on the signal, but also on the load. It can, however, be interpreted as the energy
dissipated in a normalized load of a 1 ohm resistor if a voltage x(t) were to be applied across the 1 ohm resistor

The measure of “energy” is therefore indicative of the energy capability of the signal, not the actual energy.
For this reason the concepts of conservation of energy should not be applied to this “signal energy.”

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Size Power

• Signal energy must be finite for it to be a meaningful measure of signal size. A necessary
condition for the energy to be finite is that the signal amplitude → 0 as |t| →∞

When the amplitude of x(t) does not → 0 as |t| → ∞, the signal energy is infinite.

A more meaningful measure of the signal size in such a case would be the time average of the energy, if it
exists. This measure is called the power of the signal.

Note that a periodic signal is a power signal if its energy content per period is finite, and then the average power of
this signal need only be calculated over a period.

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Determine the suitable measures of the signals

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Energy and Power Signals

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43
Signal models: Continuous time

• Unit Step Signal everlasting to causal

describe the signal

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Signal models: Continuous time

• Unit Impulse (aka Dirac delta function)  = lim  t

→0

 t

The unit impulse, therefore, can be regarded as a rectangular pulse with

a width that has become infinitesimally small, a height that has become
Paul (Adrien Maurice) Dirac infinitely large, and an overall area that has been maintained at unity.

the exact impulse function cannot be generated in practice; it can only be

approached

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Signal models: Continuous time

• Properties of unit Impulse

multiplication of a continuous-time function x(t) with an unit impulse located at t = 0 results in an impulse, which
is located at t = 0 and has strength x(0)
∞
න      =   =   ቚ
∞ 0
∞
න     −   =   =   ቚ
∞ 


;   <  < 
න    = ቊ
 ; ℎ


 − =     =  


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47
Signal models: Continuous time

• Sampling property/ Shifting Property of the unit impulse

∞
න     −   =  
∞

This result means that the area under the product of a function x(t) with an impulse δ(t − T) is equal to
the value of that function at the instant at which the unit impulse is located. This property is very
important and useful and is known as the sampling or sifting property of the unit impulse

unit impulse and unit step

∞
  = න   −  
0

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49
Signal models: Continuous time

• Exponential signals
  =   ℎ  =  + 

The following functions are either special cases of

or can be expressed in terms of est

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 Complex Exponential signals
• Real Exponential signals
  =     = 

  =

σ = 0, s = ±jω

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UNIT IMPULSE AS A GENERALIZED FUNCTION

  cos 

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• Sinusoidal Signals

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Signal models: Discrete time
Unit Step Sequence

Unit Impulse Sequence

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Signal models: Discrete time

Properties of Impulse Sequence

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Real exponential sequence

>  <  < ;

56
complex exponential sequence

Periodicity

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fundamental period 12

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Thanks

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