SUBJECT:

CHEMISTRY

CLASS:
S.S. 1

TERM: FIRST

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 SCHEME OF WORK

WEEKS TOPICS CONTENT

Introduction to Chemistry
1 Meaning of chemistry, Career prospects tied to
chemistry, application of chemistry, adverse effects of
chemicals and, Scientific methods.

Nature of Matter I. What is Definition of matter?

2 ii. What are the three major states of matter? solid,
liquid and gas.
iii. What two types of Changes in states of matter are
possible
iv. The relevance of reversibility to changes in matter.
V. Identify different common Physical properties of the
three states of matter
v. Physical and chemical changes in relation to the
three states of matter
Vi. Know the characteristics of each state of matter
vii. Differences between physical and chemical changes
ELEMENTS A. ELEMENTS
i. Definition of element
3 ii. Different ways of writing symbols of elements
iii. First 30 elements in the periodic table
iv.Classification of elements into the three types
metals, non-metals and metalloid
V.Distinguish the state of matter for the first
30elements
Vi. Know relationship between elements and atoms
states of matter e.g. Sodium(solid), Mercury (liquid),
Neon(gas)
v. Composition of elements →(atoms). [Oxygen
element is made of oxygen atoms]
2. MOLECULES
i. Definition of molecule
ii. Examples e.g. 1 molecule of sulfur contains eight (8)
atoms.
iii. Atomicity
PARTICULATE NATURE OF i. Atomic models -J.J. Thompson, Bohr's model,
MATTER - 1 Rutherford's model
4 ii. Dalton's atomic theory & its modifications
iii. Structure of the atom/sub-atomic particles
iv. Characteristics of the sub-atomic particles
v. Atomic no, proton no, No of neutrons andnumber of
electrons

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 PARTICULATE NATURE OF i. Atomic mass, Relative atomic mass
MATTER - 2 ii. Isotopy, isotopes, relative abundance of isotopes
iii. Definition and types of orbitals
5 iv. Rules for filling orbitals
v. Electronic configuration
vi. Formation of ions[ cations and anions] from neutral
atoms
COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES A. COMPOUNDS
i. Definition of compound and examples
6 ii. Relationship between atoms, elements and
compounds
iii. Classification into three states of matter
B. MIXTURES
i. Definition of mixture and examples
ii. Relationship between elements, compounds and
mixtures
iii. Heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures
C.CHARACTERISTICS OF MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS
7 MID-TERM BREAK
SEPARATION TECHNIQUES i. Types of separation techniques
8 ii. Applications of various separation techniques
iii. Criteria for purity of substances
iv. Practicals on separation techniques
v. Melting and boiling point determination
VALENCY, OXIDATION NUMBER a. Valency
AND IUPAC NOMENCLATURE b. Oxidation number
9 c. Rules governing calculation of oxidation number
d. Difference between cations, anions and radicals
e. Calculation of oxidation no of elements in radicals
and compounds
f. IUPAC nomenclature of compounds
10 Revision WEEK I-9 TOPICS
11-13 Examination EXAMINATION

WEEK: ONE

TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i. Explain the meaning of Chemistry
ii. expound daily and general applications of Chemistry as a core life science
iii. enumerate career prospects in Chemistry
iv. outline and explain advantages & adverse effects of Chemistry in some of the identified areas of application

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The teacher should present real-world case studies that demonstrate the importance of
chemistry in solving environmental, medical, or technological challenges.

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 SUB-TOPIC 1:

MEANING OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the study of matter: its structure, composition, properties and the changes it undergoes.

Chemistry is one of the three main branches of pure science, the other two being physics and biology. Chemistry
which probes into the principles governing the changes that matter undergoes also deals with the composition,
properties uses of matter. Some of the chemical changes which matter undergoes include; lighting a match,
cooking, burning fire wood, making palm wine, rusting of nails, rotting of leaves. Chemical
changes are otherwise known as chemical reactions. The knowledge of chemistry helps us to subject some matter to
chemical processes thereby producing some materials for our every day today use. Such materials include: soaps,
detergents, hair cream, perfumes, oil, margarine and plastics among others.

There are three main branches of chemistry: inorganic, organic and physical chemistry.

Career prospects tied to chemistry

Career prospects tied to chemistry simply mean the job opportunities that are available for the students with
knowledge of chemistry. Such students can be employed with private and public sectors which include: Teaching
service, health service, food processing, petroleum and petrochemical industries, manufacturing industry, extractive
industry, Agriculture and Forestry.

(i) Teaching services: Concern those who teach in primary, secondary schools, colleges of education and
universities and even the laboratory assistants in schools and universities.
(ii) Health service: Involves pharmacists, biochemists, chemists, nutritionists, dieticians, doctors, nurses, medical
assistants, laboratory assistants and dispensers.
(iii) Food processing: Food processing involves food technologists and research chemists.
(iv) Petroleum and petrochemical industries –Involves application of the following people; research chemists,
chemical engineers and laboratory assistants.
(v) Extractive industry- Involves chemists, mining engineers and geologists.
(vi) Manufacturing Industry: This involves research chemists and chemical engineers in the wide variety of
manufacturing industries such as iron and steel works and cement factories.
(vii) Agriculture-Involves agricultural scientists, chemists, biochemists and physiologists who engaged in
research to improve the quality and yield of crops and livestocks, and to advise farmers.
(viii) Forestry: Scientists engaged in research to preserve and improve forests and forestry products.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 1:

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 1. A career as a ____ chemist involves developing and testing new materials for applications in electronics,
construction, and manufacturing.

2. ____ chemists work in the pharmaceutical industry, contributing to the design, synthesis, and testing of new
drugs to treat various medical conditions.

3. ____ chemists play a crucial role in analyzing and ensuring the quality and safety of food, beverages,
pharmaceuticals, and environmental samples.

4. As a ____, you would be involved in designing and conducting experiments to understand the properties and
behavior of matter at the atomic and molecular level.

5. A career in ____ chemistry focuses on developing sustainable processes and products, reducing environmental
impact, and finding greener alternatives in various industries.

Practice exercise 2:

1. Define the term chemistry.

2. Mention five changes that matter undergoes.
3. Give the uses of chemistry in our day to day life.
SUB-TOPIC 2:

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i. Explain the application and uses of chemistry

APPLICATION/ USES OF CHEMISTRY

The knowledge of chemistry can be apply in the following areas; namely

1. Hospital: The knowledge of chemistry makes it possible for people to involve in chemical research and
technology which lead to production of medicine that we use today.
2. Military: The duty of the military is defense, to defend the territorial integrity of a nation or state. Military cannot
effectively do this without ammunition. Chemistry contributes to the discovery and description of the
theoretical bases for the behavior of chemical substances such as explosives used by the military. The gun
powder used in the earliest guns was made by mixing sulphur, charcoal and potassium trioxonitrates (v),
compounded by early chemists. The manufacture of smokeless powder was based upon gun cotton, which is
made from cotton fibers soaked in a strong mixture of HNO3 and H2SO4.
3. Teaching- chemistry teachers and lecturers in secondary schools, polytechnics, colleges of education and
universities.
4. Chemical and petrochemical industries: Application chemists, research chemists, chemical engineers and
laboratory assistants.
5. Space science: chemistry is not out in space exploration. In our efforts to gain more knowledge of the other
planets and outer space around us, special rockets called ‘space rocket’ are sent into space. The first rocket was
sent into space on October 4, 1957 by Russia. In July, 1969, Apollo II astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin
landed on the moon. These are made possible by science and technology.
6. Agriculture: Agricultural scientists, chemists, biochemists and physiologists engaged in research to improve the
quality and yield of crops and livestock, and to advise farmers.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 1:

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Here are five fill-in-the-gap questions about the uses of chemistry:

1. ____________ is a branch of chemistry that deals with the study of elements and compounds found in the Earth's
crust and their extraction for various industrial processes.

2. ____________ is the branch of chemistry concerned with the composition, structure, properties, and changes of
matter, and it forms the foundation of our understanding of the natural world.

3. ____________ is a field of chemistry that focuses on the study of the interaction between chemicals and living
organisms, contributing to areas such as medicine, agriculture, and environmental protection.

Of course, here are two fill-in-the-gap questions about branches of chemistry:

4. ____________ is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of the properties, composition, and behavior
of matter at the atomic and molecular levels.

Practice Exercise 2:

1. How is chemistry applied in the fieldf medici<</(i<</(i<T5BT)11(d)-3(7.95 547ID 38>> BDC q0.00 nBT/F3 11.04 Tf1 0 0 1 364he)12(

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5. The ____________ highlights the need to assess and manage the potential risks associated with chemicals and
their use, considering both short-term and long-term consequences.

CONCLUSION

1. Chemistry is defined as

A. a branch of knowledge which produces chemicals B. the branch of science which deals with changes in matter C.
The oldest branch science D. the branch of science which makes physics and biology career

2. Scientific approach to discoveries follows the order which includes:

A. Observation, hypothesis, and results B. experiments, hypothesis and results C. further experiments and problems
solving D. theory, negative and positive results and experiments

3. Chemical hypothesis is different from chemical law in that

A. hypothesis is a reasonable explanation to observations made while law is a statement from a scientist.
B. hypothesis is a reasonable explanation to observations while law is a statement which confirms the hypothesis
after extensive tests. C. hypothesis is not reasonable while law is reasonable. D. none of the above
4. Chemical changes around us includes all except;
A. rusting of iron nails B. sieving C. fading of coloured cloth D. decomposing of green leaves in compost

5. One of these professions has no need for chemistry

A. Miners B. Engineers C. Philosophers D. Geologists

6. Which of the following can be a concern related to the excessive use of pesticides in agriculture?

A. Enhanced nutrient uptake in crops B. Decreased soil erosion C. Soil enrichment D. Ecological imbalances and
environmental pollution

7. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are chemicals that: A. Rapidly break down in the environment B.
Positively impact biodiversity C. Are easily removed from water bodies D. Accumulate in the environment and
living organisms

8. The term "ozone depletion" refers to: A. The increase in ozone concentration in the atmosphere B. The
decrease in oxygen concentration in the atmosphere C. The thinning of the ozone layer due to certain
chemicals D. The prevention of ozone production in the stratosphere

9. The Precautionary Principle in chemistry emphasizes: A. Encouraging reckless experimentation B. Ignoring

potential risks in chemical research C. Taking preventive measures in the face of uncertainty about potential
harm D. Prioritizing economic benefits over safety concerns

10. The unintended negative consequences resulting from the application of chemical knowledge and technologies
that impact human health and the environment are collectively known as:

A. Chemical bonding B. Chemical equilibrium C. Chemical reactions D. Unintended consequences

ESSAY QUESTIONS

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1. Give five reasons why chemistry is important in your life.
2. Explain in detail two of the reasons given above.
3. List three adverse effect of existence of chemistry in this world.
4. Explain two of those adverse effects mentioned above.
5. Explain the term scientific method full.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

Chemistry, Matter, Compound, Valency, Oxidation State, IUPAC Nomenclature, Periodic Table, Chemical Reaction,
Filtration, Distillation, Chromatography

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

"Think about the invisible particles that make up matter, where electrons orbit around a central nucleus. When
elements combine, they form a variety of substances. What term describes the arrangement of these elements and
their properties in the periodic table?"

