INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION EDF 211

1.1. DEFINING PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Definition
1. Philosophy of Education is the application of Philosophical Principles, theories, language
philosophy and methods to analyze, evaluate or solve educational issues.

2. It is both the process and the outcome of philosophical thinking about education.

3. Philosophy of education is first of all an educational discipline and it belongs to the mind
of educationist. It is classified together with other educational disciplines such as history
of education, sociology of education, comparative education etc.
4. Education is the main focus in all these disciplines. However, what makes them different
is the way they approach the study because each one of them follows its own distinct
approach in terms of content, methods and language.

5. Philosophy of education is also an integral part of technical philosophy because it’s an

area of specialization in the area of philosophy just like philosophy of science,
philosophy of law etc.
6. Therefore, we can say the application of philosophy of education can be seen as the
application of philosophy to the field of education where philosophy is the abstract
(Theory) and education is practice.

Technical vs. General Philosophy

General Philosophy of Education
1. This refers to the common sense notion of what education ought to be.
2. It refers to the personal view or attitude concerning the ideal education.
3. It refers also to the preferred slogans concerning education such as ‘education for self-
reliance, education for gender equity’ etc.
4. In a school setting, it refers to the school motto. In most cases, these philosophies are
varied, vague and are not based on systematic thought of what type of man they want to
produce.
5. Education commission reports contain general philosophical perspectives about education.
Technical Philosophy of Education
1. Technical or professional philosophy of education refers to the thorough and in-depth
reflection on education.
2. This is done using philosophical methods, tools and techniques in investigating problems
of formal schooling.
3. In this case, the process as well as the product amounts to philosophy of education. This
means that the process of asking questions and criticizing issues in education as well as
development of a clear statement of a positive and more rational alternative in education
comprises of philosophy of education.
4. Technical philosophy of education is an integral part of formal philosophy. It is the
exclusive domain of professional philosophers and of academic scholars concerned with
the study of education.
5. It is basically/largely Western in orientation attributed to Western Thinkers and
educationists such as Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Dewey etc.

Development/Establishment of Philosophy of Education

The origin of educational philosophy dates back to the beginning of the last century and
to the time and work of John Dewey. However, we cannot ignore the contributions which
had been made by earlier philosophers to the study of philosophy of education.

a.)General Remarks on Plato and Confucius

1. Plato
2. Confucius

b. J.S. Herbert and J. Dewey

1. J.S. Herbert (1771-1834)
1. He was a Germany philosopher and his work was greatly influenced by contribution of
other scholars like Kant and his area of specialization was ethics. According to Herbert,
the purpose of education is to develop the moral character of the learner i.e. good moral
behavior. He proposed in his book entitled The Science of Education five main methods
of education as
 Preparation
 Presentation
 Association
 Systematization
 Application
2. He also laid emphasis the importance of authority. To him, the teacher was the authority
during the process of learning. He controlled learners and little freedom by learners.
Europe accepted bur American questioned the idea of the teacher being the sole authority.

2. John Dewey (1859-1952)

1. He laidemphasisfreedom and democracy and was the first American to adopt a critical
stand according to European educational theory which had been extended earlier by
Herbert. He come up with philosophy of education which was systematic in design with
American orientation emphasizing progress, change and democracy.
2. Dewey reacted strongly against authoritarian approach in education which regarded the
teacher as the sole authority in the classroom. The implication was that he was against the
idea of learners adhering to rigid system of education and against the idea of education
developing moral behavior in the learner.
3. He suggested an approach of teaching learning that was not teacher centered but child
centered. This approach was seen as not content centered by method centered. He
believed that experience was the best teacher for the learner. He perceived education as
growth and an avenue of creativity. Education came to be understood in terms of
progressive movement thus meant to make the learners change from one stage to another.
4. Dewey’s philosophy was built on American thinking of pragmatism. This philosophy is
derived from a Greek concept pragma- to act, to do, achieve. He believed that good
education should make learners realize their potential. Education should be based on
needs, interest and abilities of the learners.
5. He argued that knowledge can only be found through experience when the learner
interacts with the environment. Education is life in itself and not a preparation for life.
This can only happen if learning is directly linked to the needs, interests and abilities of
learners. The contributions of Dewey are the ones that lead to great debate in the
philosophy of education and he is regarded as the father of philosophy of education.

Three main functions and relevance of philosophy of education

i. Speculative
ii. Normative
iii. Analytical
Speculative
Speculative functions of philosophy in education are;
 Increases the teachers’ abilities to influence education policies. Enables the teacher
to look for the best alternative where necessary.
 It helps the teacher to be actively involved in decision making process rather than
being at the receiving end.
 Increases the teachers confidence in himself because of being aware of the
theoretical basis of educational activities
 It provides room for a vision beyond the empirical data of education i.e. seeks to
explain what education is.
Normative
Normative functions of philosophy in education are;
 Enables the teacher to understand his educational activities so as to achieve the
desired goal value.
 Enables the teacher question some of the values of learning included in educational
system
 Enables the teacher to understand and organize his personal commitment
Analytical
Analytical functions of philosophy in education are;
 Enables the teacher to learn to avoid inconsistence or contradictions in his
presentations and argument thus avoiding vague and ambiguity.
 Enables the teacher to clarify his point of view using available facts and evidence.
The teacher develops an open mind in any subject.
 Enables the teacher to pinpoint any confusion that may arise between objective,
arguments and views based on personal interests and emotions.
 It tries to liberate those being educated and their educators from their
shortsightedness. It helps us to enlarge our perception of education as well as for
teaching.

 It helps the student to think logically, systematically, consistently and clearly about
educational problems as well as life. The teacher will learn the essence of clarifying
meanings and justifying statements.

A. The Meaning of Philosophy

I. Etymological Definition of Philosophy

The term philosophy is derived from two Greek words Philia-meaning love(loving),
striving after, searching for; and Sophia meaning wisdom or knowledge. Philosophy
can therefore mean the love of knowledge, pursuit of wisdom. The Latin, French and
English transliteration and usage go beyond 'Love of wisdom' to systematic
investigation.

a. Etymological map of the definition

Greek-Φιλια(Philia) meaning Love. Love refereeing to Striving after, Search for…
Σοφις(Sophis) meaning Learned or wise
Σοφια (Sophia) meaning Wisdom

Φιλοσοϕια (Philosophia) therefore means the Love of Wisdom

(Emphasis on applying knowledge to daily living)
Latin: Philosophia- 'Love of wisdom' + Systematic investigation (With emphasis on
Reasoning as Method of investigation).
French: La Philosophie- 'Love of wisdom' + systematic investigation. (Emphasis
on Reasoning as method of investigation) .
English: Philosophy-. Love of Wisdom+ Systematic investigation (Emphasis on
Reasoning as method of Investigation)

b. Analysis of 'Love of Wisdom'

What is Love?
i). Love is the affectionate Feeling/ attraction towards someone/ something/or an
activity (Emotive, Psychological, general conception of Love)
ii). A commitment, An act of pursuing that which is ultimately good regardless of
time, place, feelings, or other variables( constant, rational, logical, volitional view of
love).

What is Wisdom?
i). Ability to subsequently distinguish between what is ultimately good/right, to
avoid what is ultimately bad/wrong wrong and to choose what is ultimately
right/good so as to live a meaningful life.(Normative aspect of wisdom )
ii). Commitment to pursuit of Truth (Epistemological view point) .
 Who is a Philosopher?
i) General (Normative) Definition: Any person who is able to distinguish between
what is ultimately good/right, avoid what is ultimately1 bad/wrong and choose what
is ultimately right/good so as to live a meaningful life.

ii) Strict (Epistemic-Methodological) definition: Any person who is committed to the

pursuit of Truth through a systematic investigation.

NB: Philosophy can thus be redefined either

Actually living of a good life (Value aspect of Philosophy)
A committed pursuit for truth (Research aspect of Philosophy)

II). Operational definition of Philosophy

Operational Definition of Philosophy is also known as the Working definition of
Philosophy and can take various dimensions

a. Material Definition: The Systematic study of the general and fundamental nature
of Reality, knowledge and values.2. This definition is known as material because it
can be broken down into the Matter (Content areas) of Philosophy e.g.
Systematicity=Logic, Reality=Metaphysics, Value=Axiology. The content areas shall
be discussed in subsequent topics. From material definition, we can therefore define
a Philosopher as a person who ponders such concepts as existence or being, morality
or goodness, knowledge, truth and beauty.

b. Formal Definition: Philosophy can also mean the academic exploration that entails
Analytical, Critical and Creative way of thinking about assumptions, beliefs or
fundamental problems of life3. Formal definition of Philosophy can be broken down
into Methods of Philosophical investigation or how a philosopher investigates issues
(and these are analytical method, critical method, speculative method, creativity and
synthesis…). From formal definition a philosopher therefore a person who has biased;
critical and reflective thinks that can generate principles and theories.

B. The meaning of Philosophy of Education

1.1.3. General vs Technological Definition

 Sapientia/ Sapiens/ Homo (Wisdom/ Wise/ Man): The beginning of philosophy
coincides with the beginnings of man /Homo sapiens (meaning Wise man or
Philosopher man).

1 Ultimately: Points to the fact that some good or bad things can be appear to be good/bad but in the final analysis they
are otherwise. For example waking up in the morning to study may be apparently bad but ultimately good.
2 Material Definition is Precursor to Content of Philosophy: Systematic Study =Logic, Reality=Metaphysics,

Knowledge=Epistemology, Values= Axiology

3 Formal Definition alludes to Philosophical Approaches(Analysis, Assessment(Critical) and Synthesis(Creative)
  Philosophy is therefore universal(but also Particular) Universality of philosophy
means that philosophy as a human/ homo sapiential response can be found in every
period of history in every culture/society on earth.
 Philosophy is not a preoccupation of scholars only but all humanity because they all
question their humanity, human condition and experiences of life.
 Africans expressing their traditional thought through stories, riddles and proverbs is
as much part of philosophy as books by renown philosophers like Plato in The
Republic
 One’s philosophy of life e.g. to be a farmer, teacher, carpenter etc is as much
philosophy as national philosophies like Kenya’s Nyayo Philosophy, Tanzania’s
Ujamaa.
 Philosophy in general sense also refers principles that govern a person's life or an
institution
 Particularity of General Philosophy implies its variance from time to time (traditional
or modern), from place to place (European, African, Asian etc). Particular means that,
a human being facing different situations in different places at different times is likely
to respond differently to these situations because of authenticity of thought4.

Who is a Philosopher? (Part 5)5: A thinker who is independent, genuine, original,

critical and sincere, giving a personal answer to a personal questions through a
personal struggle.6

1.1.4. Technical Philosophy

Also referred to as formal/academic philosophy.

An academic discipline comprising of specialized content, methods and specialists
known as Technical/academic/Formal philosophers.
It is both a process (activity of vigorous thinking concerning perplexing
questions/issues of life) and a product( the outcome of the process thinking i.e.
established systems of thought, views and ideas).
Meant for few people; individuals who are committed to scrutinizing issues, problems
going beyond the surface common sense aspects to their logical composition.

(i) Formalization
 It is a process whereby a definite form is given to a variety of human activities; form
refers to the presence of a structure, pattern or system. Formalization in our context in
philosophy refers to formalization of thought.
 Initially, philosophy consisted of the general amorphous sense. With the advent of
writing, the various philosophical thought began to be expressed in a more definite,
systematic and lasting form.

4 The term authenticity comes from Greek ‘authentes’ meaning one who does things himself (autos).
5 Who is a Philosopher Part 1, Deals with the disposition of a Philosopher Part 2 Deals with Material content of
Philosopher and Part 3 Deals with the modus operandi of A Philosopher
6 People however call such thinkers Mwalimu, guru, sage but reserve the term philosopher for recognized academic

scholars mostly of Western or European origin.

  Today the world of technical philosophy is a world of books, scholarly writings,
formal language and systematic thought because it is an exclusive domain for
academic scholars leaving no room for oral traditions of the past and common
philosophies of life.
 Writing also allowed for debate and as long as debate continued, philosophy continued
to thrive.
(ii) Westernization
 Western civilization has greatly influenced the field of learning to an extent that
philosophy is attributed to Western philosophers.
 It is believed that philosophy originated from ancient Greece and was further
developed in Europe and America. Philosophy is closely associated with Western
civilization to an extend that anyone interested in it must be familiar with the various
systems like realism (emphasizes that there is a world of real existence which exists
independently of human mind), idealism (stresses the idea that reality is an expression
of the mind: knowledge is based on recognition/remembrance of latent/inborn
ideas already present in the mind), pragmatism (views reality as a changing
phenomenon: man sees reality differently as he interacts with it), as well as the
philosophical language that is associated with it.
 As a result of this, Western philosophy is assumed to be the standard of technical
philosophy. For instance, ancient Egypt played a very big role in the field of learning
such as medicine and philosophy. Ancient Greece and anyone who had studied in
Egypt was highly regarded as an authority.
iii. Specialization
 Refers to the acquisition of exceptional knowledge of, or skills in a given
discipline/subject as a result of constant and intensive study.
 In ancient Greece, a philosopher was a scholar who specialized in the exploration of
the nature of man and the world. The knowledge was not dichotomized into rational
and empirical domains. A philosopher was thus a Master of Arts and Science.
 Due to westernization, western specialists started at one time to dominate the field of
formal philosophy and subsequently imposed their language, interests and methods
upon others making formal philosophy highly technical and a matter for experts;
always within the Western context.
 Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher wrote widely on ethics, politics, fine art, logic,
biology and physics.
 Philosophy was referred to as the mother of all sciences, the most distinguished science
‘scientia eminentia’. With the advent of scientific evolution, the empirical sciences
were detached from philosophy. Later on, other disciplines like sociology, psychology
and anthropology developed as independent disciplines from philosophy. These
developments led to a situation where philosophy acquired its own methods, content
and terminologies.7

1.1.5. Brief History of Philosophy in the West

1. Pre-philosophical times.

7
A student of education May not necessarily require technical philosophy specialization but an introduction in order to
understand the meaning and significance of educational philosophy as an academic discipline.
 Dominated by poets and mythologies
 Myths and poems were like the modern bible
 gods were immoral but people followed them due to dogmatism
 Reasoning was non-rational and no room for divergent thinking
 People were captive in thinking
 Key figures include Homer and Hesiod

2. Ancient greek philosophy( 6th century b.c.)

I. Pre-Socratic philosophical schools
A. The Milesians
 Also: Monist Materialists/ Cosmologists
 Philosophers: Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander
 Description: Materialists -they believed that all things are composed of matter and
nothing else Deviated from supernatural or mythological explanations.
 Philosophical Problem: What is the single underlying substance the world is made up
of?
 Responses to the Problem:
 Thales of Miletus8 ; the whole universe composed of water(in its different forms)
 Anaximenes : was made of air
 Heraclitus Later on : fire
 Anaximander :Apeiron/ the infinite/ the boundless( unexplainable substance)
B. Pythagoreanism:
 Pythagoras of Samos (582-496 BC) introduced the practical side of philosophy
 Regarding the world as perfect harmony, dependent on number,
 Aimed at inducing humankind likewise to lead a harmonious life.
 His doctrine was adopted and extended by Pythagoreans
 Followers included Philolaus (470-380 BC), Alcmaeon of Croton, and Archytas (428-
347 BC).
C.Ephesian school
 Heraclitus: on-going process of perpetual change is a constant interplay of opposites
 Xenophenes:...........
 The Ephesian philosophers were interested in the natural world and the properties by
which it is was ordered.
 Xenophanes and Heraclitus were able to push philosophical inquiry further than the
Milesian school by examining the nature of philosophical inquiry itself.
 In addition, they were also invested in furthering observations and explanations
regarding natural and physical process and also the functions and processes of the
human subjective experience.
 Hereclitus and Xenophenes both shared interests in analyzing philosophical inquiry as
they contemplated morality and religious belief.
D. Eleatic School
 Philosophers: Heraclitus, Parmenides, Zeno

 Philosophical Problem: The Problem of change- Is change real or is it an illusion?.

 Responses to the Problem:

8Considered the first proper philosopher

 Parmenides: No such thing as change at all. Everything that exists is permanent,
indestructible and unchanging
 Zeno of Elea (a student of Parmenides) all belief in plurality and change is mistaken,
motion is nothing but an illusion
E. Pluralists
 Philosophers: Empedocles, Anaxagoras

 Philosophical Problem : Whether reality is reducible to simple elements or it is the
case that its plural?
 1.Empedocles: the four classical elements (earth, air, fire and water)
 Anaxagoras: No coming to be : All things were together, After separation, in
everything there is a share of everything.

F. Atomists
 Philosophers: Leuccippus, Democritus
 Philosophical Problem: What is the simplest, tiniest microcosmic component of
Physical reality?

 Response to the Problem:

 Leucippus : the universe consists of two different elements, which he called ‘the full’
or ‘solid,’ and ‘the empty’ or ‘void’. Both the void and the solid atoms within it are
thought to be infinite, and between them to constitute the elements of everything
 Democritus: Developed the idea of Atomism that all of reality is actually composed of
tiny, indivisible and indestructible building blocks known as atoms, which form
different combinations and shapes within the surrounding void.9

E. Sophists
Sophist from (sophists- from the Greek words for wisdom (sophia) and wise (sophos).
Were itinerant professional teachers and intellectuals who frequented Athens and other
Greek cities in the second half of the fifth century B.C.E.

Offered young wealthy Greek men an education in aretē (virtue or excellence).

Philosophers: Protagoras, Gorgias, Antiphon, Hippias,Prodicus, Thrasymachus

Philosophical problems:
Nature and Convention: Distinction between Physis and Nomos.
Relativism: Man is the measure of all things that are, that they are and that are not that
they are not(Protagoras):
Language and Reality
The sophists were interested in particular with the role of human discourse in the
shaping of reality. Given their educational program, the sophists placed great
emphasis upon the power of speech (logos)

9Cynicism, Skepticism, Epicureanism ,Hedonism, Stoicism , Neo-Platonism

 QN. What is the distinction between Philosophy and Sophistry?

II. Classical : Greek Philosophy

A. Socrates of Athens
 Philosophy really took off, though, with Socrates and Plato in the 5th - 4th Century
B.C. (often referred to as the Classical or Socratic period of philosophy).

 Unlike most of the Pre-Socratic philosophers before him, Socrates was more concerned
with how people should behave, and so was perhaps the first major philosopher of
Ethics.

 He developed a system of critical reasoning in order to work out how to live properly
and to tell the difference between right and wrong.

 His system, sometimes referred to as the Socratic Method, was to break problems down
into a series of questions, the answers to which would gradually distill a solution.

 Although he was careful to claim not to have all the answers himself, his constant
questioning made him many enemies among the authorities of Athens who eventually
had him put to death.

 Socrates himself never wrote anything down, and what we know of his views comes
from the "Dialogues" of his student Plato.

B. Plato: Politics, Education(To be covered in Philosophy of Education Section)

C. Aristotle: Natural Philosophy, Metaphysics

3. MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY.
 Turning to Christian philosophy concerned with nature of God.
 Augustine argued that’’ it is better to try to achieve truth and fail than not try at all’’.
 He wanted to proof the existence of God through reasoning (logic)
 Thomas Aquinas- cosmological argument that ‘’ everything that exists has a cause,
but since there could not be an infinite chain of causes back into the past, there must
have been un uncaused first cause’’ this is God
Everything has some goodness and the cause of each thing is better than the thing
caused. Therefore, the first cause is the best possible thing.
 St. Anselm came up with Ontological argument that ‘’God has all possible good
features. Existence is good and therefore God has it and therefore exist’’

4. RENAISSANCE
 Rebirth- transition between theological philosophy and modern thought.
 Characterized by scientific revolution physics, astronomy, biology, chemistry led to
rejection of rationalist doctrines and laid the foundation of modern science.
 Religion, superstition and fear were replaced by reason and knowledge despite
challenges to Roman Catholic dogma.
 Notable figures of scientific revolution were Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, Galileo
Galile

 5. MODERN PHILOSOPHY
 Revival of skepticism and centered between experience and reality.
 Rene Descartes- concerned with mind-body problem and doubted his own existence.
Other notable figures include
 Emmanuel Kant,
 William James- pragmatism
 Kierkegaard- existentialism
 Karl mark-social materialist philosophy

6. CONTEMPORARY.
 Philosophy of 20th century to present day
 The 21st century philosophers continues to carry with it much of the philosophical
debate seen in the former century
 Variety of new topics has risen to the stage resurrecting ethics into the modern
philosophical discussion e.g. internet has brought back interest in the philosophy of
technology and science.

EDUCATIONAL NOTES FROM THE HISTORY OF WESTERN

PHILSOPHY

1. Pre-philosophical Greece established mythological and speculative legacies that are

still relevant in Education. Especially in literature and religion where myths and
fictions are an analyzed. They also are also the basis of creativity and imaginative
writing. Further, the Odyssey and the Illiad alongside other pre-philosophical Greek
literature form part of literature studies and Psychology.

2. Pre-Socratic Philosophers (General note): Speculated the primary components of

material world of matter as water, air, fire, earth which have direct relation with
modern science Education classification of substances into Solid, Liquid, and Gas.
Most chemical Equations today are normally subscripted with the symbols l, g,
s(liquid, gas solid)

3. Anaximander's unexplainable substance, the apeiron, would later on be investigated,

developed and given the name atom.
4. They relieved Knowledge from the confines and the limitations of myths

5. They were the first to shift curriculum content from the supernatural to material
world-- and so acting as the forefathers of the scientists.
6. They based their explanations from observation (observation is one of the elements
of science Education) although they fell short of experimentation

They believed a teacher and a good learner need not be victim of closed reasoning.
The teacher and the learner must be investigators.

7. Learning environment is the whole world. Not limited to class. Thales must have
observed the amazing nature of River Nile in Egypt, Irrigation system to come with
conclusion that water is everything.
8.
9. The concept of un-explainability of apeiron indicates that Scientific investigation is
open for further investigations

10. Pythagoras: By asserting that human kind should live harmonious life just as the
world is a harmony hewn together by numbers , Pythagoras lays a premise for
holistic Education,

11. Pythagorean Theorem, geometry and other aspects of mathematics. Pythagoras

forms part of mathematics Educational curriculum.

12. .Ephesian school: The Heraclitian concept of change is the basis of Motion and
Transformation in Physics and chemical changes like entropy and enthalpy

13. Eleatic School: Parmenides belief that change does not exist is akin to the
responsibility of maintaining the essentials of Education as it is in the case of
Normativity, Cognitivity, Creativity and dialogical aspects in education.

14. Parmenidean concept of permanence be used to explain the perennial aspects in

education like, the learner as the most crucial stakeholder in Education, the aspect
of the Essential unchanging nature of the presence of a learner in the Educational
process

15. Pluralists: Empedocles: the four classical elements (earth, air, fire and water) - basis
of chemistry.

16. Pluralists: Anaxagoras: No coming to be : All things were together, After

separation, in everything there is a share of everything-Separation of mixtures in
Chemistry education,
17. Atomists and The Atom; Democritus developed the idea of Atomism which is still
relevant today in Education of Physics and especially Quantum Physics that all of
reality is actually composed of tiny, indivisible and indestructible building blocks
known as atoms, which form different combinations and shapes within the
surrounding void.