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:

"The scientific method is a compass that guides us through the uncharted waters of discovery, illuminating the path
from ignorance to understanding."

WEEK: TWO

TOPIC: NATURE OF MATTER

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. give a clear definition of matter in their own words
2. Write the three major states of matter.
3. Distinguish between physical and chemical changes

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: What do you think makes water boil? Why can we see our breath in cold weather?

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LIQUID: The particles in a liquid are slightly further apart than those in a solid. They have more kinetic energy and are
no longer held in fixed positions. They can vibrate, rotate and translate. Although the particles can slide about
randomly, they are still under the influence of the cohesive forces and their movements are restricted. A liquid,
therefore, still possesses a fixed volume but has no definite shape or form. Instead, it assumes the shape of the
container in which it is placed. A liquid is also hard to compress.

GAS: In a gas, the particles have much more kinetic energy than those in a liquid. The cohesive forces in a gas are
negligible and the particles are free to move about in all directions at great speed, restricted only by the walls of the
container. A gas has no definite shape; it occupies the whole volume of its container. Gas particles are relatively far
apart and may be readily compressed.

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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE
PHYSICAL CHANGE CHEMICAL CHANGE

1. Easily reversible Not easily reversible

2. No new substance is formed New substance is formed

3. No change is mass. There is a noticeable change in mass.

4. Not accompanied by heat Usually accompanied by heat change.

CONCLUSION &TOPICAL TEST

1. In which state of matter do particles have the least amount of energy and move the slowest?

a) Solid b) Liquid c) Gas d) Plasma

2. When a substance changes from a gas to a liquid, this process is called:

a) Sublimation b) Condensation c) Evaporation d) Fusion

3. The kinetic theory of matter explains that the particles of matter:

a) Are stationary in solids b) Have no attractive forces c) Are constantly in motion d) Only move when heated

4. A glass of water at room temperature is an example of which state of matter?

a) Solid b) Liquid c) Gas d) Plasma

5. The process by which a solid changes directly into a gas without passing through the liquid state is called:

a) Condensation b) Sublimation c) Evaporation d) Melting

6. What is the main difference between a solid and a liquid?

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4. When a substance changes directly from a solid to a gas without passing through the liquid phase, it is undergoing
____________.
5. In the ____________ state of matter, particles have the highest energy and are in constant random motion, with
no fixed shape or volume.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:
Matter, Solid, Liquid, Gas, Physical Change, Chemical Change, Cohesion, Electrovalent Bond, Covalent Bond, Metallic
Bond

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

"Consider a substance that can exist in three different states: solid, liquid, and gas. Its particles are in constant
motion, but the strength of their attractions varies in each state. What is this substance, and how do its properties
change as it transitions between states?"

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:

"Like the states of matter, our potential is limitless – we can solidify our dreams, flow through challenges, and
transform ourselves with the energy of determination."

WEEK: THREE

TOPIC: ELEMENTS

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i. Search for the meaning of key words e.g. element, atom, molecule , atomicity in the science dictionary
ii. Know off hand the first 30 elements and their symbols express definition of the key words in their own words
iii. Know at least 6 different physical properties between metals and non-metals.
iv. Enumerate 4 ways of writing symbols of elements

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Show short videos or animations that highlight the discovery, properties, and uses of specific
elements.

SUB-TOPIC 1:

ELEMENTS AND THEIR SYMBOLS

An element is a substance that cannot be broken into simpler substances by any chemical methods. Examples of
elements include: Iron, tin, aluminum etc.

There are about 118 known elements of which 92 are naturally exiting elements and the rest are artificially made.

Symbols are modern ways of representing atoms of elements by using abbreviations. The modern symbols were
developed by Berzelius in 1814.

First, He used the first letter in the name of the element.

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Examples

ELEMENT SYMBOL

Hydrogen H
Boron B
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Fluorine F
Phosphorus P
Sulphur S
Iodine I

The second principle uses the first two letters.

Examples:
ELEMENTS SYMBOL
Helium He
Lithium Li
Beryllium Be
Neon Ne
Aluminum Al
Silicon Si
Argon Ar
Calcium Ca
Bromine Br
Barium Ba

The third principle is when the first letter and another letter in the name are used.

Example:
ELEMENTS SYMBOL
Magnesium Mg
Chlorine Cl
Chromium Cr

FIRST 30 ELEMENTS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Elements Symbols
1. Hydrogen (H)
2. Helium (He)
3. Lithium (Li)
4. Beryllium (Be)
5. Boron (B)
6. Carbon (C)
7. Nitrogen (N)
8. Oxygen (O)
9. Fluorine (F)
10. Neon (Ne)

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 11. Sodium (Na)
12. Magnesium (Mg)
13. Aluminum (Al)
14. Silicon (Si)
15. Phosphorus (P)
16. Sulfur (S)
17. Chlorine (Cl)
18. Argon (Ar)
19. Potassium (K)
20. Calcium (Ca)
21. Scandium (Sc)
22. Titanium (Ti)
23. Vanadium (V)
24. Chromium (Cr)
25. Manganese (Mn)
26. Iron (Fe)
27. Cobalt (Co)
28. Nickel (Ni)
29. Copper (Cu)
30. Zinc (Zn)

STATE OF MATTER OF THE FIRST 30 ELEMENTS

Here are the states of matter for the first 30 elements at standard room temperature and pressure (approximately
25°C and 1 atm):

Elements Symbol State of Matter

1. Hydrogen (H) Gas

2. Helium (He) Gas

3. Lithium (Li) Solid

4. Beryllium (Be) Solid

5. Boron (B) Solid

6. Carbon (C) Solid (various allotropes)

7. Nitrogen (N) Gas

8. Oxygen (O) Gas

9. Fluorine (F) Gas

10. Neon (Ne) Gas

11. Sodium (Na) Solid

12. Magnesium (Mg) Solid

13. Aluminum (Al) Solid

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14. Silicon (Si) Solid

15. Phosphorus (P) Solid (various allotropes)

16. Sulfur (S) Solid (various allotropes)

17. Chlorine (Cl) Gas

18. Argon (Ar) Gas

19. Potassium (K) Solid

20. Calcium (Ca) Solid

21. Scandium (Sc) Solid

22. Titanium (Ti) Solid

23. Vanadium (V) Solid

24. Chromium (Cr) Solid

25. Manganese (Mn) Solid

26. Iron (Fe) Solid

27. Cobalt (Co) Solid

28. Nickel (Ni) Solid

29. Copper (Cu) Solid

30. Zinc (Zn) Solid

Please note that these states of matter are based on standard conditions. Some elements can exist in different
states under various temperature and pressure conditions or in different forms (allotropes).

PRACTICE EXERCISE1:

1. Oxygen exists as a ____________ at room temperature and pressure and is represented by the chemical symbol
____________.

2. ____________ is a noble gas with the symbol ____________ that is commonly used in neon signs.

3. Iron, with the symbol ____________, is a ____________ at room temperature and is an essential element for
hemoglobin in blood.

4. The element ____________ is a non-metal, and its symbol is ____________. It exists in several allotropes, including
graphite and diamond.

5. ____________ is a highly reactive alkali metal with the symbol ____________, often stored in oil to prevent its
reaction with moisture in the air.

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6. Gold, symbol ____________, is a ____________ at room temperature and is prized for its beauty and rarity.

7. ____________ is a halogen with the symbol ____________. It is known for its role in purifying water and is a
diatomic molecule in its natural state.

8. ____________ is a metalloid with the symbol ____________. It is used in semiconductors and has properties
intermediate between metals and non-metals.

9. Helium, with the symbol ____________, is a ____________ gas with a low density, often used in balloons and as a
coolant.

10. ____________ is a transition metal with the symbol ____________, and it's essential for various biological
processes and is a component of chlorophyll.

PRACTICE QUESTION 2:

1. What is the chemical symbol for oxygen, and in which state of matter does oxygen primarily exist at room
temperature and pressure?

2. Which element has the chemical symbol "Ag," and what is its common physical state at room temperature?

3. What element with the symbol "Hg" is known for being a liquid at room temperature?

4. Phosphorus, represented by the symbol "P," has several allotropes. In which physical state does the most
common form of phosphorus exist?

5. Which noble gas has the chemical symbol "Kr," and is it a solid, liquid, or gas at standard room temperature and
pressure?

SUB-TOPIC 2:

LESSON OBJECTIVE: By the end of this topic, you should be able:

i. Explain the concept of atomicity

ii. itemize 5 examples of molecules and their representations

ATOMS, MOLECULES AND ATOMICITY

ATOMS

DEFINITION: An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can take part in a chemical reaction.

STRUCTURE AND CONSITITUENTS OF AN ATOM

An atom is made up of the three sub-particles known as protons, neutrons and electrons as shown in the diagram
below. Their characteristics are also summarized in the table below:

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUB-PARTICLES

SUB-PARTICLE LOCATION RELATIVE RELATIVE SYMBOL

CHARGE MASS
Proton Nucleus + 1 p
Electron Outside nucleus _ 0.005 e-
Neutron Nucleus Zero 1 n

MOLECULES
DEFINITION: A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that normally exist alone and still retain the chemical
properties of that substance be it an element or a compound.
Some molecules can exist independently as single atoms e.g. He, Ne, Ar, Xe etc. Some molecules may be made up of
atoms of the same element e.g. a molecule of hydrogen is H2, that of chlorine is Cl2, Oxygen is O2, phosphorus is P4,
Sulphur is S8. Some molecules may be made up of different elements e.g. a molecule of water is H2O, Methane is CH4,
ammonia is NH3, carbon (iv) oxide is CO2 etc.
ATOMICITY: Atomicity is the number of atoms in each molecule of an element.
Atomicity of some molecules
Element Formula of molecule Atomicity
Hydrogen H2 2
Oxygen O2 2
Ozone O3 3
Phosphorus P4 4
Sulphur S8 8
Chlorine Cl2 2
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Neon Ne 1
Argon Ar 1
Tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid H2SO4 7
Amonium tetraoxosulphate(vi) (NH4)2SO4 15

PRACTICE EXERCISE1:

1. An ____________ is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element.

2. A ____________ consists of two or more atoms bonded together, representing the smallest unit of a compound.

3. The ____________ of a molecule refers to the number of atoms it contains.

4. Oxygen gas (O2) is an example of a diatomic molecule, which means it consists of ____________ atoms of oxygen.

5. The ____________ is the region around the nucleus of an atom where electrons are likely to be found.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2:

1. What is the fundamental building block of matter, consisting of a nucleus and electrons?

2. A ____________ is formed when two or more atoms are chemically bonded together.

3. What term refers to the number of atoms present in a molecule?

4. Nitrogen gas (N2) is an example of a ____________ molecule, containing two nitrogen atoms bonded together.

5. How does the concept of atomicity differ between elements and molecules?

CONCLUSION

TOPICAL TEST: Multiple Choices

1. What is the smallest unit of an element that retains its chemical properties?

a) Molecule b) Atom c) Particle d) Compound

2. Which of the following represents a compound?

a) Oxygen b) Hydrogen c) Iron d) Water (H2O)

3. A molecule is composed of:

a) Ions b) Protons and electrons c) Atoms d) Neutrons and electrons

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4. What is the atomicity of oxygen gas (O2)?

a) Monatomic b) Diatomic c) Triatomic d) Polyatomic

5. How many atoms are in a water molecule (H2O)?

a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4

6. The atomic number of an element is determined by the number of:

a) Neutrons b) Electrons c) Protons d) Isotopes

7. What subatomic particle orbits the nucleus of an atom?

a) Neutron b) Proton c) Electron d) Nucleus

8. Which of the following elements is a noble gas?

a) Oxygen (O) b) Helium (He) c) Sodium (Na) d) Carbon (C)

9. What is the term for the average mass of all isotopes of an element, taking into account their abundances?

a) Atomic number b) Atomic mass unit (AMU) c) Atomic weight d) Mass number

10. The term "atomicity" refers to:

a) The number of protons in an atom b) The size of an atom c) The number of neutrons in an atomd) The
number of atoms in a molecule

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. What is the smallest unit of an element that retains its chemical properties?

2. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is an example of what type of chemical entity?

3. How many atoms are present in a molecule of carbon dioxide (CO2)?

4. Hydrogen gas is an example of a ____________ molecule

5. Write the symbol of proton, electron and neutron.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

Element, Atom, Molecule, Atomicity, Proton, Neutron, Electron, Nucleus, Chemical Reaction, Proton Number
(Atomic Number)

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

"I am a noble gas found in minute amounts in the Earth's atmosphere. Despite being colorless and odorless, I'm
used to fill balloons to make them float and provide a festive touch. What element am I?"
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:

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 "In the dance of atoms, the harmony of molecules, and the charge of ions, we find the symphony of creation
echoing within the fabric of existence."
WEEK: 4

TOPIC: PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER - 1

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i. explain (briefly) each of the atomic models
ii. outline at least 5 postulates of Dalton's atomic theory & discuss reasons for modifications
iii. express the 3 major sub-atomic particles and their characteristics(mass, charge) with the aid of a T - chart,

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Compare the structure of an atom to a miniature solar system, where electrons orbit the
nucleus like planets around the sun.

SUB-TOPIC 1:

ATOMIC MODELS

J.J. THOMPSON’S CATHODE RAYS EXPERIMENT

Experiments on discharge tubes performed by J.J Thomson (1897) led to the discovery of the electron (cathode ray)
as a subatomic particle .Cathode rays:

1. Move in a straight line normal to the cathode and can cast the shadow of an object placed along their path.

2. Possess kinetic energy and so can cause the motion of a mechanical paddle wheel placed along their path.

3. Attract positive charge and repel negative charge, indicating that they are negatively charged.

4. Have a constant value of 1.76 x 1011 coulomb 𝑘𝑔−1 for the charge –to-mass ratio ( 𝑒⁄𝑚) no matter the gas used in
the tube or the nature of the materials of the electrodes and the tube. This indicates that electrons are fundamental
particles of all atoms and they are indistinguishable i.e. the universality of electros in atoms.

A typical discharge tube experiment

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BOHR’S MODEL OF THE ATOM
Niels Bohr (1913) put forward his own model of the atom based on the quantum mechanics originally developed by
plank. He assumed the Rutherford’s model and suggested that the extra nuclear part consists of electrons in specific
spherical orbits (shells or energy levels) around the nucleus. The orbits/energy levels are designated by letters: K, L,
M, N…

The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated by an energy level is 2𝑛2 where n is the value of the
principal energy level. As one moves outwards from the nucleus the energy of the energy levels increases.

Principal Designated
Energy Level(n) Maximum number of
Electrons(2𝑛2)
1 K 2
2 L 8
3 M 18
4 N 32
5 O 50
6 P 72

Energy Levels and Maximum Number of Electrons

Bohr’s model also explained the discrete lines in the atomic spectrum of hydrogen. This is based on the concept that
the electron can move round the nucleus in certain permissible orbits (energy levels).the ground state (n=1) is the
lowest energy state available to the electron. This is usually the most stable state. The excited state (n=2,3…) is any
level higher than the ground state. An electron in an energy level has a definite amount of energy associated with it
that level. The electron can undergo transitions from one level to another. However, when the electron changes its
state, it must absorb or emit the exact amount of energy (∆E)which will bring it from the initial state to the final
state.

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∆Eelectron = E final - E initial

When the electron is excited, it moves from the ground state to an excited state, it must absorb energy. On
returning from an excited state to a lower level or the ground state, energy is emitted, giving rise to a line in the
spectrum. This release of energy is the basis for the hydrogen atomic spectrum.

Line series in the hydrogen spectrum

Series Name n1 n2 Values Spectral Region

Lyman 1 2 to ∞ Ultraviolet
Balmer 2 3 to ∞ Visible
Paschen 3 4 to ∞ Infrared
Brackett 4 5 to ∞ Far infrared
Pfund 5 6 to ∞ Far infrared

Description of the Line Series of the Hydrogen Spectrum

OUTLINE DESCRIPTION OF THE RUTHERFORD’S ALPHA SCATTERING EXPERIMENT.
Ernest Rutherford (1911) performed the gold foil experiment that gave the modeling of the atomic structure a boost.
In this experiment, he bombarded a thin gold foil with alpha particles (generated from a radioactive source).He

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found that most of the alpha particles passed through the foil while a few of them(1 out of 8000) were deflected
back.

In the bid to explain the above observation, Rutherford suggested an atomic model (the nuclear model) in which an
atom has a small positively charged center (nucleus) where nearly all the mass is concentrated. Surrounding the
nucleus is a large space (extra nuclear part) containing the electrons? Further experiment showed that the ‘heavy’
nucleus was made up of still smaller particles called proton.

He proposed the planetary model of atom which states that Atom consists of a positively charged nucleus, where
most of the mass of the atom is contained and electrons which move in orbit around the nucleus and are held in
their orbits by the electrostatic force of attraction to the positively charged nucleus

PRACTICE EXERCISE1:

1. J.J. Thomson's model of the atom proposed the existence of tiny, negatively charged particles called
____________ embedded within a positively charged "pudding," leading to the idea of the ____________ model.

2. The Bohr model of the atom introduced the concept of ____________ in which electrons occupy specific energy
levels or orbits around the nucleus.

3. According to Bohr's model, electrons closer to the nucleus have ____________ energy levels, while those farther
away have ____________ energy levels.

4. The Bohr model successfully explained the ____________ spectrum of hydrogen by proposing that electrons
transition between energy levels, emitting or absorbing ____________ energy photons.

5. While Thomson's model helped discover the existence of electrons, Bohr's model added to our understanding of
atomic structure by explaining the ____________ and stability of atoms through quantize energy levels.
PRACTICE QUESTION 2:

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1. Write the names of the scientists that contribute to the development of atomic structure.

2. Describe the structure of an atom.

3. State the properties of cathode rays.

SUB-TOPIC 2:

LESSON OBJECTIVE: By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

i. explain at least 5 modified postulates of Dalton's atomic theory

ii. discuss modifications of Dalton’s atomic theory
iii. Draw the structure of the atom.

DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY

In 1808 John Dalton proposed the following Atomic theory.
1. All elements are made up of small indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms can neither be created or destroyed
3. Atoms of the same element are alike in every aspect, and differ from atoms of all other elements.
4. When atoms combine with other atoms, they do so in simple ratios.
5. All chemical changes result from the combination or the separation of atoms.

MODIFICATIONS OF DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

The following are the modifications to Dalton’s atomic theory.

1. All matter is made up of small particles, protons, neutrons and electrons.

2. An atom can be destroyed and created; when radioactive atoms disintegrate with the emission of particles, new
atoms are produced.

3. The atoms of the same elements are not all alike, but may have different masses as proved by the phenomenon of
isotopy.

4. In large organic molecules, such as proteins, fats and starch, the combining ratio are in large whole number.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF SUB ATOMIC PARTICLES

Subatomic particles are the constituents of atoms and are responsible for the structure and behavior of matter.
Here are the characteristics of the three main types of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.

PROTON

1. Positive (+1 elementary charge)

2. Approximately 1 atomic mass unit (u).

3. Found in the nucleus of an atom.

4. Protons determine the identity of an element and contribute to the positive charge of the nucleus.

5. Protons repel each other due to their positive charges but are held together by the strong nuclear force.

NEUTRON

1. Neutral (no charge)

2. Approximately 1 atomic mass unit (u), similar to protons.

3. Also found in the nucleus of an atom

4. Neutrons add to the mass of the nucleus without significantly affecting the overall charge.

5. Neutrons contribute to nuclear stability by counteracting the electrostatic repulsion between protons.

ELECTRON

1. Negative (-1 elementary charge)

2. Much smaller than protons and neutrons, approximately 1/1836 atomic mass unit (u)

3. Orbit the nucleus in energy levels or shells

4. Electrons determine the chemical behavior of an atom and are involved in bonding and reactions.

5. Electrons occupy discrete energy levels and can transition between levels by emitting or absorbing energy

PRACTICE EXERCISE1:
Absolutely, here are ten fill-in-the-gap and theory questions covering the topics of Dalton's atomic theory, protons,
neutrons, and electrons:

Fill in the Gap

1. According to Dalton's atomic theory, all matter is composed of indivisible and indestructible ____________.

2. The central core of an atom, containing protons and neutrons, is called the ____________.

3. Neutrons and protons are collectively known as ____________ due to their presence in the nucleus.

4. Electrons, which have a ____________ charge, orbit the nucleus in energy levels.

5. Dalton's atomic theory helped explain chemical reactions in terms of ____________ and _________

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 PRACTICE EXERCISE2:

1. Explain Dalton's atomic theory and its key postulates.

2. Describe the roles and locations of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom.

3. How did the discovery of electrons challenge the early notion of atomic structure?

4. Discuss how the presence of neutrons in the nucleus contributes to atomic stability.

5. What is the significance of the atomic number and mass number in describing an atom's characteristics?

SUB-TOPIC 3:

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

i. Define atomic number and mass number

ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER (NUCLEON NUMBER)

ATOMIC NUMBER:
DEFINITION: Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom of an element.
The atomic number of an element is a whole number and is designated z. In a neutral atom the number of protons
must be equal to the number of electrons (since protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively
charged).
All the atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons in their nuclei (i.e. they have the same
atomic number). NO two elements have the same number of protons in their atoms.
DEFINITION:
MASS NUMBER (NUCLEON NUMBER): The mass number is the sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom of an
element.
Mass number is represented by the letter A.
Mass number A = Number of protons + number of neutrons.
i.e. A =p + n. Where p=protons, n= neutrons.
Or number of neutrons n =A – Z.
An atom of an element can be described by writing its symbol together with its atomic number and mass number.