18. Sophists: Given their educational program, the sophists placed great emphasis upon
the power of speech which is borrowed and used in Legal Education, literature,
languages and linguistics, performing and even Philosophy of Education itself. This
is accompanied by linguistic and conceptual analysis

19. The sophists charged fees for teaching, the importance of paid teachers make
Education a professional and livelihood activity.

20. Socrates of Athens: Was among the first Greek contributors to Ethics Education
21.
22. Plato in his Republic developed a very elaborate exposition on Education by
outlining its aims, structure and content, based on his theory of the tripartite soul and
Philosophical anthropology.

23. He developed a system of critical reasoning in order to work out how to live properly
and to tell the difference between right and wrong, called Socratic Method used in
law a, debates and teaching
24. Medieval philosophy. Systematized theological and religious Education. The need
for an ordered exposition of religion curbs fundamentalism in Education

25. Renaissance: Scientific revolution acted as basis for further development of

Education in Science: physics, astronomy, and biology, chemistry led to rejection
of rationalist doctrines and laid the foundation of modern science. The interest and
over-emphasis in Science Education and further development of STEM.

26. Modern philosophy: Rene Descartes- Mathematics Education, and inquisitive

methodologies. Cartesian rational psychology paved way for experimental
psychology and sociology.
 EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT IN AFRICA

Educational thought in Africa can be categorized as follows:

A. TRADITIONAL THOUGHT
a. African Indigenous education
b. Islamic tradition in education and
c. Western tradition in education.

B CONTEMPORARY THOUGHT:
a. Conservatism
i. Colonial view of education.
ii. The religious view of education
iii. The nationalist view of education
b. Progressivism
The liberal view to education
ii. The radical view to education
iii. The instrumental view to education
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……

ATRADITIONAL THOUGHT
We shall limit this section by considering African indigenous thought as propounded
by J. P. Ocitti.

a. African indigenous educational thought according to Ocitti(1973)

According to J P Ocitti (1973), African indigenous educational thought comprised of
the following philosophical principles:
i.Communalism
ii.Preparationalism
iii.Functionalism
iv. Perenialism
v. Whotisticism

(i) Communalism
 The concept of communalism
The term is derived from the adjective communal originating from the Latin word
‘communis’ meaning belonging equally to two or more people. It refers to a condition
where people are united, cohesive, cooperative, and are committed to the welfare of
the group as opposed to individualism. In practice, the principle of communalism was
expressed through the socialization of children.
Education served the purpose of strengthening the social organization; unity of the
clan, community and chief-dom. Overall, cooperation was preferred to competition
enabling the children to grow up seeing their well being in terms of the welfare of the
group.
  Relevance to contemporary education
Unity and cooperation are desirable virtues which modern education ought
to inculcate in the learners. Education policy makers should do away with
parochial/narrow minded extension of the society as a whole.

Teaching of social education, ethics, history, literature and other humanities

are justified by the fact that humans (Africans) are communal beings who can only
thrive through others.

3. The synchronization aspects in education requires ordering and planning skills and
defined leadership (chiefdom) if education is to be to serve the welfare of a populace.

 Limitations
Communalism’s emphasis on the organic whole of the community denies the
human person the freedom to exercise unique potential, and to aspire to become rather
than conform.
Unity of purpose, theory and action in inhibitive to creativity. It negates the
need to establish unity in diversity.

(ii) Pre-parationalism
 The concept of Preaparationalism
Derived from the noun preparation which stems from Latin word ‘prepare’ meaning
to make ready. It entails the process of making someone ready or suitable for a certain
purpose. In the African indigenous society, children were prepared to become useful
members of the society. They were expected to become well adjusted with certain
values, ideas, modes of behaviour and attitudes in their adult life particularly as
married men and women.
 Relevance to contemporary education
It is imperative for education to equip individuals with the capacity to cope
with the physical, social and perhaps spiritual environment. The content, methods and
overall aims of education ought to prepare someone to become a useful member of the
society.
2. Modern education has relegated this aspect to training colleges and universities which
caters for a negligible percentage of learners.
3. It is also expected that teachers and educators be prepared sufficiently to deal with
and adapt to formal, informal, non-formal aspects and challenges of contemporary
education.
4. The actual teaching itself is an intentional activity whose intentionality requires
sufficient preparation like scheming, lesson-planning, reading …..
 Limitations
Over-emphasis on the outcome/preparation can easily overlook the process value
of education. Each piece of knowledge, skill and general attitude ought to be useful.
 (iii) Functionalism
 The concept of Functionalism
Function is Latin word meaning action or activity proper to anything. It also refers to
the ability to be useful in practical terms. Indigenous education emphasized this
principle by ensuring that every learning experience was useful. Children were
inducted into the society through participatory learning. They were involved in work,
ceremonies, rituals, imitation play, hunting and oral literature. Practical learning was
highly valued.

 Relevance of Functionalism to contemporary Education

The utility value of learning experience is a positive approach to education.
In other words, education is of use to the society.
Learning by participation can encourage production in society. Instead of
confining the youth and energetic adults to institutions of learning and exposing them
to theories, they should work as they learn.
The principle underscores the empirical approach to learning which is a useful
method of teaching and learning.
4. Creativity component of education is essential.

 Limitations
1. The Philosophy of functionalism is in most cases outward oriented in that the learner
and other participants in Education are prepared for social performance while
forgetting intrinsic dispositions necessary for social functions.

(iv). Perenialism
 The concept of Perenialism
The term emanates from the adjective perennial which is from Latin ‘perenis’ means
lasting throughout the year or a succession of years. It designates a sense of
permanence. Indigenous education was based on the assumption that cultural heritage
e.g. language, food types, beliefs and traditions was essential for the survival of the
clan or tribe. The values, attitudes and practices contained in the common heritage
were considered established once and for all in the long distant past. Succeeding
generations were not allowed to change or modify it but had to perform/observe it and
hand it over.
 Relevance of Perenialism to contemporary Education
1. Historical study of the past is good so as to appreciate and understand the milestones
in the development and evolution of ideas, knowledge and certain practices.
 Limitations
1. It tends to overlook the learners. Teaching based on perenialism is mainly teacher
and content centered while today’s teaching advocated for the learner centered
approach.
2. Knowledge is pragmatic and keeps on changing after every given period of time.

(v) Holisticism
  The concept of Holisticism
It is derived from the adjective holistic whose origin is the word ‘hal’ an old English
term meaning not divided into parts, complete amount or a combination of parts.
Indigenous education entailed a wide range of skills, attitudes, values and knowledge.
It was aimed at producing an all round person equipped with a wide range of skills.

 Relevance of Holisticism to contemporary Education

Holistic approach to learning is important because it enables and individual

to function in diverse situations.
 Limitations

1. The approach however encourages shallowness (jack of all trades and master of none)
Specialization is essential for innovation to be realized in the society

B. CONTEMPORARY THOUGHT
In this section we will deal with one aspect from conservative thoughts in
education(Nationalism) and one other from liberal view of Progressive (Liberalism).

(a) Contemporary view: Cultural Nationalist ideas in education according to

Edward Wilmot Blyden (1832 -1932)
Born in West Indies in 1932, he migrated to Liberia in 1851. He lived during a time
when racism was at its peak. Africans were considered backward and primitive.
Western education was widespread and its major aim was to enable Africans to imbibe
Western values, ideas and worldviews.

His contemporaries reacted to the racial prejudices differently;

Some were persuaded to discard their cultures and absorb the Western culture
wholesale attaining what Frantz Fanon refers to as a “black skin, white mask”. Let's
consider this as Conformist stance (or Conformism)

The second group attempted to integrate the Western values with African values i.e.
they discarded whatever was repugnant and adapted that which was useful. Partial
Conformism stance (or Conformism).

The third category adopted a racial stance against the prevalent racial myths. They
tenaciously defended the Negro cultural heritage by dispelling the lingering racial
myths, and second by advancing unprejudiced racial theories. This category of
thinkers was equivalent of cultural nationalists. Blyden falls in this category.

Blyden's nationalist ideas included:

Defending the Negro race as a distinctive race capable of playing its
rightful role in the civilization of humankind.
 He opposed the inferiority complex exhibited among Africans in their
encounter with people of other races.

He painted to the fact that the Negro race had played a significant role in the
field of learning in the past and could do so again if the right education was transmitted.
He thus advocated for:
A race-conscious-culture based type of education i.e. a curriculum
specially tailored towards the innate capacity and the ultimate utility of race. This
should be an education that will cause Africans to discover themselves. Education in
Africa should instill confidence among Africans. It should restore human dignity and
absolute confidence or faith in one’s creative abilities. This call for authentic
personality that strives to dispel the lingering myth of European people being superior
to the Negro. He came up with the Philosophy of Afrikaners that sought to establish
how to make black people participate in the community of nations.

The development of the mind to be able to subdue complicated phenomena.

This would enable one to express themselves in normative, rational and creative
domains. Towards this, he advocated for the education of girls and women in order to
ensure rapid and permanent progress.

(b) Progressivist perspective: Julius Kambarage Nyerere's Liberal view to

education

Born in 1922 in Musoma Tanzania, he obtained a Diploma in education at Makerere

College Uganda and later undertook a Master of Arts Degree in Edinburg University
in 1952. He became involved in the politics of Tanzania when he returned home. He
was a co-founder of TANU along with other nationalists. During the first presidential
elections in 1962, he was elected the first president of post-colonial Tanzania. Besides
politics, Nyerere articulated his ideas in diverse spheres of knowledge including social
philosophy and education.
In education, he advocated two related views namely: education for self-reliance and
education for liberation.

i). Education for self reliance

The concept of self reliance comprises of two distinctive words, ‘self’ and ‘reliance’.
Self refers to the human person, the agent or the ‘I’ of the individual. Reliance points
to a state of being that are dependent on something or somebody else. It refers to some
bond or relationship where subjects embrace in inter-subjective relationship viewed
together. Self reliance refers to a situation where the individual relies upon
himself/herself or his/her being. In a book called ‘education for self reliance’ (1967),
Nyerere underscored the need to radically examine education in Tanzania.

 He diagnosed the major pitfalls of the inherited colonial education in

Tanzania as:
 Education was founded upon the principle of capitalism; it promoted a class
of elites and inequality and class structure.
It divorced its participants from society and discouraged them from
unconditional service to the community. They want to live in towns.
It tended to be formal; book centered and despised traditional informal
knowledge and wisdom.
It tended to be unproductive, discouraging students and pupils from hard
work.
These factors were not in agreement with the past independent Tanzania which
basically embraced the philosophy of Ujamaa (African Socialism).

 Ujamaa stood for:

1. Work by everyone and exploitation by none.
Fair sharing of resources which are jointly produced.
Equity and respect for human dignity.
4 Education for self reliance. It meant the attainment of economic and cultural
independence at a corporate level where society could rely on itself for progress
and development.
5. It also meant individuals expressing themselves in creative, productive terms as
a result of education.

ii).Education for liberation

The concept of liberation stands for:
Being freed from what is or appears inhibiting/constraining. so as to be able to
undertake, empowerment or freedom to become.

Nyerere’s conception of Education for liberation:

1. Removal of constraints and limitations that stood in the way of Tanzanians to
become self reliant: this is namely colonialism and post colonial conditions that
were in the interest of colonial powers.
2. Liberation is not a once for all event: it is an ongoing process involving systematic
eradication o physical and mental impediments to freedom.
3. Liberation is both physical and mental – the total emancipation of man.
4. Education should release liberating ideas and skills to the mind of learners. This is
likely to increase control over themselves, their lives and their environment
5. Education for liberation should employ rational approaches to educating in the
sense that educating should arose curiosity and provoke inquiry.
6. The product of education for liberation is likely to be a self reliant individual.

METHODS AND CONTENT OF TECHNICAL PHILSOPHY (PART ONE)

A. METHODS OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY

a. Analytical Method (The Rational Method)- (ANM

It emphasizes the need for logical and systematic thinking. Its greatly interested in
logic being the art of correct reasoning. It consists of analysis(breaking apart) but
culminates in synthesis(bringing together). It aims at arriving at a clear understanding
(clarity of thought). Such thinking must not be haphazard or confusing; it should be
clear, making the necessary distinctions separating clearly what is essential, what
matters from what is accidental and of less importance. It is classified as primarily
analytical thinking because it cuts an issue into parts, analyses concepts and
statements. In addition, the method seeks to analyse concepts, statements and the
language used in different contexts in order to clarify and justify meanings.
Philosophical synthesis has to do with putting together the various parts of an idea to
form a whole. It is used to complement philosophical analysis. Where else
analysis breaks an issue into small parts, synthesis brings together the parts. The
ultimate end is to see something in its totality, see the inter-relationship and the overall
framework. The limitation with the analytic method is its sole reliance on mind as the
source of knowledge neglecting ordinary sense experiences. Rational analysis is thus
regarded as idealists who do not live in the real world.
Sample analysis can involve breaking aside of arguments/issues by using Elements of
Reasoning (EOR) i. e:
1) Purpose
2) Questions
3) Points of view
4) Information
5) Inferences
6) Concepts
7) Implications
8) Assumptions

b. The Speculative Method (Creativity)-SPM

Also called the metaphysical methodology. To speculate is to make an
intelligent/rational guess. It endeavors to challenge the human mind as far as possible,
to its ultimate limits in trying to understand what is apparently incomprehensible. Man
is not satisfied with knowing what happens to him, he also wants to know why. Basic
issues of concern in speculation include difficult topics life like; death, suffering
happiness, God. There is no simple answer and many people explain or clarify them
in religious terms believing religion will give the final answer. Philosophers however
prefer to explain these issues by use of human reason; they want to challenge the
human mind as far as possible in trying to understand the incomprehensible.
Speculation is utilized in a research hypothesis.

d. Phenomenological Method- PHM

The term phenomenology originated from the Greek word ‘phenomenon’ meaning
appearance and logia meaning knowledge. It designates the description or study of
appearance especially if the appearances are sustained and penetrating. It considers
the actual staring point of investigation to be the actual things as they appear, in their
essential reality through experience. Things will appear different from one person to
another. A philosopher’s concern is not the differences but to discover the underlying
meaning and thus arrive at a deeper understanding of phenomena( ie. noumena). By
reflecting on an everyday human experience e.g. Of pain, joy, fear, frustration, a
philosopher is able to explain the experience in concrete terms indicating in which
manner the experience affects one’s life, whole being or existence. It involves a non-
biased, non-prejudiced stance in examining phenomenon. Here, preconceived
theoretical speculations are abandoned.

d. Critical Method -CRM

The term ‘critical’ is derived from a Greek verb Krinein meaning to judge according
to some set standards. What? It involves subjecting of values, facts, principles,
conversations and assumptions; usually taken for granted to severe (socratic)
questioning. Why? This is meant to encourage honesty of thought and protect man
from Pathogenic tendencies of the human mind (PTM) such as fanaticism and
hypocrisy, intolerance and dogmatism, slogans and ideologies in order to liberate man
from narrow mindedness. This method is also called the Socratic Method. It is
liberating and constructive in the sense that it seeks to evaluate, to judge things in the
light of clear and distinct ideas.
A sample Critical method commonly begins with Analysis (questioning along the
Elements of Reasoning- EOR) Evaluation (questioning along Universal Intellectual
Standards (UIS) with a clear intention of Creating new thinking and self improvement.

Analysis (EOR)
1) Purpose
2) Questions
3) Points of view
4) Information
5) Inferences
6) Concepts
7) Implications
8) Assumptions

Evaluation (UIS))

1) Clarity
2) Accuracy
3) Depth
4) Breadth
5) Logic
6) Significance
7) Relevance
8) Precision
Essential traits of Improve mind (ETM

1) Intellectual Integrity
2) Intellectual humility
3) Intellectual Sense of justice
4) Intellectual Perseverance
5) Intellectual fair-mindedness
6) Intellectual confidence in reason
7) Intellectual courage
8) Intellectual empathy
9) Intellectual autonomy
NB: Critical method improves critical thinking by reducing the following Pathogenic
Human Tendencies (PTM))

1. Egocentric memory: the natural tendency to forget evidence and information

which does not support our thinking and to remember evidence and information
which does.
2. Egocentric myopia: the natural tendency to think in absolute terms within an
overly narrow point of view.
3. Egocentric infallibility: the natural tendency to think that our beliefs are true
because we believe them.
4. Egocentric righteousness: the natural tendency to feel superior in the light of our
confidence
that we are in the possession of ‘the truth’.
5. Egocentric hypocrisy: the natural tendency to ignore flagrant inconsistencies
between what we profess to believe and the actual beliefs our behaviour implies, or
inconsistencies between the standards to which we hold ourselves and those to which
we expect others to adhere.
6. Egocentric oversimplification: the natural tendency to ignore real and important
complexities in the world in favour of simplistic notions when consideration of those
complexities would require us to modify our beliefs or values.
7. Egocentric blindness: the natural tendency not to notice facts or evidence which
contradict our favoured beliefs or values.
8. Egocentric immediacy: the natural tendency to over-generalize immediate
feelings and experiences--so that when one event in our life is highly favourable or
unfavourable, all of life seems either favourable or unfavourable.
9. Egocentric absurdity: the natural tendency to fail to notice thinking which has
absurd consequences, when noticing it would force us to rethink our position.

EDUCATIONAL NOTES FROM PHILOSOPHICAL METHODS

a. Critical method
1. Critical Method of Philosophy engenders and propagates critical thinking among
learners, teachers and other Educators.

2. Daily Educational decisions are always based on some criteria which act as bases
for Educational judgment for instance ranking of students, appraisal of teachers,
establishing of programs.

3. Educational evaluation: Marking of examinations are based criteria referred to as

Marking schemes/marking guides.

4. Research: A proper research is measured against elements such as data collection,

sample sizing, literature review among others, all of which are derivatives of the
critical methodology.

5. Critical method is also one of the most popular research methods in Educational
research, especially in Educational foundations.

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b. Analytical Method (The Rational Method)
1. Analysis as one of the high order thinking is not only used in research but also in
examination as part of interrogating learner's abilities to go beyond the given case.
For instance a well balance d assessment tests, in evoke the spirit of and the ability
to mentally en entertain the process of breaking complex educational realities into
atomic realities.

2. Analytic method is crucial in simplifying and clarifying Educational policies and

documents.
3. Analysis is also used in sciences as methods of experimental investigation
4. Curriculum reviews and implementation are always sujected to analysis.

c. The Speculative Method (Creativity).

1. Use to enhance creativity of learner's thought processes and imagination.
2. Necessary for Heutagogical and andragogical learning
3. Religious education partially holds water due to speculations
d. Phenomenological Method
1. Observation of reality as is used in natural and social sciences for investigation
2. Participatory data collection is based on Phenomenology

B. CONTENT OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY( BRANCHES OF

PHILOSOPHY)
(BASIC SCHOLASTIC BRANCHES OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY)

These are:
I. Epistemology-Study of Knowledge
II. Axiology- Value theory
III. Metaphysics- Study of reality
IV. Logic-Theory of reasoning/Philosophers tool box

I. EPISTEMOLOGY
1. What is Epistemology?
This is the philosophical study of knowledge. Epistemology is derived from two Greek
words: episteme (knowledge) and logia (study). It deals with philosophical reflection
on issues related to knowledge. Epistemology does not deal with factual knowledge
such as that which socio-sciences are involved in. Empirical sciences like Psychology
and sociology study issues by describing in a factual manner what they have observed
about human knowledge e.g. in cognitive development, a Psychologist will talk about
how it differs in relation to age, individual and the society. The philosopher on the
other hand will not inform on facts and try to justify as done in hard sciences; instead,
he will think before and after the scientist does his work thereby challenging the
scientist. Epistemology distinguishes clearly between rationalism (which stresses the
role of intellect in knowledge acquisition) and empiricism (pays attention to sense
experience).

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 It studies the nature, sources and validity of knowledge. It seeks to answer questions
like: Among the questions that Epistemology asks include:
What is knowledge?
How do we know?
What is truth?
What can we really know/
What does it mean to say that I know something?
What are the sources of knowledge?

2. Of what relevance to Education

To the extent that education has a cognitive dimension, it is an epistemological
activity. Epistemology in Education is exhibited in curriculum content areas (What
knowledge is there to be acquired?), in instructional methods (How do we come to
know?), in Educational assessment (What does it mean to say that I know
something/What is truth), in the role of the teacher and teaching resources(What are
the sources of knowledge)……

II. AXIOLOGY
1. What is Axiology?
The term Axiology is derived from Greek words and axia (values) and logos (study)
It is the philosophical/rational study of values.

2. Sub-branches of Axiology
a. Ethics or moral philosophy – reflects on the origin and nature of moral values:
meaning of what is right and wrong. This is the most popular branch of Axiology.
b. Aesthetics – philosophical study of artistic values. Interested in meaning of beauty
and harmony and art.
c. Social and cultural philosophy – study of values related to societies and cultures
d. Political philosophy – deals with study of politics, governance etc.

3. Categories of values studied under Axiology

The philosophical study of values is restricted to the prescriptive domains. Values fall
under three categories:
a. Objective–values considered being universal (good, truth, beauty, freedom, love).
b. Relative – values that depends on personal preference.
c. Hierarchical – ordering values from the least desirable to the most desirable.
4. Axiology and Education
Education is a value laden activity. R. S. Peters, Njoroge &Benaars, Ducassan and
other educational stake holders exclude a value-less conception education from their
definition of Education. Different disciplines, educational aims methods and players
in education have strong groundings in value theory. Consider for instance teacher
code of ethics and conduct, normative aims of education in government policies,
school rules, class arrangement, uniforms, etc

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III. METAPHYSICS
1. What is Metaphysics?
1. This term refers to what goes beyond the physics/nature.. It deals with questions,
things or concerns that lie after or beyond the physical world of sense
experience. It is the general investigation into the fundamental nature of all reality.

2. Subdivisions of Metaphysics
a. Cosmology: the study of the universe (cosmos). It has to do with the origin and
nature meaning of the universe. This is done rationally.
b. Theodicy: rational investigation of the supernatural. It belongs to the field of
theology where religious concepts and beliefs are assessed.
c. Rational or philosophical psychology: philosophy of the mind. It investigates into
the intricate processes of perceiving, imagining, remembering, feeling,
understanding, willing. It attempts to solve the mind/body problem; their
composition, nature and relationship e.g. can mind survive destruction of the body?
d. Ontology: the philosophical study of ‘being’. What is the meaning of existence?
What comprises matter? What is man/woman? What is the essence of being? The
meaning of Being: Anything whatsoever that is or exists. Modes of Being :
Physical/Material being, Spiritual being
3. First Principles of Metaphysics

i. Principle of Non Contradiction: A thing X cannot at the time be and not be

ii. Principle of Identity: Every being is determined in itself, is one with itself, and
is consistent in itself
iii. Principle of Intelligibility: Everything that is, in so far as it is , is intelligible
iv. Principle of Causality: Whatever comes to be has a cause
v. Principle of Finality: Every agents acts //All beings when acting tend to some
definite effect
vi. Principle of the Excluded middle: There cannot be an intermediate between
contradictions
vii. Principle of Sufficient Reason: Everything that exists has sufficient reason for
its existence
4. Principles of Being:
i. Causality and Participation:
a. Causality is that from which something else proceeds with dependency in
being. There are 4 Types of causes :
 Efficient cause: That by which any change is brought about in order of execution
in order of execution.
 Material cause; That out which a new being arises-matter in regard to form
 Formal cause: The act by which a material substratum is determined towards a
new being
 Final cause: That because of which some is or becomes
b. Participation; structural dependence of many beings on the one being. it means
to receive a part of what belongs to another fully and so merely sharing in it.