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Examples: The atom of carbon, oxygen and sodium can be written as 126C, 168O and2311Na respectively.

PRACTICE EXERCISE
(1) Define the following: (a) Atomic number (b) Mass number.
(2) Describe the atoms of the following elements using their symbol, atomic number and mass number:
(a) Phosphorus (b) Silicon (c) Calcium
CONCLUSION

TOPICAL TEST: MULTIPLE CHOICES

1. According to Dalton's atomic theory, atoms are:

a) Indivisible b) Composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons c) Always positively charged d) Capable of
changing into other elements

2. The central core of an atom, containing protons and neutrons, is called the:

a) Electron cloud b) Nucleus c) Energy level d) Shell

3. Which subatomic particle has a positive charge?

a) Proton b) Neutron c) Electron d) Nucleus

4. Neutrons and protons are collectively known as:

a) Nucleons b) Electrons c) Neutrons d) Isotopes

5. Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific energy levels or:

a) Neutrons b) Protons c) Shells d) Nuclei

6. The number of protons in an atom is also known as the:

a) Mass number b) Atomic mass c) Atomic number d) Neutron count

7. What is the primary factor that determines an element's identity?

a) Number of neutrons b) Number of protons c) Number of electrons d) Atomic mass

8. The particles that account for most of the mass of an atom are:

a) Electrons and protons b) Neutrons and electrons c) Neutrons and protons d) Neutrons and positrons

9. Which subatomic particle has a negative charge?

a) Neutron b) Electron c) Proton d) Nucleus

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10. The modern atomic theory incorporates the concept of electron ____________ levels around the nucleus.

a) Shells b) Nucleons c) Coresd) Shells

FILL IN THE GAP

1. According to Dalton's atomic theory, all matter is composed of indivisible and indestructible ____________.
2. The positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus is called a ____________.

3. Neutrons and protons are collectively known as ____________ due to their presence in the nucleus.

4. Electrons, which have a ____________ charge, orbit the nucleus in energy levels.

5. Dalton's atomic theory helped explain chemical reactions in terms of ____________ and ____________.

6. The number of protons in an atom is known as the ____________ number and determines the element's identity.

7. The ____________ of an atom is determined by the sum of its protons and neutrons.

8. The particles that account for most of the mass of an atom are ____________ and ____________.

9. The ____________ charge of electrons is balanced by the ____________ charge of protons in an atom.

10. The modern atomic theory incorporates the concept of electron ____________ levels around the nucleus.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

Atomic Number, Mass Number (Nucleon Number), Protons, Neutrons, Electrons, Nucleus, Atomic Symbol, Neutral
Atom, Isotopes, Atomic Identity

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

"Think about a scenario in which you have a container filled with gas molecules. These molecules are in constant,
rapid motion, colliding with each other and the walls of the container. What law describes the relationship between
the pressure, volume, and temperature of this gas?"

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:

"Like the electrons within an atom's orbital, our potential knows no bounds when we embrace the energy of
possibilities."

WEEK: FIVE

TOPIC: PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER - 2

LESSON OBJECTIVES:By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
➢ search for the meaning of new words e.g. isotopes, isotopy, e.t.c from the science dictionary
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➢ List at least 3 elements that exhibit isotopy
➢ Solve calculations involving isotopy/relative abundance

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR:Students should have a basic understanding of atoms, elements, and atomic structure. They
should also be familiar with the concept of atomic mass and the periodic table.

SUB-TOPIC 1:

CONTENT: Relative atomic mass, Isotopy and Relative abundance.

The 12C isotope has 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its nucleus with a mass number of 12 atomic mass units. It is
used as a standard for the comparison of the masses of other atoms. The relative atomic mass of an
element is defined as the number of times the mass of one atom of the element is as heavy as one-twelfth of
the mass of one atom of carbon 12 ( ). Relative atomic mass has no units. It is a ratio. For practical
purposes however, a unit of measurement is needed. Chemists often want to know the masses of the
elements taking part in a chemical reaction. They have added the gramme to the standard of reference, i.e.
12
C = 12g, and found that 12g of 12C isotope contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms. This number of atoms, called the
Avogadro number, is known as the mole. The relative atomic mass of an element expressed in grammes
contains one Avogadro number of atoms and is a mole of the element.

Isotopy: Isotopy is a phenomenon whereby atoms of an element exhibit different mass number but have the
same atomic number.
Isotopes of an element have slightly different physical properties because neutrons contribute only to the mass
of an atom and not its chemical behaviour. But isotopes of an element exhibit the same chemical properties
because the number of valence electrons in an atom of an element determines its chemical behaviour (properties)
and since isotopes have the same number of valence electrons they will be chemically alike.
NOTE:
(i) An analysis of the chlorine isotopes.
Isotope 3517Cl Isotope 3717Cl
Mass number, A 35 37
Atomic number,Z 17 17
Number of protons 17 17
Number of electrons 17 17
Number of neutrons (A-Z) 35 – 17=18 37 – 17=20
Abundance in nature (%) 75 25
ISOTOPES OF THE SAME ELEMENTS.

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 Element Carbon Oxygen
12 13 16 17 18
ISOTOPES 6C 6C 8O 8O 8O
ABUNDANCE IN 98.9 1.1 99.76 0.04 0.20
NATURE (%)

(ii) The names of the isotopic forms of hydrogen

1
1H --- Protium (or hydrogen)
2
1H--- Deuterium (or heavy hydrogen or D)
3
1H--- Tritium or T
(iii) The relative atomic mass, RAM of an element which exhibits isotopy is the average mass of its various isotopes
as they occur naturally in any quantity of the element and they are not usually in whole numbers.
CALCULATION INVOLVING ISOTOPY.
WORKED EXAMPLE:
(1) Determine the relative atomic mass of element X from the data below
ISOTOPE MASS % ABUNDANCE
24X 24 78.70
25x 25 10.13
26
x 26 11.7

(24 × 78.70) + (25 × 10.13) + (26 × 11.17) = X

100

1888.8 + 253.25 + 290.42 =𝑋

100

2432.47 = 𝑋
100

∴ 𝑋 = 24.3247

≅ 24

(2) An element X has two isotopes of 2010X and 2210X in the ratio 1:3. What is the relative atomic mass?
Add ratio of occurrence together.
1 + 3= 4
(20 × 1) + (22 × 3) = 𝑋
4

20 + 66 = 𝑋
4
86 = 𝑋
4

X = 21.5

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 (3) Isotopes of an element X have isotopic masses 65 and 63 respectively. If the relative atomic mass of X is
63.60. Find the relative abundance of each isotope of the element.
Let the relative abundance of element X be y and Z respectively.
Z +Y =100
∴ Z = 100 – y....... (i)

(65 × 𝑦) + (63 × 𝑦) = 63.60

100
65y + 63z = 63.60 × 100
65y + 63z = 6360 ......(ii)
65y +63(100 – y) = 6360
65y – 63y + 6300 = 6360
2y = 60
60
Y = 2 = 30
Y= 30
Z = 100 – y= 100 – 30 = 70
Y = 30, Z = 70
The relative abundance of X = 30% 0f 65X and 70% of 63X
PRACTICE EXERCISE1:

1. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different numbers of ____________.

2. Isotopes of an element have the same number of ____________ but different numbers of neutrons.

3. Isotopes of an element share similar ____________ properties but may have different atomic masses.

4. The atomic mass of an element on the periodic table is a weighted average of the masses of its naturally
occurring ____________.

5. Isotopes of hydrogen include protium, deuterium, and tritium, which differ in their number of ____________.

PRACTICEEXERCISE2:

1. What are isotopes?

2. How do isotopes of the same element differ from each other?

3. Why do isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties?

4. How does the concept of isotopes affect the atomic mass of an element?

5. Give an example of an isotope and explain how it differs from the most common form of the element.

SUB-TOPIC 2:

LESSON OBJECTIVES:Students will be able to:

➢ Explain shell and energy level

➢ Write shell configuration of the first 20 elements

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➢ Explain atomic orbital and subshell.

CONTENT: DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRONS IN THE ATOM

Shells and Energy Level

1. The electrons in an atom are in continuous and constant motion in shells around the nucleus, represented by
capital letters K,L,M,N, etc. The K-shell is the innermost and the nearest to the nucleus; followed by the L-shell; then,
the M-shell, the N-shell, etc.

2. Each shell is at an energy level, represented by the principal quantum number, n. The K-shell is in the first energy
level,where n=1. It has the lowest energy, and hence, the most stable shell. The L- shell is in the second energy level,
n=2; the M-shell is in the third energy level, n=3, while the N-shell is in the fourth energy level, n=4

3. The higher the principal quantum number, n, the higher the energy level, and the farther away the shell from
nucleus.

Shell electron configurations of the first twenty elements

1. The electron configuration of an element indicates the number of electrons in the shell at various energy levels of
its atom.

2. When filling the shells with electrons, the K-shell (n=1) is filled first, with only two electrons; followed by the L-
shell (n=2) with eight electrons; then, the M-shell (n=3) with eight electrons also; while the last two electrons enter
the N-shell (n=4)

Check the Table below

Element Symbol Number of Number of electrons and their

protons(or distribution in the shells.
atomic K L M N
number)

Hydrogen H 1 1

Helium He 2 2

Lithium Li 3 2 1

Beryllium Be 4 2 2

Boron B 5 2 3

Carbon C 6 2 4

Nitrogen N 7 2 5

Oxygen O 8 2 6
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Fluorine F 9 2 7

Neon Ne 10 2 8

Sodium Na 11 2 8 1

Magnesium Mg 12 2 8 2

Aluminium Al 13 2 8 3

Silicon Si 14 2 8 4

Phosphorus P 15 2 8 5

Sulphur S 16 2 8 6

Chlorine Cl 17 2 8 7

Argon Ar 18 2 8 8

Potassium K 19 2 8 8 1

Calcium Ca 20 2 8 8 2

From the table above:

1. The K-shell (first energy level) accommodates electrons from the atoms of hydrogen, 1H and helium, 2He, I.e at
helium, the K-shell is filled completely with two electrons

2. The third electron in the Lithium atom, 3Li, up to the tenth electron in neon atom, 10Ne, enter the L-shell in the
second energy level; so that the electronic configuration of lithium atom, 3Li, is 2, 1; while that of neon, 10Ne, is 2,8.