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 ii. Essence and Existence: Existence is the act whereby a thing is present in nature or
in mind. Essence is mode or manner according to which really might be fashioned

iii. Potency and Act: Potency is the aptitude in a being to receive some or perform an
act. Act is the fully present realization of Potency.

5. Metaphysics and Education

Education as an existent reality falls under the wide world of metaphysics-which is
the investigation of all reality. All Educational content areas can be broadly classified
under the branches of Metaphysics eg Physical sciences fall under cosmology(the
study of the material universe), Social Sciences, mathematics, logic fall under Rational
psychology/anthropology(the study of body mind relationship), Humanities and
religion fall under Theodicy(the study of God) and its derivatives. Ontology (study of
all being) is the mother of all disciplines. Principles of Metaphysics and Principles of
Being can be used to explain any educational procedures, theory and praxis.

3.2. CONTENT OF PHILOSOPHY (CONT'): LOGIC

3.2.1. Introduction
It refers to the study of correct reasoning. It deals with the structure and principles of
sound arguments. On our daily basis, individuals are engaged in various forms of
arguments, where premises/statements are made and conclusions drawn. In most
cases, wrong conclusions are arrived at involving wrong premises and undue
generalizations. Logic is essential because it stipulates how arguments should be
constructed and how fallacies (erroneous beliefs or myths) can be detected and
avoided. Within logic, two forms of reasoning can be distinguished: deductive and
inductive.
'
3.2.2. Key concepts
a. Mental Operations
1. Apprehension: Deals with Conception (simple mental grasp of an object-without
further operation),
2. Judgment : Mental sentence or proposition(Affirm or deny)
3. Reasoning: Argument( Drawing Inferences, dealing with premises and conclusion)

b. Reasoning: Mind's movement from one or more propositions which act as evidence
for a final proposition which calls for proof.
c. Propositions: A proposition is any statement with truth value i.e. it can be proved
to be true or false. e. g. Stones are cats. Propositions are never assessed in terms of
validity. It's either True or False.
d. Arguments: Is a set of Premises (evidential propositions) and
Conclusions(Claiming propositions).
e. Quarrelling: Not same as arguing- some of the statements in an quarrel are not
propositions. Quarrelling is more of a psychological activity than it is a Philosophical
activity.

3.2.3. Some symbols used in logic:

a. > If......then...(symbol for Conditionality)

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b. v Either.....or....(Symbol of disjunction)
c. ^ Both.....and.....(Symbol of Conjunctionality)
d. ≡ ....If and only if...(Symbol of Bi-conditionality)
e. ( ){ }[ ] Brackets are used to separate collective Propositions

3.2.4. Dimensions of Mordern logic

In modern philosophy, logic is expressed in two main dimensions:
a. Symbolic logic involving mathematical symbols – application of symbols to explain
phenomena e. g a + b = 4: b= 4 – a
b. Analytic logic – prevalently used by analytic philosophers who emphasize the
logical analysis of language to arrive at clear meanings of terms/concepts.

3.2.5. Types of arguments (classification of logic)

i. Deductive Reasoning
This involves reasoning from general to particular instances. In this case, a conclusion
is inferred or deduced from general premises/statements/propositions.

Properties of a Deductive argument

a. Validity-( A deductive argument is valid if the conclusion necessarily AND
logically affirms the premises. It is invalid if and only if it has all true premises and a
False conclusion)

b. Soundness: (A sound Deductive argument is one which has all

actually/factually true premises and true conclusion)
Examples
1. All PGDE students are untrained teachers
John is a PGDE student
John is an untrained teacher
2. All human beings are liable to make mistakes
Mike is a human being
Mike makes mistakes
3. All human beings have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God
Mary is a human being
Mary has sinned and fallen short of the glory of God
4. All numbers ending with 5 and 0 are divisible by 5
1,964.5 Ends with 5
conclusion?...........

Further examples
Private schools perform well in national exams
All Kikuyus are thieves
All Luos are proud
All university students are immoral
Teachers are hard working
All Philosophers are idiots
All cats are dogs

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The above reasoning has been expressed in syllogism form: the first two statements
need to be stated before the third can follow logically. This type of reasoning is
prevalent in philosophy, religion and mathematics.

ii. Inductive reasoning

It involves general laws/conclusions being inferred from particular instances. It is
the reverse of deductive reasoning. In this type of reasoning, various instances of a
given specimen are observed over a period of time. The observation leads to general
conclusions/laws being established with some level of probability. This type of
reasoning is applicable with empirical sciences.

Example 1: P1. Most Kenyans are corrupt

P2. Otieno is a Kenyan
..............................................................................
Therefore, probably Otieno is corrupt

Example 2: P1. There are 100 mangoes in the basket

P2. 70 of the mangoes picked are rotten
...............................................................................
Probably all the 100 mangoes are rotten

Properties of Inductive reasoning

a Strength: An inductive argument is said to be strong when it is when it is such that
when the premises are assumed or granted to be true the its conclusion is most likely
to be true.
b. Cogency: An argument is Cogent when it is both strong and has actually true
premises

6. Selected Fallacies
7. Logic and Education
Students studying science, arts or education should be familiar with the basic rules of
logic so as to enable one reason correctly and use language meaningfully throughout
their education Endeavour and in life

TOPIC FIVE
EDUCATION AND TEACHING: CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS

A. EDUCATION
a. Definitions of Education
The Concept of Education is a very complex concept and thus cannot be defined in
simple terms due to its diverse shades of meaning. It also applies to diverse
activities and processes. Most definitions of education are descriptive in nature. As

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 such, they do not capture a single idea but a family of ideas. The meaning of the
word education can be accessed from the following perspectives:

i) Etymological Definition
Etymology is the study of the origin of terms/words.

The etymology of the term Education is traced back to latin verbs Educare and
Educere

Educare (Pronounced as Eh-duh-kareh) :. In the ancient Rome, the verb Educare

referred to the general process of growing up, of rearing, of bringing up.

. Based on this definition, education has come to be viewed as the art of molding,
of giving form to an incomplete or delicate person

Educere (Pronounced as Eh- duh-chereh): ‘Educere’ means to lead out or to bring

out. In other words, the adult assists the child to come of age and realize his
potential without any shade of coercion.

(ii) Descriptive Definition

Dictionary: This is the meaning as offered in a dictionary. The meaning is
descriptive in nature and inadequate because it tends to be general and vague e.g.
the Fontana dictionary defines educating as:
 Passing on a cultural heritage
 Initiation of the young into worthwhile ways of thinking and doing.
 Fostering of an individual’s growth.
This definition is limited because it does not explain the cardinal factors requisite
in the process of educating namely that which has to do with transmission i.e. how
does one do it? Which component of cultural heritage is worth of education?

(ii) Prescriptive Definition(Definitions according to great thinkers)

This perspective tends to be biased depending on the thinkers/theorists involved for
instance:
 Plato defined education in the laws as training
 Comenius defined it is as the art of teaching all men all things
 Milton defines it as the art of knowing everything
 Lodge defines it as equivalent to experience i.e. the experience of man interacting
with his/her normal environment.
These definitions tend towards the end that Education should achieve

The more we pursue the definition of the concept of education along the foregoing
paths, the more complex it becomes. Realizing this, analytic philosophers have
suggested necessary conditions or criteria of education

b. Criteria/Conditions/ Dimensions of Education

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i.) R. S Peters' Criteria of Education

According to R S Peters (1966) in Ethics and Education:

1) Desirability condition: Education must involve the transmission of what is
worthwhile, valuable or desirable (Normative Criteria)
2). Knowledge Condition: Education must involve knowledge and understanding,
and some kind of cognitive perspective (Cognitive Criteria)
3). Procedural Condition: Education rules out certain procedures of transmission
that lacks willingness and voluntaries on the part of the learner (Procedural
Criteria)

Note: The Desirability criteria correspond to Ethics as a branch of Philosophy,

the Cognitive criteria corresponds to Epistemology while the Procedural criteria
have underpinnings in Logic. Metaphysical aspect has not been directly referred
to in R. S. Peter's definition.

ii). Njoroge and Benaar's Dimensions of Education

Njoroge and Bennars in Theory and Practice of Education (1994) have reflected on
these criteria and proposed four criteria or dimensions of education.

1. Cognitive Dimension: Education must involve the development of knowledge

and understanding. Education presupposes the acquisition of knowledge – facts,
skills, ideas, principles. It also involves intellectual activities like thinking, judging,
reasoning, perceiving, deciding, abstraction, discrimination, intuition and
imagination.

2. Creative Dimension: Education should involve the development of

individuality. It should encourages the development of individual unique capacities
and so it should make the individual creative rather than a docile recipient of
knowledge. It should make one a tool – user rather that make one a tool. This
happens through encouraging self- esteem, self–reliance, self–determination, self–
expression and individual growth. Education that places emphasis on knowledge
only may produce a person who is too academic but lacking social training. Besides
being academically endowed, an educated person should actively participate as a
creative agent.

3). Normative Dimension: Education should involve Socialization. Education

takes place in a social setting and serves social functions. Education as Socialization
is the acquisition of Knowledge, values, attitudes, skills to make learners acceptable
members of society. These values and skills are passed from one generation to the
next. The aims (objectives), content and methods of education are socially

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 determined. The norms and values transmitted ought to address the mind/the
understanding level as opposed to mere habit formation.

4). Dialogical Dimension: Education should involve dialogue which is essentially

a process of communication between the learner and the environment as well as
between the learner and teacher. Education as dialogue encourages mutual respect,
understanding, free debate and co-operation between learner and teacher. Methods
that hinder free and active participation of both teacher and learners negate proper
education. The methods should neither be too permissive nor too authoritarian.

Note: We can fully locate the philosophical map of Njoroge and Benaar's
definition of Education as follows:
Cognitive-Epistemology
Creative- Metaphysics (and by extension Logic)
Normative-Ethics and the wider Axiology
Dialogical- Logic

c. The Banking concept of Education of Paulo Freire

i. General Description
Over-emphasis -on the cognitive dimension of education has reduced the learning
process to an almost mechanical exercise in mental skills, normally known as
training.
Banking Concept: Underlying all this is what Paolo Freire has called the banking
concept of education revolving around the principle of deposit and withdrawal seen
as operative in education.
Learners are regarded as knowledge banks, depositories, receptacles or empty
vessels which are to be filled with knowledge which they are expected to keep and
guard till it’s demanded back at the time of examination.
Passivity: Throughout, learners tend to be passive and docile in matters of
knowledge and learning. They acquire notions without internalizing or
understanding them fully. Learners become mere storehouses of facts, of
intellectuals. Consequently, says Freire, what they have learnt does not in any way
affect them personally in their daily understandings.
Externality: Knowledge remains external and the products of the system become
full in their heads but empty in their hearts.

ii. Characteristics of the Banking Concept

 Narration: The teacher narrates all they know to the learners who consume every
word without alterations or questioning.
 Memorization: The learner mechanically memorizes the narrated content.
Learning becomes a process of conditioning and brain washing. An activity that is
characterized by cramming and rot learning.
 Tabula Rasa: Learners are perceived as empty vessels to be filled with knowledge
from the teacher or textbooks.

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 Depositionism: Education becomes an act of depositing in which the teacher the
depositor and the learner is the depository.
 Superiorism: Education and knowledge in particular, is seen as a gift by those who
consider themselves knowledgeable upon those they consider to know nothing.
 Justificationism: The teacher considers the learners’ ignorance absolute and
justifies his knowledgeability.

iii. Limitations of the Banking Concept of Education

 Stifling: The banking activity in education stifles the learner’s creativity.
 Competition: It creates unnecessary and unhealthy competition in the classroom.
 False Premise: It is founded on the false premise that the learner is a tabula rasa
and like an empty vessel. The learner always has something of their own that they
bring with them into the educative process.
 Passivity: It makes learners passive observers rather than active participants,
creatures rather than creators in the process of acquiring knowledge. Thus
knowledge obtained is to a large extent only skin deep and without internalization,
it is short lived
 Narrow-mindedness: The banking concept narrows the student’s outlook and
vision. It perpetuates narrow mindedness and meanness of ideas in learners.
 Undermining: It undermines the rational powers or abilities of the learner.
 Counter productivity: It also promotes rot learning i.e. it emphasizes memory and
recall which are often counterproductive in education.
NB: Personal involvement in the discovery of knowledge and internalization of
knowledge by the learner are to be emphasized. Noting that knowledge cannot be
acquired passively, the learners must be actively and directly involved.

B. A SYNOPSIS OF THE CONCEPT OF TEACHING

Teaching may refer to three aspects:
a) An occupation or a profession.
b) Normal activity of a teacher in a classroom or school situation (enterprise)
c) Describing an actual teaching exercise.

(a) Teaching as a profession

This entails the following:
 An occupation by which a living is earned.
 Deeper commitment.
 Long duration of preparation/training.
 Formal induction and acceptance.
 Standard of performance or competence.
 Code of regulations, ethics or practice to preserve the honor and prestige of the
profession.
 Willingness to advance the growth and effectiveness.
 Regular scheme of payment and remuneration.
 A great regard for the interest or advantage of the client.

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 (b) Teaching as an enterprise
It refers to the cluster of activities that the teacher engages in within the school
setting:
 Marking registers.
 Maintaining discipline.
 Filling mark books.
 Coordinating co-curricular activities.
 Being on duty (TOD).

(c) Actual teaching

Simply defined as a system of actions intended to induce learning. Must meet the
following criteria:
i. Have a person who is consciously and deliberately doing the teaching.
ii. Another person or oneself who is being taught – learner is logically necessary.
iii. Something (content) being taught (facts, information, knowledge, skills).
iv. At least an intention on the part of the person doing the act that the recipient
should learn.
v. Involve methods or procedures that are orally and pedagogically sound or
acceptable.

d. William Frankena (1973)

According to William Frankena, Teaching is said to take place when
“X is fostering or seeking to foster in Y some disposition. D by method M.” Where

X is the society, the teacher or whoever is educating (even oneself)

Y is the leaner (child youth or adult)
D is disposition beliefs, habit, knowledge, skills, attitudes considered desirable both
for the leaner and society.
M is morally acceptable methods that pay attention to the interest of the learner,
personal integrity and active participation in the learning process. (Methods should
not dehumanize or degrade the learner.)

EDUCATION AND KNOWLEDGE: COGNITIVE DIMENSION OF EDUCATION.

A. Introduction
During the discussion of Criteria of education as propounded by R.S. Peters and the
Dimensions of Education by Njoroge and Benaars we inferred that Education deals
with knowledge acquisition and as such, it falls under Epistemology which is one of
the branches of Philosophy proper. Epistemology deals with philosophical reflection
of knowledge. It studies the nature, sources and validity of the knowledge.

B. Concerns of Epistemology

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 Epistemology occupies itself with, among others, the following questions:

(a) What is knowledge?

(b) What is the nature of knowledge?
(c) What are the principles of knowledge?
(d) What is truth?
(e) How do we come to know?
(f) How can we verify knowledge?
(g) How do we know that we know?
(h) What can we really know?

(a) What is Knowledge?

The concept of verb ‘to know’ can be sub-divided into three aspects:
 Knowing that – facts, information or details about something.
 Knowing how – having the ability to demonstrate, possession of a skill or
technique.
 General familiarity – mental grasp of either information or skills without
sufficient details.

(b)The Conditions of Knowledge

According to I. Scheffer (1965), there are three conditions of knowledge: 1. Belief
Condition 2. Truth condition and 3. Justification

1 . Belief Condition
To believe is however not to know: it is just the beginning, although more is required
than mere belief. Believing is more of a psychological state of mind and knowing is
more than the strongest conviction. This is necessary for communication/teaching as
it helps one to demonstrate an element of originality and subjective ownership of
information.

2. Truth Condition
It refers to the actual truth of what one asserts. Knowing thus points to something
independent of the individual/subjective claiming to know – points to the truth of the
matter. What one ‘believes’ may not be necessarily the truth as it is universally or
objectively known. To know is thus more than believing: it implies that there is
actually truth: a matter of true belief. To establish the truthfulness of a
proposition/statement, it must be subjected to the following theories:
i. Correspondence theories of truth: whatever is claimed to be true must
correspond with reality i.e. must agree with what can be empirically verified,
measured, observed. The major impediment to this theory is that our
verification tools/observation are at times faulty. It is possible to perceive
reality wrongly.

ii. Coherence theory of truth: whatever is claimed must cohere/agree with what
is already accepted/admitted as truth. Any new knowledge is validated on the
basis of the existing knowledge. However, this theory has limitations. Whatever

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 is known may be untrue or false, one could possibly be mistaken e.g. the
Galileo’s case with the Roman Catholic Church.

iii. Pragmatic theory: whatever is of utility/value works and is useful or beneficial

or true

iv. Semantic Theory: Truth is based on language use and manipulation

3 Justification/grounds condition
The claimant must be able to cite evidence and evidence of the right kind to
support/justify his claim. Absolute certainty is difficult to attain because human
knowledge tends to be limited. Certainty thus remains uncertain or hypothetical. One
must always be prepared to review/reconsider their knowledge in the light of new
evidence though adequacy of evidence is many times a serious problem. Although
every claim to knowledge must be based on some grounds, there are statements which
do not necessarily require evidence. E.g. analytic propositions that are self explanatory
statements; statements based on existential and consciousness i.e. I feel frustrated.
While we insist on evidence, we should exempt analytic proportions based on
existential realities.

c. Sources of Knowledge
i. Authority as a Source of Knowledge
It refers to people or individuals who occupy superior positions in relation to the
claimant. Knowledge is here based on what those in authority have said i.e. I know it
because so and so says so. People in authority include parents, teachers, preachers,
authors, experts and journalists. Authority is simply believed. Individuals rely on
authority because they lack time to verify for themselves. Also, there tends to be lack
of commitment to question issues and search for clear knowledge. In a classroom
situation, students tend to believe wholesale whatever the teacher says. There is
therefore a need for care and concern for truth on the part of the teacher.

Precautions when dealing with authority:

 The person whose statement we believe must be a relevant authority in the
field.
 Authorities sometimes disagree. There is need to be careful: sometimes
judgment needs to be suspended before arriving at a conclusion.
 Verify information. Whenever we accept the other people’s statements, we
should establish whether they are actually true.
 No matter how reliable an authority is, it cannot be the primary source of
knowledge.

ii. Revelation as source of Knowledge

This is a source of knowledge from which various religions derive their basic dogma.
Although the truths recorded in sacred books are considered eternal, the language in
which they are written is not hence religious scholars spend much time arguing over

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the precise meaning of words and expressions in the sacred textual interpretation. The
purpose this is to bring to light the external truths that are locked in these words.

iii. Sense experience

Common sense tells as that sense experience is the starting point of knowledge for we
begin to be conscious at all when we begin to exercise our senses.
If we merely looked at what occurs in our own lives, and reflect on our own
experience, we realize that our minds, at the onset, are no more than “white paper, void
of all characters, without any ideas” (Locke’s famous Tabula rasa, that is blank tablet)
all we know or think about is ideas which come from experience.

iv.Intuition
The immediate knowledge of truth, without the aid of any reasoning and without
appeal to experience is called intuition. It is sub-conscious activity, which instantly
reveals into consciousness that which the mind has been at grips for a period of time.

v.Human reason
The view that reason is the sole source of knowledge is known as rationalism and the
proponents of this doctrine are called rationalists. The human mind has innate
structure that is responsible for a variety of intellectual competence.
The mind, by its reasoning power has instinctive capacity to discover knowledge
within itself; knowledge is therefore a product of man’s power of thought and
explanation.
Plato claimed that man’s knowledge is basically a recollection of the ideas which the
soul had known in the perfect world of ideas before it was buried in the human body.
Education therefore, is to focus on the soul with the view to helping it recollect as
much of that knowledge as possible.
Rationalists claim that it is dangerous to rely solely on our senses as they are prone to
being highly insensitive and unreliable. Senses are capable of establishing conflicting
results about the same phenomenon depending on our location, health condition and
even attitude.

d. Knowledge and Curriculum

Generally, curriculum refers to knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and skills which are
considered desirable for transmission to others. Knowledge is classified or
categorized within the curriculum based on the following criteria:
1. Language: each subject tends to have particular language e.g.in mathematics we
can consider -matrix, integers, numbers…. In religion, discourse may rotate
around concepts like God, sin, grace, soul, salvation, angels among others.
Scientific language may employ jargons such as observation, replication, data
collection, validity and others. Knowledge of is therefore crucial and without
it other aspects of knowledge can only prove to be impossible to grasp. This
is further justified from the premise that humans are symbolic and social
beings. They interpret reality using symbols and convey it to other using
language as the most crucial of the symbols.

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2. Methods of verification or testing: e.g. sciences depend on empirical observation
and tests on experiments while mathematics and religion uses deductive
reasoning. As such methods of verification and dissemination of knowledge
are logically laden . It is imperative that any curriculum should therefore
bring out clearly what is there to be known on procedural aspects of
investigation and dissemination.

3. Area of specialization or subject matter: Physical sciences dealing with natural

world Social sciences concentrating on the world of culture, Philosophy and Religion
dealing with world views and mathematics dealing with the world of numbers.

Based on the above criteria, the following classifications of knowledge have been
enunciated:
a. Logic and mathematics.
b. Physical sciences.
c. Human sciences.
d. Aesthetics (e.g. fine arts)
e. Morality or ethics.
f. Philosophy.

4. Theories of Assessment of Curriculum

(a) The utilitarian curriculum: This means the curriculum that is useful to the
learner and one conducive to human happiness i.e. promotes the greatest amount of
happiness for the largest possible number of people. Such a curriculum includes
survival skills, social skills, and politics.
(b) A curriculum for rationality (thinking systematically): It has to produce a
rational mind. In order to cultivate this certain subjects need to be incorporated i.e.
logic, mathematics, philosophy.
(c) A heritage curriculum: The chief point of education is to bring children into
what exists as a public tradition of shared knowledge i.e. culture which refers to the
intellectual aesthetic, moral and material achievements of mankind.

5. Role of the learner

a. Epistemology considers the learner as a knowing being and so an educable
being(or Homo Educandus)
b. Epistemology anticipates that a learner be active both intrinsically and
extrinsically in the pursuit of knowledge
c. Recognition of authority as a source of knowledge demands an appreciable but
open degree of respect towards the authority of the teacher and learning resource
materials.
d. Intuition is valid source of creativity in Education.

6. Learning Environment
Different epistemological systems call for various learning environments:
a. A realist/empircal epistemology with its emphasis on sense experience as a primary
source of knowing advocates for a classroom environment with adequate teaching
aids that appeal to the senses like photos, audio visuals, Tactile objects.... By

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extension it envisions equipments for practicals as in the case of laboratories and
workshops
b. A rationalist epistemology emphasizes reasoning and deductive argumentation. As
such its learning environment would be insufficient without books by renown authors.
Books are primary for a rationalist environment.