3. The eleventh electron in the sodium atom, 11Na, up to the eighteenth electron in argon atom, 18Ar, enter the M-
shell in the third energy level; so that the electronic configuration of sodium atom, 11Na, is 2, 8, 1; while that of argon
18Ar, is 2, 8, 8.

4. The last electron in potassium atom, 19K, enters the N-shell in the fourth energy level, so that its shell electronic
configuration is 2, 8, 8, 1; while that of calcium atom, 20Ca, is 2, 8, 8, 2.

Shell electronic configuration of some elements

The arrangement of electrons in the shells of some atoms are shown below

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Subshells and Atomic orbitals

1. Each shell has one or more subshells, which are at energy sublevels represented by smal letters of the alphabets s,
p, d, f.

2. The number of subshells in a main shell equals the value of n, the energy level. Hence,

⚫ K-shell (n=1), has only one subshell, 1s

⚫ L-shell (n=2), has two subshell, 2s and 2p

⚫ M-shell (n=3), has three subshell 3s, 3p and 3d

⚫ N-shell, in the fourth energy level, (n=4) has four subshell 4s, 4p, 4d and 4f.

3. Each subshell has one or more atomic orbitals

An atomic orbital is a region around the nucleus where electrons are most likely to be found

⚫ An s-subshell has one orbital called s-orbital

⚫ A p-subshell has three orbitals called p-orbital

⚫ A d-subshell has five orbitals called d-orbital

⚫ An f-orbital has seven orbitals called f-orbitals

Subshell s p d f

Number of orbital 1 3 5 7

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Formation of Ions

Cations:

Cations are positively charged ions that form when neutral atoms lose one or more electrons. This results in the
atom having more protons than electrons, leading to a net positive charge.

1. Loss of Electrons: Neutral atoms lose electrons from their outermost energy levels. This occurs primarily for
elements on the left side of the periodic table (metals).

2. Positive Charge: As electrons are negatively charged, their removal leaves behind a net positive charge on the
atom. The number of protons becomes greater than the number of electrons.

3. Ionic Charge: The magnitude of the positive charge on a cation depends on the number of electrons lost. For
example, if a neutral sodium atom (Na) loses one electron, it becomes a sodium cation (Na+).

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Anions:

Anions are negatively charged ions that form when neutral atoms gain one or more electrons. This results in the
atom having more electrons than protons, leading to a net negative charge.

1. Gain of Electrons:Neutral atoms gain electrons to fill their outermost energy levels. This is common for elements
on the right side of the periodic table (non-metals).

2. Negative Charge: The added electrons give the atom a net negative charge. The number of electrons becomes
greater than the number of protons.

3. Ionic Charge: The magnitude of the negative charge on an anion depends on the number of electrons gained. For
example, if a neutral chlorine atom (Cl) gains one electron, it becomes a chloride anion (Cl-).

The formation of ions plays a crucial role in chemical reactions and the overall behavior of elements in various
compounds. Ions with opposite charges (cations and anions) attract each other, leading to the formation of ionic
compounds through electrostatic interactions.

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5. An atom's electronic configuration is determined primarily by its:

a) Atomic mass b) Atomic number c) Number of neutrons d) Number of electrons

6. When an atom gains electrons, it forms a:

a) Cation b) Anion c) Isotope d) Neutral atom

7. Which of the following elements is likely to form a cation with a charge of +2?

a) Chlorine b) Calcium c) Oxygen d) Fluorine

8. The formation of ions involves the gain or loss of:

a) Protons b) Neutrons c) Electrons d) Nuclei

9. The electronic configuration of oxygen is 1s² 2s² 2p⁴. How many valence electrons does oxygen have?

a) 2 b) 4 c) 6 d) 8

10. An atom that loses two electrons will have a charge of:

a) +1 b) +2 c) -1 d) -2

FILL IN THE GAP

1. The sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom gives its ____________ mass.
2. An ____________ is a region around the nucleus where electrons are likely to be found.
3. The arrangement of electrons in an atom's energy levels or shells is called its ____________ configuration.
4. When an atom loses electrons, it forms a positively charged ion known as a ____________.
5. The atomic mass unit (u) is commonly used to express the mass of ____________ and subatomic particles.
6. The electronic configuration of an element is a shorthand notation that indicates the arrangement of its
____________ in various orbitalsS.
7. An atom that gains electrons becomes a negatively charged ion known as an ____________.
8. The valence electrons of an atom are located in its outermost ____________ level.
9. The nucleus of an atom contains ____________ and ____________, while the electrons orbit around it.
10. Isotopes of the same element have different numbers of ____________ while maintaining the same number of
protons.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

Aufbau Principle, Cations, Anions, Ion, Ionic Charge, Energy Levels, Sub-shells., Atomic Orbital, Valence Electrons,
Aufbau Sequence

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

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"I am an element that has an atomic number of 7, meaning I have 7 protons in my nucleus. My most common
isotope has an atomic mass of approximately 14.00674 atomic mass units. Interestingly, there's another isotope of
mine that is often used in medical imaging due to its ability to emit positrons. What element am I, and can you name
both of my isotopes?"
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:
"Like the diverse isotopes of an element, we too possess variations that make us unique. Embrace your differences
and let them shine brightly in the mosaic of life."

WEEK: 6

TOPIC: COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
➢ write key words in the topic and their meaning using the science dictionary e.g. mixture,
homogeneous, heterogeneous e.t.c
➢ analyze the relationship between atoms and elements in the formation of compounds e.g. CuSO4
contains 1 atom of copper[Cu], 1 atom of Sulphur [S] and 4 atoms of oxygen [O]
➢ categorize compounds as solids, liquids or gases

MIXTURES

➢ prepare mixtures of different substances.

➢ enumerate 5 examples each of mixtures in real life and in the chemistry laboratory
➢ show the relationship between elements, compounds and mixtures e.g. air as a mixture containing
elements and compounds.
➢ distinguish heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures with examples of each.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students should have a basic understanding of elements and their properties. They should also
be familiar with the concept of atoms and molecules.

SUB-TOPIC 1:

CONTENT: Compounds

A compound is a substance formed when two or more elements chemically combine in a fixed proportion by mass.
Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, chemically combined in 1:9 by mass respectively.

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The atoms of elements in a compound are joined together by chemical bonds. A chemical bond is a strong attractive
force that makes it difficult to separate the elements in a compound. Some examples of compounds and their
constituent elements are given below

Compound Constituent Elements

Water Hydrogen and oxygen

Common Salt Sodium and chlorine

Sand Silicon and oxygen

Petrol or Kerosene Carbon and hydrogen

Sucrose Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

The properties of a compound differ from those of the constituent elements. For instance:

⚫ Hydrogen and oxygen are colourless and odourless gases, while water, a compound of hydrogen and oxygen is
a colourless liquid with an insipid taste

⚫ Sodium is a soft and silvery solid metal, while chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas, which is choking and poisonous.
However, common salt, which is a compound of sodium and chlorine, is a white crystalline solid with a
characteristic salty taste.

PRACTICE EXERCISE1:

1. A ____________ is formed when two or more elements chemically combine in a fixed proportion by mass.

2. The atoms of elements in a compound are held together by ____________, which are strong attractive forces.

3. Water is a compound composed of ____________ and ____________.

4. Sodium and chlorine chemically combine to form the compound ____________.

5. The properties of a compound are ____________ from those of its constituent elements.

PRACTICE EXERCISE2:

1. What is a compound, and how is it formed?

2. Explain the concept of chemical bonds and their role in compounds.

3. Provide an example of a compound, describe its constituent elements, and explain how its properties differ
from those of its elements.

SUB-TOPIC 2:

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
➢ Explain mixture

➢ List the classes of mixture

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➢ Differentiate between mixture and compound

CONTENT: Mixture

A mixture is made up of two or more substances which can be mixed together, mechanically, in any proportion.

Most of the naturally occurring substances we see frequently are not pure; they are mixtures. A few examples are:
air, soil, well-water, tap-water, sea-water, milk, palm oil, blood, sweat, and urine.

Types of Mixture

There are six distinct types of mixtures:

1. Mixture of solids: e.g. soil, rocksalt, and brass

2. Mixture of solid and liquid: e.g. muddy water, sea water, well-water,milk and writing ink

3. Mixture of solid and gas: e.g. smoke (from cigarette, etc.) and sand storm (dust in air).

4. Mixture of liquids: water and alcohol (miscible), kerosene and water (immiscible) and alcoholic beverages-such as
whisky or gin.

5. Mixture of liquid and gas: e.e. fog, mist or dew,cloud, perfume-spray, bubble, lather, bottled drinks-such as Coca-
Cola and 7-Up

6. Mixture of gases: e.g. air and rotten-egg smell.

Classes of Mixture

The two classes of mixtures are homogeneous and heterogeneous.

Homogeneous Mixtures

A mixture is homogeneous, if its constituents are distributed uniformly or it appears to be of uniform composition

A mixture of dissolved sugar in water is a homogeneous liquid. Although the proportions can be varied, the mixture
will be uniformly colourless and sweet.

Fresh air is an example of homogeneous gaseous mixture; while brass, bronze and steel are homogeneous solid
mixture called alloys.

Heterogeneous Mixtures

A mixture is heterogeneous if its constituents are not distributed uniformly - with some parts having different
physical properties.

Soil sample, muddy-water and smoke are examples of heterogeneous mixtures.

Differences between Mixtures and Compounds

COMPOUNDS MIXTURES

1. Constituents are present in a fixed proportion Constituents can be mixed in any proportion

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by mass

2. Constituents are joined by chemical bonds No chemical bond between constituents

3. It is always homogeneous It may be homogeneous or heterogeneous

4.The properties differ entirely from those of its The properties are the sum of those of its
components elements individual constituents

5. Constituents of compounds cannot be Components of mixtures can be separated by

separated by physical means physical means

PRACTICE EXERCISE1:

1. A mixture is composed of two or more substances that can be combined ____________ in any proportion.

2. Mixtures can be categorized into six types, including mixtures of solids, mixtures of solid and liquid, and
mixtures of liquid and ____________.

3. In a homogeneous mixture, constituents are distributed ____________ throughout, giving it a uniform

appearance.

4. A mixture is considered heterogeneous when its constituents are not distributed ____________ and exhibit
varying physical properties.

5. Unlike compounds, mixtures do not involve ____________ bonds between their constituents.

PRACTICE EXERCISE2:

1. Explain the difference between a homogeneous mixture and a heterogeneous mixture, providing an example of
each.

2. How do the properties of a compound differ from those of its constituent elements? Contrast this with the
properties of mixtures.