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 Education and values: Normative dimension of Education

A. Definitions
1. Axiology -from Greek Axia/Axios(Worthy-valuable) and Logos(the study/reasoning
).Axiology is therefore the study of that which is worthy(valuable)//the philosophical
study of values(what is good or right, desirable or worthwhile and what ought to be
praiseworthy)
2. Norms- From Greek Nomos. Nomos means standards or criteria. It refers to criteria
used to determine what is worthy. Norms therefore tell us what ought to or ought not
be done/what should or should not happen ideally speaking.
3. Normative dimension of education refers to norms or standards that are to be
recommended for the educational enterprise which in turn provides general
guidelines for education theory and practice. For example, Kenya considers
education as an important vehicle for attaining the eight goals (norms) of
Education in Kenya.
i) To foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity,
ii) To promote the social economic, technological and industrial needs for national
development,
iii) To promote individual development and self fulfillment,
iv) To promote sound moral and religious values,
v) To promote social equality and responsibility,
vi) To promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures,
vii) To promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other
nations,
viii) To promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection.

4. Good life- Throughout history, the question ‘what kind of life is good (how do l
ought to live)?’ has been raised as a normative question. In answer to this question,
diverse answers have emerged:
i) A good life ought to involve maximum pleasure.
ii) A good life should include spiritual contemplation.
iii) A good life ought to be ascetic – involve self denial and elimination of desires.

The responses above indicate that Value is emphasized by every given society. It
affects not only the direction of morality but also the direction of educational
objectives and content.

Can the eight goals of Education in Kenya lead to a good life?

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 B. Categorization of values// Branches of axiology
Ethics/ Ethical values: Values that deal with morality// the study of moral values
Aesthetics/ Aesthetical: Values to do with beauty; harmony and uniformity.
Social and cultural philosophy – study of values related to societies and cultures
Political philosophy – deals with study of politics, governance
This lecture will lay emphasis on Ethics and Aesthetics

I. Ethics
a. Meaning of Ethics
1. The term ethics is derived from a Greek noun ‘ethos’ meaning the customs and
conventions of a given community. In this sense, ethics is synonymous with morality
(from latin mores/moralis) i.e. set of norms guiding human conduct.

2. The study of morality in all its forms. It is primarily an academic exercise, an

intellectual pursuit, a process of inquiry and reflection. Here, ethics refers to a process
whose product becomes morality and ethics.
3. Meta-ethics: it is concerned with the meaning of moral concepts and statements as
well as their justification. It aims at clarifying such ambiguous words like good, bad,
wrong and right.

b. Approaches to the study of ethics

There are three approaches namely: Descriptive ethics; Normative ethics and
Analytical ethics:

1. Descriptive Ethics
This is a scientific study of ethics/morality. It involves the observation of values and
the reasons given for them. It refers to the empirical or descriptive study of morality
which is a set of norms or standards – transitional or otherwise – that defines guides
and regulates good acceptable behaviour among human beings. Descriptive ethics is
characteristic of social sciences such as psychology, sociology and social
anthropology.

Example: Kohlberg's Descriptive ethics, a psychologist distinguished three levels of

moral development namely:
a. Pre-conventional stage: the child simply perceives right and wrong primarily in terms
of reward and punishment. This is a stage of naïve egocentrism. Rewarding encourages
repeat of certain behavior. The problem with this level in the teaching/learning process
is the impact on those not rewarded; they tend to get discouraged.
b. Conventional stage (of law and order). This is mainly between the ages of 10 and
13. At this stage, the child begins to respond willingly to expectations in the family,
group and community. The child tends to seek approval from parents, teachers and
peers by conforming to the set social conventions. There is a tendency to be loyal.
c. Post-conventional stage (moral autonomy): this ranges between 15 and 19 years.
The young person goes beyond the stage of law and order and seeks to develop own

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 judgment on matters of morality. The youth specifically tends to respect
democratically determined rules and laws. This stage leads to self determined moral
principles and moral autonomy.

2. Normative Ethics
Normative Ethics is interested in the rules and norms of society. It attempts to give
fundamental reasons for values/morality. Basically, it seeks to prescribe the ‘ought’ of
values. Whereas descriptive ethics is empirical in character and relies mainly on the
social sciences, normative ethics is reflective in nature as it seeks to inquire – rationally
into the basic grounds of moral conduct and theories to justify morality in a
philosophical or theological manner.

Morals do not stand on their own; they are centrally located between principles and
values on the one hand and laws, rules and regulations on the other hand.

Normative ethics is primarily concerned with basics; with moral principles and moral
values which lay down norms for moral human conduct/action. Moral or immoral
action is only a possibility with human beings. Animals and non humans are non
moral.

3. Analytical Ethics/Meta-Ethics
This is a more critical level of the study of ethics. It goes beyond prescriptions and
seeks deeper insights into the justifications of morality/values. This approach to the
study of ethics is at the clarification of terms and statements that is the meaning of
ethical terms and statements as used in ethics, both in the ordinary and academic
sense. It is a form of linguistic analysis aimed at clarifying and validating.

Example of Meta-analysis- The concept of Discipline

Advocates of liberty and freedom oppose any form of externally imposed discipline.
They argue that:
a. A person must be in to some degree free from external restraint.
b. A person must exercise freedom of choice.
c. Discipline is only admissible if it increases or widens or guarantees an individual
great freedom of choice.

On the other hand, proponents of externally imposed discipline argue that discipline is
justifiable or several reasons:
a. Restores and preserves the natural authority of the teacher.
b. To minimize or prevent disorderly behavior which may interfere with the liberties and
rights of others or even of their own.
c. To help students/learners to be able to choose for themselves and hopefully to choose
to accept the laws.

c. Nature of actions vis a vis Morality

i.Moral actions;
An action is judged to be moral or immoral when it is done voluntarily (there was
evidence of intentionality),knowingly(there is evidence that the agent had adequate

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 knowledge on the nature of actions they were performing or intending to perform )
and freely(without coercion . When criteria for moral actions are breached by a moral
agent, they are referred to as immoral actions.
ii. Amoral actions:
These actions are neither immoral nor moral due to the fact that they do not clearly
and conclusively derive from voluntariness, , knowledge and Freedom eg When a
person is forced to do something or accidentally does something
iii. Non moral actions
Are actions that cannot in any circumstance be evaluated from moral criteria, for
example actions done by a mad man, Sneezing and the urge to sneeze, dosing in class

d. Theories of Ethics
Morality refers generally to ‘doing the right thing’. It implies action, behavior/conduct.
Such action is considered right (moral) when it is done in accordance with certain
principles generally referred to as theories of moral obligation. These theories provide
a framework within which to judge whether a certain action is morally right or wrong.

There are two theories of moral obligation: teleological and deontological

(i) Teleological theories
They judge a certain action to be good or bad, right or wrong depending on whether
the consequences of that action are desirable or not. One’s action is judged based on
the desirability of the goal. The term teleology is derived from and ancient Greek word
‘telos’ meaning goal. On the question of whose ultimate or good ought to be promoted,
teleological theories render two distinctive views i.e.
a. Ethical universalism stresses the common good or the general good of all.
b. Utilitarianism which coheres with ethical universalism states that something is
morally good if it is useful in promoting good over evil; if it helps to bring about the
greatest happiness of the greatest number.

(ii) Deontological theories

The word deontology emanates from Greek word ‘Deon’ meaning duty. Deontological
theories emphasise duty meaning actions as judged to be rules, commandments that
prescribe one’s duty. Within the deontological theories, two views can be
distinguished:
a. Rule deontology; it involves doing one’s duty or obeying the stated rules, laws at all
times.
b. Act deontology: this theory allows for individual judgment on what to do and how to
do certain actions. The rules and the laws are considered as a general yardstick.

e. Sources of Morality
i) Religion: through divine revelation, religion offers a supernatural source of moral
standards. Such revelations are expressed in terms of laws and guidelines contained in
religious writings such as the bible, Koran etc. Faithfuls of such religions observe
morality because God commands it. These comprise what is called religious ethics.
ii) Society: there are various social institutions in it e.g. family has parental authority,
clan has the authority of elders, the school and teachers authority, the peer group and

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 public opinion; and national laws are sources of morality. Social and religious ethics
comprise of moral standards which are external to the individual person. In this case,
the centre of moral authority lies outside the individual; either the divine or human
agents. Such ethics is called heteronymous ethics.
iii) The individual human person (autonomous): here, the source of morality is both
human reason and human conscience. In this case, somebody does something because
they believe it is right or wrong i.e. and individual lays down the norm. The various
sources of morality offer diverse moral guidelines and principles/multiplicity of
values.

f. Morality Values
Theories of moral value concentrate on the agent rather than the action on the person
who acts. It emphasizes the inculcation of values to the individual as necessary for
moral actions in other words; emphasis is on being and not necessarily doing. Moral
philosophers have identified cardinal virtues that ought to be inculcated namely
prudence, fortitude, temperance and justice.
i) Prudence; quality of being cautious and wise in conduct: discreet wisdom applied to
practice.
ii) Fortitude: courage in endurance.
iii) Temperance: moderation in the exercise of natural appetites and passions.

iv) Justice; quality of being fair, integrity, impartiality, rightness and the awarding of what
is due.

g. Punishment
The term punishment means the intentional and purposeful infliction of pain (of some
kind) by a person in authority as a penalty for what the authority believes to be some
wrong done by the offender. In a school, punishment may take various forms; corporal
punishment, withdrawal of privileges and, imposition of sanctions and detentions.
Education implies the transmitting of knowledge skills by one who is an authority to
those who are not. To enable this to take place, certain external conditions must be
applied. It is generally expected that the student must be reasonably orderly and
attentive, and the instructions of the teacher must be generally obeyed. As such, the
teacher ought to operate as an authority in what he teaches and function in authority.
The teacher is required to cultivate the right personality, have mastery of his teaching
content and be conversant with class management in order to naturally elicit
obedience and discipline in his learners. Whenever his/her authority is challenged,
he/she may have to resort to punishment. Punishment would then be justified in the
following ways:
i) As a means of restoring the position which existed before the offence took place.
ii) To prevent a repetition of the offence.
iii) To restore the teacher’s lost authority as a result of the learner’s disobedience.
iv) To cause the learner to learn something i.e. obedience or learning the content as
a result of punishment.

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 Philosophical Justification of School Punishment
i) Utilitarian theory: according to this theory, punishment is justified if it
excludes a greater evil to the individual or society. In this case, punishment is not an
end in itself. It is viewed as a means to a greater good. As such, it is aimed at producing
good results, fame of the school etc. although punishment may look unpleasant,
involving pain and humiliation; this is temporary compared to the good which it is
likely to produce. This theory allows for pressure to be exerted on both the good (non
offenders) and the offenders alike as long as good results can be obtained.
ii) Retributive theory: it holds that wrong doing is blameworthy and that
some forms of wrong doing should n..mm,mot only be blamed but that blame should
be expressed through that infliction of pain. In this case, to punish is to repay (restitute)
the wrong done. It holds that an individual should suffer for his mistake/offence. This
view assumes that man is generally free and responsible for his actions. As such, one
can be rationally and logically held responsible for wrongdoing. Punishment serves as
a moral disapproval.

a. Retributive punishment should not be mistaken with revenge. Such confusion

usually unleashes terror and violence upon the offender unproportionally.

b. The Retributionist hopes that punishment makes the offender feel, through his/her
suffering, the society’s vehement condemnation of his irresponsible act. It is also
hoped that through this, the offender may feel condemned, accept the punishment as
just, condemn him in sorrow, repent and start on a voluntary enterprise of self reform.