3. Describe the concept of mechanical mixing in mixtures, and provide an example of a mixture from everyday life.

CONCLUSION

TOPICAL TEST:

1. A mixture is composed of:

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 a) Only one substanceb) Two or more substances chemically combined c) Two or more substances that can be
mechanically mixed in any proportion d) A fixed proportion of elements by mass

2. Which of the following is NOT a naturally occurring mixture?

a) Air b) Milk c) Table salt (sodium chloride) d) Soil

3. Which of the following is an example of a homogeneous mixture?

a) Muddy water b) Sandstorm c) Smoke d) Fresh air

4. A heterogeneous mixture is characterized by:

a) Uniform distribution of constituents b) No variation in physical properties c) Uneven distribution of

constituents with varying properties d) Strong chemical bonds between constituents

5. What is the primary difference between compounds and mixtures?

a) Mixtures have a fixed proportion of elements by mass b) Compounds can be separated by physical means c)
Mixtures are always homogeneous d) Compounds have no chemical bonds between constituents

6. What is a compound?

a) A mixture of two or more substances b) A substance formed by mechanically mixing elements c) A

substance formed by the chemical combination of elements d) A mixture with no fixed proportion of elements

7. In water, hydrogen and oxygen are chemically combined in a proportion of:

a) 1:1 by mass b) 2:1 by mass c) 1:9 by mass d) 9:1 by mass

8. What holds the atoms of elements together in a compound?

a) Mechanical forces b) Magnetic attraction c) Chemical bonds d) Electrostatic repulsion

9. Which of the following is an example of a compound?

a) Air b) Soil c) Saltwater d) Smoke

10. How do the properties of a compound differ from those of its constituent elements?
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 a) They remain the same b) They become radioactive c) They differ entirely d) They are irrelevant

ESSAY

1. Define and give one example of(a) homogeneous mixture (b) heterogeneous mixture

2. Describe an experiment to show that sea water is a mixture.

3. Explain why air is regarded as a mixture

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

Mixture, Homogeneous Mixture, Heterogeneous Mixture, Compound, Chemical Bond, Alloy, Solution, Suspension,
Colloid, Dissolve

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

"I am a combination of two or more substances, where the components retain their individual properties and can be
easily separated through physical means. What am I? Now, if I consist of two or more elements chemically bonded in
fixed proportions, what would I be called?"

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:

"Just as the finest melodies emerge from a symphony of different notes, and the most flavorful dishes arise from
the fusion of diverse ingredients, so too do the wonders of science teach us that unity and diversity create the
most beautiful compositions in both matter and life."

WEEK:8

TOPIC: SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of this less, you should be able to:

i.Define separation techniques

ii.Explain common separation techniques

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students should have a basic understanding of mixtures and compounds. They should also be
familiar with the concepts of physical and chemical properties of substances.

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 SUB-TOPIC 1:

SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

Separation techniques are physical methods used for separating the constituents of various mixtures. The principle
of separation is based on the differences in the physical properties of the constituents of the mixtures. Such
properties include: physical state (solid,liquid or gas), particle size, colour, common solvents, magnetic property,
polarity, and degree of adsorption. Adsorption occurs when a substance becomes attached to the surface of a liquid
or a solid. It is different from absorption.

Common Separation Techniques

SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF TWO SOLIDS

They following methods are employed in the separation of a mixture of two solids:

1. Sieving

2. Magnetic separation

3. Sublimation

1. SIEVING: This is a method used to separate a mixture of two solids of different sizes. The mixture is
placed on a sieve with a mesh of a particular size. Particles smaller than the mesh size of the sieve will pass
through the sieve while the bigger particles remain on the sieve. Sieving method is applied in the mining
industries, garri making industries etc.

2. Magnetic separation: To separate magnetic solids from non-magnetic ones. This method is used in the
steel industry and to remove magnetic impurities from tin ore.

3. Sublimation: Solids which sublime are separated from other solids that sublime (i.e. they turn directly
from solid to gas and from gas to solid without turning to liquid) are

➢ Ammonium chloride
➢ Aluminum chloride
➢ Camphor
➢ Iodine crystals
➢ Solid CO2 (dry ice)
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 Purification by sublimation

SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF AN INSOLUBLE SOLID AND A LIQUID.

1. DECANTATION: The mixture is allowed to stand for some time until it separates into two distinct layers
and an upper clear liquid layer. The clear liquid can be carefully poured or decanted into a second
container.

2. CENTRIFUGATION: This involves the use of a centrifuge to separate solid particles from a liquid as shown

in the diagram below. As the centrifuge spins the mixture, the solids separates and settles at the bottom
of the test tube while the liquids on the top layer can easily be decanted.

CENTRIFUGATION PROCESS

3. FILTRATION: As shown below, the mixture is poured into s porous material (filter paper) folded inside a
funnel. The solid particle that remains inside the liquid that drips through the filter paper is known as the
filtrate.
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 FILTRATION PROCESS

SUB-TOPIC 2:

SEPARATING A SOLUBLE SOLID FROM A LIQUID

1. Evaporation: Evaporation method is used to recover a solid solute from a solution in which it is soluble to
give a solution. The method is suitable if the solid has a high melting point i.e. cannot be decomposed by
heating.
Evaporation is based on the large different between the boiling points of the solid and solvent. For
example common salt can be recovered from its aqueous solution by complete evaporation of water. The
solvent (liquid) is usually sacrificed.

Evaporation process
Note: Evaporation method is not suitable for salts that can easily be destroyed by heating.

2. Crystallization: Crystallization is a method used to separate salts which decompose easily on heating
from their solutions. The salt solution (the mixture) is heated to drive away some of the liquid (i.e. to
evaporate some of the liquid) (i.e. to evaporate some of the liquid) until solution becomes concentrated or
saturated. The concentrated solution remaining is allowed to cool slowly resulting in the formation of
crystals. Crystal formation can be induced by (i) adding crystals of the same salt to serve as seed. (ii)
Scratching the inside of the vessel containing the solution.

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Note: If all the liquid is evaporated a powder will be obtained and not crystals. This powder might also
contain impurities which otherwise would have remained in the solution and not contaminate the crystals.
Many crystals formed on cooling saturated solution contain water which is chemically combined and
loosely bonded to the crystals. This water is called water of crystallization. Salts which contain water of
crystallization are said to be hydrated. Those which do not are anhydrous. Those are often powders.

SUB-TOPIC 3

SEPARATING A SOLUBLE SOLID FROM A LIQUID:

1. FRACTIONAL CRYSTALLIZION:

This is a method used to separate a mixture containing different soluble solid solutes in a liquid. The
solubility of the different solid solutes in the given solvent must differ at different temperatures. The
process of separation is the same as in crystallization process. While cooling the solution crystals of the
relevant solid solutes will come out of the solution leaving behind the others which are still within their
limits of solubility.

2. PRECIPITATION (PHYSICAL): There are physical and chemical separation techniques involving
precipitation.

In physical precipitation, two solids that are soluble in the same solvent are separated by the addition of
another solvent in which one of the solids is insoluble, e.g. an aqueous solution of common salts (sodium
chloride) and green vitriol( a compound of iron). It is a method used to separate a solid which has a
difference in solubility in two different miscible liquids. For example, ethanol and water are two miscible
liquids. Iron (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) is soluble in water but not in ethanol. On addition of ethanol to a
solution containing a mixture of iron (II) tetraoxosulphate and water, the iron(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI) will
be precipitated out and can be separated by filtration.

SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF TWO OR MORE LIQUIDS

1. DISTILLATION

Distillation is the evaporation of water or other liquids from a solution and its recovery on a pure state
by condensation. The method of distillation is used to recover a solvent (liquid from a solution

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 mixture). That is, a pure liquid from an impure liquid (mixture). The apparatus used are shown in the
diagram below.

(a) Simple distillation process

A mixture of two liquids with widely differing boiling points can be separated by evaporating one from the
other and re-condensing it in a separate vessel. The process is called simple distillation.

Distillation is carried out by condensing the vapour, using a condenser. The vapour which is condensed and
collected in a separate vessel is called the distillate.

At the end of the distillation process the liquid that is collected at the end of the Liebig condenser is called
the distillate. The solutes and other impurities are left behind in the distillation flask.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EVAPORATION AND DISTILLATION

DISTILLATION EVAPORATION

Mainly obtaining Mainly for obtaining salt

the solvent from solution.
It involves boiling
It involves boiling only.
and condensation

(b) Fractional Distillation

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Fractional Distillation is a process used to separate or mixture of miscible liquids by a repeated evaporation
and condensation making use of fractionating column (as shown in the diagram below)

Mixture of two or more miscible liquids are separated into, its component parts. The liquids distil according
to their boiling points starting with the liquid with the lowest boiling point. The apparatus used is the same
as in distillation except for the presence of a fractionating column between the flask and the condenser.

Note: For efficient fractional distillation, the difference in the boiling points between successive fractions
must be more than 100c.

SEPARATING IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS (USING SEPARATING FUNNEL METHOD)

This a method used to separate a mixture of immiscible liquids e.g. a mixture of petrol and water. When
the two liquids are added together they do not mix, instead they separate into two distinct layers, a lower
denser layer and an upper less dense layer in the funnel as below.

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EVALUATION:

Draw a labeled diagram to show how you would separate a mixture of kerosene and water.

CHROMATOGRAPHY

Separating complex mixtures by chromatography: This is a method of separation of the components of

mixtures of solutes from a solution (mixture) using a solvent (liquid) moving over a porous, adsorbent
medium e.g. filters paper or gel. This method can be mixtures f soluble substances. There are different
types of chromatographic methods. Paper chromatography (ascending paper chromatography), column
chromatography, thin layer chromatography and gas chromatography.

ASCENDING PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

As shown in the above diagram, the apparatus include: a glass jar with lid, filter paper, clips, solvent (water
or ethanol). The solution containing the mixture of solutes to be separated is spotted unto the strips of
paper near one end.

The paper is then suspended in a closed air- tight jar with the spotted end (but not the spot) dipping into
the solvent. As the solvent ascends the paper the different solutes in the mixture gets dissolved and also
more along the paper strip at different speeds and hence become separated. The paper strip is removed
from the jar when the solvent has moved about three-quarters way up the strip. It is dried and if necessary

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sprayed with appropriate chemical reagents to locate the positions of the various along the strip. Each
solute can then be identified by the distance it has traveled. This is done by comparing its distance with
those of known standard substances.

FLOATATION:
Floatation method is based on the wide difference in the densities of the components of the mixture. The
method is used for the separation of a mixture of two solids in which one component is light and the other
is heavy. On the addition of a liquid in which neither is soluble, one component sinks, while the other
floats. e.g. a mixture of coarse sand and wooden cork.

PROCEDURE: Place the mixture in a beaker and add plenty of water. The sand particles sink, while the
wooden corks float.
FROTH FLOTATION (FROSTATION)
This method is specifically used to separate an ore of a metal from earthy impurities.
PROCEDURE: The ore is crushed into powder and then mixed with water containing detergent, in order to
cause frothing (foaming).
Air is then blown into the mixture so that the earthy impurities sink while the ore floats and mixes with the
foam. The ore is finally recovered from the foam
PURE AND IMPURE SUBTANCES: The following are the criteria for purity of chemical substances.
DENSITY: The density of a pure substance is definite and constant, while that of an impure substance
higher than expected.
MELTING POINT: The melting point of a pure solid is sharp and definite. The presence of an impurity lowers
the melting point of a substance, and spread its melting point over a wide range of temperature.

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FREEZING POINT: The freezing point of a pure liquid is sharp and definite; the presence of an impurity
lowers the freezing point.
BOILING POINT: The boiling point of a pure liquid is sharp and definite. An impurity raises the boiling point
of a pure liquid.
TEST FOR PURITY
After separation of substances from mixtures, it is important to know if they are pure. A pure solid should
melt at a constant temperature. A pure liquid should boil at a constant temperature. A pure dye should
give only one spot on a chromatogram. The melting points or boiling points of pure substances are fixed.
These temperatures change if impurities are present. To assess the purity of a substance its melting point
(if it is a solid) or its melting point ( if it is liquid) is determined (if the value obtained agrees with that given
in a book of data, then the substance is pure).
The apparatus below can be used to find the melting point of a solid.

The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes to liquid. The melting point tube is very
thin- a capillary tube- and the substance under test must be finely powdered so that it can be packed into
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the capillary tube (melting point tube). The beaker containing the oil is heated slowly and the oil stirred
vigorously. If the solid is pure it will all melt at a constant temperature. i.e. it will have a sharp melting
point.
DETERMINATION OF THE BOILING POINT OF LIQUIDS
(a) Flammable liquids (b) In flammable liquids
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure equals atmospheric pressure.
The apparatus shown above can be used to find the boiling points of liquids.
A pure sample of liquid will boil at a fixed temperature and the reading on the thermometer will remain
constant. If the light is not pure it will boil over a range of temperature above the boiling point of the pure
liquid.
Impurities lower the melting point of a substance and raise its boiling point.

CONCLUSION

TOPICAL TEST: Here are ten multiple-choice questions related to separation techniques:

1. What separation technique is commonly used to separate components based on their boiling points?

a) Filtration b) Chromatography c) Distillation d) Decantation

2. Which separation technique is best suited for separating a mixture of sand and salt?

a) Chromatography b) Filtration c) Distillation d) Centrifugation

3. What separation method relies on the difference in densities of components to separate them?

a) Evaporation b) Filtration c) Centrifugation d) Chromatography

4. In paper chromatography, which component travels the shortest distance on the paper?

a) The solvent b) The component with the lowest density c) The component with the highest density d) The
component that is most attracted to the paper

5. Which technique is used to separate particles from a liquid mixture based on their size and shape?

a) Filtration b) Decantation c) Centrifugation d) Distillation

6. What separation method is commonly used to separate dissolved salts from water?

a) Chromatography b) Decantation c) Filtration d) Evaporation

7. Which technique involves heating a mixture to separate components based on their vaporization points?

a) Filtration b) Evaporation c) Distillation d) Chromatography

8. A centrifuge is used in which separation technique?

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 a) Filtration b) Decantation c) Distillation d) Centrifugation

9. Which separation method utilizes a semi permeable membrane to separate solutes from a solvent?

a) Chromatography b) Evaporation c) Filtration d) DialysisS

10. What separation technique can be used to separate a mixture of oil and water?

a) Decantation b) Chromatography c) Distillation d) Filtration

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Explain the principle behind distillation as a separation technique. Provide an example of a mixture that can be
effectively separated using distillation.

2. Describe the process of chromatography and how it works to separate components of a mixture. What factors
can affect the separation efficiency in chromatography?

3. Discuss the concept of centrifugation as a separation technique. How does it exploit differences in density to
separate components? Provide an example where centrifugation is commonly used.

4. Explain the process of filtration as a separation method. What types of mixtures are most suitable for filtration,
and what factors can influence the efficiency of the filtration process?

5. Describe the concept of evaporation as a separation technique. What types of mixtures can be separated through
evaporation, and what factors can affect the rate of evaporation during the process?

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

Separation Techniques, Physical Properties, Physical State, Particle Size, Solvent, Solubility, Magnetic Property,
Polarity, Adsorption, Absorption, Sieving, Magnetic Separation, Sublimation, Decantation, Centrifugation, Filtration,
Evaporation

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

A scientist was given a mixture of sand, salt, and iron filings. The challenge was to separate these three components
using the fewest steps possible. Can you figure out a clever way for the scientist to accomplish this task?
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:
"Just as a skilled artist reveals the beauty within a block of marble, separation techniques unveil the hidden
treasures within mixtures, reminding us that careful exploration and mastery can unveil the extraordinary from the
seemingly ordinary."

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WEEK: NINE

TOPIC: VALENCY AND OXIDATION NUMBER

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

i. look for the meaning of key words e.g. valency and oxidation number, cations, anions etc in the
science dictionary
ii.differentiate valency and oxidation number(O.N)
iii.distinguish cations, anions and radicals
iv. outline the rules governing calculation of oxidation number(O.N)
v.calculate O.N of elements in radicals and compounds

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students should have a basic understanding of atoms, elements, and the periodic table. They
should also be familiar with the concept of chemical bonding.

SUB-TOPIC 1:

VALENCY

VALENCY OF ELEMENTS
VALENCY

The valency of an element is the combining power of the element. It is defined as the number of atoms of
hydrogen that will combine with or displace one atom of the element in chemical reactions. Some
elements have more than one valency. For example.

First twenty elements with their valencies show this character.

Atomic Element Symbol Valency

Number

1 Hydrogen H 1

2 Helium He Nil

3 Lithium Li 2

4 Beryllium Be 2

5 Boron B 3

6 Carbon C 2 or 4
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7 Nitrogen N 3 or 5

8 Oxygen O 2

9 Fluorine F 1

10 Neon Ne Nil

11 Sodium Na 1

12 Magnesium Mg 2

13 Aluminum Al 3

14 Silicon Si 2 or 4

15 Phosphorus P 3 or 5

16 Sulphur S 2, 4 or 6

17 Chlorine Cl 1

18 Argon Ar Nil

19 Potassium Ic 1

20 Calcium Ca 2

SUB-TOPIC 2:

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

i. Explain oxidation number

ii. List the rules for assigning oxidation number

CONTENT: Oxidation Number

OXIDATION NUMBER OF ELEMENTS

To be able to write correctly chemical formulae for compounds, a system of small whole numbers, related
to the combining ratio of element has been developed on the basis of arbitrary rules. Such numbers are
called oxidation numbers or oxidation states.
Rules for assigning oxidation number
1. The ON of an uncombined free element, whether monoatomic or polyatomic is zero; e.g. Noble gases
(He, Ne, etc), metals (Na, Zn, etc),solid non-metals (O3, N2, F2,etc)
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 2. The oxidation number of a monoatomic ion is equal in magnitude and sign to its ionic charge; e.g., the
ON of bromide ion, Br-1, is -1; that of F+3, is +3.
3. The ON of hydrogen atom is +1 in its compounds, except in hydrides of metals (e.g. NaH), where it is -1
4. For any neutral compound the sum of the O.Ns of all the atoms adds to zero.
5. The ON of oxygen in a compound is always -2 except in peroxides, H2O2, Na2O2, where it is -1
6. In any radical, the sum of the ON of all the atoms is equal to the charge on its ion.
Worked examples on oxidation numbers
1. Calculate the ON of copper in Cu2O
Solution
Let y represents the ON of each copper atom.
ON of one hydrogen atom, O is -2.
In a neutral compound, sum of all ON is zero.
Therefore, in Cu2O: Cu2O
2y + (-2) = 0
2y = +2
y = +2/2 = +1
Thus, ON of a copper atom in Cu2O = +1

2. Determine the ON of X in X2O72-

Solution
ON of each O atom = -2
The net charge on the ion = -2
Therefore, in X2O72-
2X + 7(-2) = -2
2X – 14 = -2
2X = -2 + 14 = + 12
X = + 12/2 = +6
Therefore, ON of each X in X2O72- is +6

SUB-TOPIC 3:

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

i. Define ions and radicals

IONS AND RADICALS

DEFINITION:
An ion is any atom or group of atoms which possess an electric charge.
Some substances are not built of atoms or molecules but are made up of charged particles called ions. Ions
are formed when an atom losses or gains electron.

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There are two types of ions. The positively charged ions or cations e.g. K+, Ca2+, Zn2+, Al3+ etc. they are
formed when atoms loss electrons and negatively charged ions or anions which are formed when atom
gain electrons e.g. Cl-, N3-, O2-, S2- etc.

RADICALS: These are groups of atoms of different elements that come together and react as a unit. These
radicals are charged, that is, they either carry a positive or a negative charge. An acid radical is thus a small
group or cluster of atoms carrying a negative charge that keeps its identity. These groups of atoms
originate from the acids which have formed the salts. For examples

Radical Symbol Valency Oxidation No

Ammonium ion NH4+ 1 +1

Hydroxyl ion OH- 1 -1

Trioxocarbonate (iv) CO32- 2 -2

Tetraoxosulphate(vi) SO42- 2 -2

Trioxonitrate(v) NO3- 1 -1

CONCLUSION

TOPICAL TEST: Here are 10 multiple-choice questions on valency and oxidation numbers:

1. What is the oxidation number of hydrogen in most of its compounds?

a) +1b) -1c) 0d) +2
2. What is the valency of an element that forms an oxide with the formula XO₂?
a) 1b) 2c) 3d) 4
3. In the compound HCl, what is the oxidation number of chlorine?
a) +1b) -1c) 0d) +2
4. What is the oxidation number of oxygen in most compounds?
a) +1b) -1c) 0d) -2
5. What is the oxidation number of an alkali metal (Group 1 element) in its compounds?
a) +1b) -1c) 0d) +2
6. What is the valency of an element that forms a chloride with the formula MCl₃?
a) 1b) 2c) 3d) 4
7. In the compound H₂SO₄, what is the oxidation number of sulfur?
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a) +1b) -1c) 0d) +6
8. What is the oxidation number of a pure element?
a) +1b) -1c) 0d) It varies depending on the element
9. What is the valency of an element that forms a compound with the formula MgO?
a) 1b) 2c) 3d) 4
10. In the compound FeCl₂, what is the oxidation number of iron?
a) +2b) -2c) 0d) +3

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Define oxidation number (oxidation state) in a chemical compound.

2. What is valency, and how does it differ from oxidation number?

3. How is oxidation numbers assigned to elements in covalent compounds? Provide an example.

4. Explain the concept of "monovalent,""divalent," and "trivalent" elements in terms of valency.

4. How does the oxidation number of an element change when it undergoes oxidation or reduction in a chemical
reaction? Provide an example to illustrate your answer.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

Valency, Oxidation Number (O.N), Cations, Anions, Radicals, Ionic Charge, Uncombined Free Element, Ionic Charge,
Hydrides, Neutral Compound, Oxidation State, Peroxides, Oxidation, Reduction, Monoatomic Ion, Sum Rule, Ionic
Compound, Copper Oxide (Cu2O), Oxygen Gas (O2), Ammonium Ion (NH4+), Hydroxyl Ion (OH-), Trioxocarbonate
(IV) Ion (CO32-), Tetraoxosulphate (VI) Ion (SO42-)

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

"Consider the element Chromium (Cr), which has multiple oxidation states. In one compound, it has an oxidation
state of +6. The compound also contains oxygen (O) with an oxidation state of -2. What is the valency of Chromium
in this compound, and how many oxygen atoms are present?"

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:
"Valency teaches us that in the intricate dance of chemistry, every atom yearns to find its perfect partner, revealing
the beauty of connection and the artistry of creation."

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WEEK: TEN

TOPIC: IUPAC NOMENCLATURE

LESSON OBJECTIVES: write IUPAC names of at least 5 specified radicals and compounds

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students should have a basic understanding of elements, compounds, and chemical bonding.
They should also be familiar with the periodic table and the concept of chemical formulas.

SUB-TOPIC 1:

IUPAC NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Concept of Oxidation Number

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) rules are being used in naming inorganic compounds. In
order to understand the basic principles underlying the IUPAC system, a good knowledge of the concept of
oxidation numbers, and the ability to assign oxidation numbers to the atoms of the elements in a molecule or ion are
very essential.

1. Binary Compound

Binary compounds contain two elements, and their names end with -ide

a. The cation is named first, followed by that of the anion with its names modified to end with -ide, e.g. CaO is
calcium oxide, and H2S is hydrogen sulphide.

The systematic ending -ide is not applicable to binary compounds such as H2O (water), NH3 (ammonia) and PH3
(phosphine). So also, some radicals are treated like single elements when naming their compounds, e.g.:
Ammonium, NH4+ ; hydroxide OH- ; and cyanide, CN- . Hence HCN is hydrogen cyanide, while NH4OHis ammonium
hydroxide.

b. The O.N. of an element with more than one O.N.’s is designated by the Roman numeral in brackets, e.g. Cu2O is
copper (i) oxide - since the oxidation number of each copper atom is +1; CuO is copper (ii) oxide. If an element has a
fixed O.N./ the Roman numeral is omitted, e.g. NaCl is sodium chloride not sodium (i) chloride.

Examples

Formula IUPAC Name

Na2O Sodium oxide

H2 S Hydrogen sulphide

KI Potassium iodide

Mg3N2 Magnesium nitride

Fe2O3 Iron (iii) oxide

c. Stoichiometric names are used for binary compounds of non-metals

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Examples

Formula IUPAC name Conventional name

CO Carbon (ii) oxide Carbon monoxide

CO2 Carbon (iv) oxide Carbon dioxide

NO Nitrogen (ii) oxide Nitirc oxide

N2O Nitrogen (i) oxide Nitrous oxide

NO2 Nitrogen (iv) oxide Nitrogen dioxide

2. Tertiary and Quaternary Compounds

These are compounds containing three and four elements respectively.

a. Oxoacids

These are acids that contain oxygen atoms:

i. Oxygen is named first as oxo, with the number of atoms indicated by the Greek prefix mono (1), di (2), tri (3), tetra
(4), penta (5), etc.

ii. The central atom is then named with the ending -ate, and its oxidation number designated by Roman numeral in
brackets.

iii. The word acid is finally added to the name

Examples

Oxoacid IUPAC name Conventional name

HNO2 Dioxonitrate (iii) acid Nitrous acid

HNO3 Trioxonitrate(v) acid Nitric acid

H2CO3 Trioxocarbonate (iv) acid Carbonic acid

H2SO3 Trioxosulphate(iv) acid Sulphurous acid

H2SO4 Tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid Sulphuric acid

H3PO4 Tetraoxophosphate(v) acid Phosphoric acid

b. Acid radicals

Acid radicals are from oxoacids. In naming, the word acid in the corresponding name of the oxoacid is replaced with
ion

Examples

Radical IUPAC name

NO2-Dioxonitrate (iii) ion (nitrite)

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NO3- Trioxonitrate (v) ion (nitrate)

SO32- Trioxosulphate (iv) ion (sulphite)

SO42- Tetraoxosulphate (vi) ion (sulphate)

CO32- Trioxocarbonate (iv) ion (carbonate)

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)

SUB-TOPIC 2:

Normal and acid salts (anhydrous)

A salt is formed when the replaceable hydrogen atoms in an acid are partially or completely replaced by a metal or
ammonium ion to give an acid salt or normal salt respectively.

The cation is named first with its oxidation number indicated by a Roman numeral in brackets (if need be); then, the
acid radical (anion)

Examples

Salt IUPAC name

KNO3 Potassium trioxonitrate (v)

CuSO4 Copper (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi)

(NH4)2CO3 Ammonium trioxocarbonate (iv)

NaHCO3 Sodium hydrogentrioxocarbonate (iv)

Ca(HSO3)2 Calcium hydrogentrioxosulphate (iv)

K2Cr2O7 Potassium heptaoxodichromate (vi)

c. Hydrate salts

These are salt with molecules of water in their crystals. In the naming, the corresponding anhydrous salt, I.e. without
molecules of water, is first named followed by a full-stop; then the number of water molecules is written in Latin
words

Examples

Hydrate salt IUPAC name

Na2CO3 .10H2O Sodium trioxocarbonate (iv) decahydrate

FeSO4.7H2O Iron (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi) heptahydrate

CoCl2.6H2O Cobalt (ii) chloride hexahydrate

d. Basic salts

A basic salt contain hydroxide group. It is named like a double salt; e.g.
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 Zn(OH)Cl Zinc hydroxide chloride.

e. Complex salts and Complex ions

A complex salt is an ionic compound with a complex ion. A complex ion contains a metal ion surrounded by neutral
molecules or ions called ligands. Examples of ligands are H2O, NH3 and CN-

Rules for naming Complexes

i. In a complex salt, the cation is named first; then the anion - just as in a simple salt.

ii. A complex ion is named as follows:

⚫ State the number of ligands attached to the central cation using the Greek prefixes: mono-, di-, tri-.

⚫ Name the anion ligands using the names ending with suffix -o, e.g. Br--bromo; F- -fluoro; Cl- -chloro; I- -iodo; CN--
cyano; OH- -hydroxo, H- -hydrido, while neutral ligands such as H2O -aquo and NH3 -ammine.

⚫ Name the cation in a complex cation using the English name. In a complex anion, the name of the central metal
is modified and ends with -ate.

Examples

Complex cation IUPAC name

[Cu(NH3)4]2+ Tetraammine copper (ii) ion

[Fe(H2O)6]2+ Hexaaquo iron (ii) ion

Complex anion IUPAC name

[Fe(CN)6]3- Hexacyanoferrate (iii) ion

[Fe(CN)6]4- Hexacyanoferrate (ii) ion

AlH4- Tetrahydridoaluminate (iii) ion

Complex salt IUPAC name

[Cu(NH3)4]SO4 Tetraamminecopper (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi)

K4[Fe(CN)6] Potassium hexacyanoferrate (ii)

K3[Fe(CN)6] Potassium hexacyanoferrate (iii)

LiAlH4 Lithium tetrahydridoaluminate (iii)

CONCLUSION

TOPICAL TEST

1. What is the systematic name for the compound with the formula NaCl?

a) Sodium chlorideb) Sodium dichloridec) Sodium chlorated) Sodium monochloride

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2. The compound with the formula CaCO₃ is named as:

a) Calcium trioxideb) Calcium carbonatec) Calcium chlorated) Calcium peroxide

3. The compound with the formula H₂SO₄ is named as:

a) Sulfuric acidb) Hydrogen sulfatec) Sulfurous acidd) Hydrosulfuric acid

4. What is the IUPAC name for the compound with the formula FeCl₃?

a) Iron chlorideb) Ferric chloridec) Ferrous chlorided) Iron trichloride

5. The compound with the formula HNO₃ is named as:

a) Hydrogen nitrateb) Nitric acidc) Hydronitric acidd) Nitrous acid

6. What is the systematic name for the compound with the formula K₂SO₄?

a) Potassium sulfateb) Dipotassium sulfur oxidec) Potassium sulfided) Potassium bisulfate

7. The compound with the formula Al₂O₃ is named as:

a) Aluminum oxideb) Aluminum peroxidec) Aluminium trioxided) Aluminium chlorate

8. What is the IUPAC name for the compound with the formula Mg(OH)₂?

a) Magnesium hydroxideb) Magnesium dihydroxidec) Magnesium oxide hydroxided) Magnesium perhydroxide

9. The compound with the formula NH₃ is named as:

a) Nitrogen trihydrideb) Ammonium nitratec) Nitric hydrided) Ammonia

10. What is the systematic name for the compound with the formula CuSO₄?

a) Copper sulfateb) Cupric sulfatec) Copper sulfided) Copper sulfoxide

ESSAY

1. Explain the principles of IUPAC nomenclature and its significance in naming inorganic compounds. Provide
examples of how the nomenclature rules are applied to various types of compounds.

2. Discuss the process of naming binary compounds using the IUPAC system. Include a detailed explanation of how
oxidation states and valencies are considered in determining the systematic names of compounds.

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3. Describe the rules and conventions for naming compounds containing polyatomic ions in the IUPAC
nomenclature. Illustrate your answer with examples of compounds that involve polyatomic ions.

4. Explain the nomenclature of coordination compounds according to IUPAC guidelines. Discuss the importance of
using coordination numbers, ligand names, and central metal atom names in the systematic naming of these
compounds.

5. Compare and contrast the systematic naming of acids, bases, and salts under the IUPAC nomenclature system.
Highlight the differences in naming conventions for each type of compound and provide real-world examples for
each case.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:
IUPAC Nomenclature, Oxidation Number (O.N), Binary Compound, Cation, Anion, Stoichiometric Names,
Stoichiometry, Oxoacid, Radical, Acid Radical, Tertiary Compounds, Quaternary Compounds, Oxoacids, Hydrate
Salts, Basic Salts, Complex Salt, Ligands, Greek Prefixes, Monoatomic Ion, Anhydrous Salt, IUPAC Name, Copper
Oxide (Cu2O), Cobalt Chloride Hexahydrate, Hexaaquo Iron (II) Ion, Hydroxide Ion (OH-), Hexacyanoferrate (III) Ion,
Lithium Tetrahydridoaluminate (III)
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:
"Imagine a mysterious compound with the chemical formula PbCrO₄. Can you decipher its systematic name using
your knowledge of IUPAC nomenclature? What are the individual elements in the compound and their oxidation
states?"
Give it a try, and feel free to ask for hints or explanations if needed!
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:

"Like the poet weaving words into verses, and the composer crafting notes into symphonies, the IUPAC
nomenclature turns the elements into eloquent compounds, reminding us that precision in language reveals the
beauty of chemistry's intricate melodies."

WEEK 11: REVISION

WEEK 12: EXAMINATION

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