Criticism of the retributive theory

It may lead to communication breakdown between the offender and the person
administering punishment i.e. when the offender feels that it is a personal attack or
revenge by the punisher. This is often the case where no explanations are given before
or after the act of punishment. It is impossible to inflict pain that is proportional to the
offence. The suffering of the injured party cannot be given back to the offender in the
same measure. The offender may cultivate resentment. In place of the expected sorrow
and repentance, one may reserve anger and repetition. This theory therefore overlooks
reassuring and prudence. The offender may have wronged by mistake or ignorance.

iii)Deterrent theory: deterrent punishment aims at influencing people by some sort of

fear so that they will not do/repeat the wrong. The theory holds that: inflict pain on or
after the occasion of wrong doing. This will tend to condition the offender towards the
avoidance of the offence in future. Deterrent punishment is necessary in schools if
social order is to be maintained because:
o It deters others from breaking rules.
o It prevents others from a greater evil.
o It reforms the culprit eliciting better behaviour.

It is utilitarian because it aims at correction as well as bringing about a good life.

However, only those who have willingly/voluntarily wronged should be punished. But

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 those who genuinely committed offences out of ignorance should be treated otherwise.
Deterrent punishment should aim at the understanding of the offender concerning the
offence i.e. society’s approval and the urgent need to reform. It is a form of
conditioning. In order to be administered effectively, the teacher should understand its
effectiveness in application to different personality types.

h. Discipline
The term discipline originates from the Latin ‘discere’ meaning to learn or to conform
to specific order. The concept of discipline in education may be defined as a
relationship of submission or obedience to some sort of order. Discipline implies three
distinctive meanings:
The imposing by some persons on others of restraints backed by sanctions of
some kind. Here, it refers to external control of a person’s restraint.
It may mean self-discipline that consists of exercising one’s freedom of choice
in which case one must be reasonably free from external restraint.
It may mean the discipline that is freely accepted when one decides to put
oneself under an order of some kind i.e. the order of religion or morality of an art or
the discipline of an academic subject. This advocates for liberty and f

II. Aesthetics and Education

DEFINITION OF AESTHETICS
The term Aesthetics is derived from Greek word Aisthanesthai which means to
perceive. It points to the relationships that human senses (visual, Tactile, olfactory,
taste and auditory senses) build when they grasp nature or art. It is the sum total of
feelings aroused by the sensual experiences, the character of the experience of the
things themselves and the subjective judgment of desirability related with perceiving
physical entities or actions. Desirability condition of Aesthetics is pegged on
empiricism, and as such it be can be re-defined as the Philosophical study of Beauty.

CRITERIA FOR BEAUTY

I. Platonian threefold criteria: Plato posits a tripartite criteria for beauty;
Proportion, Harmony and Unity.
a. Mathematical Proportionality as a determinant of Beauty: What is beautiful is thus
mathematically proportional in its constituent elements. The bigger the difference in
ratios the uglier an entity, the smaller the ratio equivalence the more beautiful an entity.
b. Harmony as a determinant of Beauty: In regards to harmony, the different parts of an
entity must necessarily function together for that entity to be perceived as beautiful.
The Platonian concept of harmony is based on co-relationality and co-functionality of
the parts in a whole.
c. Unity as a determinant of Beauty: The concept of unity infers the oneness of beauty.
Whatever is beautiful is such that it is not disjointed and disintegrated but possess unity
as a transcendental property.
II. Beauty according to Aristotle: According to Aristotle beauty is Order, Symmetry
and 'Determinateness'.
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a. Order as premise of Beauty: Order of things that exist according to Aristotle's supreme
genera includes Quantity, Quality, Place, Time Relation, condition, Action,
receptivity, position and substance. The supreme genera in which Aristotle ordered
reality is a significant criteria for determining what is beautifully because then
everything should be placed or conceived to be placed in its correct category. For
instance ugliness implies confusing time with space, or a thing X being located in a
wrong place or at a wrong time, What is beautiful is beautiful therefore that which is
in its right place and being present there at the right time with the right condition,
performing the correct action.

b. Symmetry as a premise of Beauty: Aristotle envisions two aspects of symmetry as a

foundation of Beauty: The mathematical symmetry and the ontological symmetry.
From mathematical perspective, Aristotle considers the circle to be the most perfect
form; the heavenly bodies must therefore all orbit the earth in perfect, circular uniform
motion. The symmetry of circularity is determined by the equivalence of the
semicircles which must of necessity be equal or appear to be equal to each other. The
central line or diameter in Aristotelian circle is therefore a determinant factor in
beauty. Further the beauty of a circle is based on its continuity. It has neither beginning
nor end and so is beauty. From ontological perspective, Act and potency determine the
beauty of a an entity in that the being-ness of any entity is a circularity between
transitions from act to potency and from potency to act .
c. Determinateness as Premise of Beauty: The concept of determinateness as a criterion
of aesthetics is premised on the nature of the relation between Genus and Species.
Genus and differentia are best viewed in terms of determinable and determinate yet a
determinate is neither a conjunction of its determinable. Neither is it something else
distinct from its determinable. The beauty of an entity is thus the associative relation
between the Genus and the species of entities which are commutatively the
determinate and the determinable.

AESTHETICS IN EDUCATION
a. Curriculum content that promotes beauty: An aesthetical curriculum lays emphasis
on knowing by perceiving. Beauty is perceived first as an empirical predicate then
assessed as a mental object. As such curriculum would not miss content in the physical
sciences which are simply an expression of the beauty of the natural world. It should
also include cosmetics, and creative arts and crafts to sooth the visual percept,
performing arts and music as extensions of langue to entertain the acoustic percept,
Domestic and catering sciences to evoke the power of taste. Thigmo sciences and arts
like acupressure, acupuncture, massage and spa to activate the power of the touch.
Children at their earlier years need to be exposed to adequate play, and the older ones
and adults to sports and physical fitness to sensitize the senses otherwise beauty
curriculum can either be boring or can lead to addiction.

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b. Method of delivery of an aesthetic curriculum. Apart from content itself, the way in
which content is delivered can either be aesthetic or otherwise. A teacher is good not
by how much he knows but buy how he delivers what he knows. A good delivery
involves using diverse and creative approaches; monotony leads to aesthetic lethargy
and disinterest in learning. Tonal variations for instance are not just used in music
festivals but also in a class room delivery. An aesthetic teacher pats his student on the
back, greets them, and maintains respectful physical contact with the learners.
Teaching aids should appeal to most or all the five senses and should have aspects of
proportionality.

c. Learning Environment: Learning environment is a space specifically set aside for

the specific reason of learning and instruction. Its comportment, structure, content and
divisions affect the learning process. It is directly an aesthetical space and being so it
influences the efficacy of learning through the perception the learners attribute to it.
In Educational set up for instance an ugly classroom might be one in which there is
disproportionate arrangement of lockers and chairs let's say absence of rows, or most
of the chairs being heaped on one side while leaving an empty unused space. It can
also be a dirty and disorderly learning environment activates a feeling of disgust.The
stronger the feeling of disgust the more the concentration on resolving the disgust than
on learning.

d. Grooming for Educational ends: A teacher or a learner worse dress code is ugly
would be considered as one whose ratio of clothes do not match, or whose colors are
not harmonious with each other. A neatly clad teacher or learner exudes confidence,
which is necessary for effective learning. Indecent dress codes are not just unethical
but also unaesthetic because they invoke both conceptive and perceptive disgust.

EDUCATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: CREATIVE DIMENSION

OF EDUCATION (PROGRESSIVISM-JOHN DEWEY)
Introduction
Human beings are unique. They are more than a material object at the mercy of
physical chemical forces and more than a sensitive animal controlled by biological
laws. He/she transcends the view that one is a mere product of society or an outcome
of political, economic forces. The human person is endowed with ability to be actively
involved in the world and be able to control in a limited manner his own destiny or
life.

The four elements

Basically, the human person comprises of four elements:
1. Ability to think -Cognition
2. Ability to will -Volition
3. Ability to act-Creation
4. Ability to relate -Socialization

In the process of education, the child is considered to be a having the aptitude of

developing into a more complete human being. Education thus serves the purpose of

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humanizing; bringing the child into a complete human being. It aims at influencing the
child to come of age, to reach adulthood. The task of education in this case is two-fold:

Bi-partite role of Education in humanization

(i) The individualization of man:
This involves a process of humanization where limitations/ inhibitions to his/her
potential are deliberately removed or minimized. This is done by:
1. Inculcating rationality in the learner to foster critical thinking ability to
comprehend, justify and appropriately apply acquired knowledge.(Cognition
and volition)
2. Transmission of morality and ethics to enable the child attain moral judgment
and moral behavior.(Socialization and volition)
3. Inculcating skills and know-how (occupational capacities).(Creation and
volition)

(ii) The socialization of man

Genuine humanization should enhance the social dimension of man where one is able
to mutually interact with others and co-exist with them. By inference, we find the four
dimensions of education namely; cognitive, normative, creative and dialogical. Each
of these dimensions deserves attention in the process of education in order to realize
genuine education. In the final analysis, we may define education normatively as the
‘inter subjective process of learning to be a self-reliant person in society’.

Education and Human Creativity

1. Creativity: Creativity is the capacity or ability of an individual to create, discover
or produce a new or novel idea or object including the rearrangement or reshaping
of what is already known to him which proves to be a unique personal experience.

2. Creativity in Education: In education, creativity refers to those aspects of

education geared towards the development of an individual’s potential. As a
dimension of education, it gained prominence with the rise of progressive
movement in educational thinking.

3. Dewey: The progressive movement arose from John Dewey’s educational ideas.
He advocated for the child to be allowed to grow in a natural way: not just
physically but also mentally.

4. Teachers: There should be no direct interference with this natural process:

teachers and educators should play the role of a ‘gardener’ providing the right
environment that stimulates the growth.

5. Influence: His ideas were influenced by earlier philosophies of Froebel (school =

kindergarten) and Rousseau (educating Emile).

6. Traditional Educational: Dewey advocated for a revolution in theory and

practice of education. Dewey opposed the traditional authoritarian approach to
education which regarded the teacher as the sole authority in the classroom.
Traditional approach forced pupils to abide by a rigid system of rules and

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 regulations for purposes of discipline and character formation. In addition, it gave
prominence to content of learning where learners were expected to assimilate
learning content in the given form. According to Dewey, this traditional approach
violated the psychology of the child as well as the wide idea of democracy.

7. Progressive/Deweyan Education (Growth, Experience)

Aim of Education: Helping a child to develop mentally, physically, socially and
emotionally

Experience: He advocated the view that true education can only be found in
ordinary experience as the individual interacts with his environment. In this case,
children can best effectively learn by exploring the environment through inquiry
and testing one’s ideas.

Growth: Dewey equated education to the process of growth whereby, an individual

should learn independently through experience to adjust to life.

Heuristics: He advocated for child-centered education. This education entails a

shift from content-centered and teacher-centered traditional approaches.

Operational zing Creativity in Education

In order to ensure the component of creativity in education, several aspects
need attention. These include:
1. Child centered approach to education.
2. Learning environment should be warm and encouraging – free from
intimidation/ coercion etc.
3. Learner uniqueness ought to be appreciated. Individual differences should be
addressed in teaching and learning.
4. Teachers should display care and concern towards learners – show
understanding
5. Dialogue should be the routine in educational communication.
6. Teachers should fully grasp the essence of the process of knowledge
production and dissemination/transmission to learners.
7. Usually, knowledge tends to be produced/manufactured outside the classroom.
It’s not only contained in textbooks. Therefore learners should feel that they
too could produce knowledge and know it at the same time.
8. Teaching methodology should involve problematization of content towards
which both teacher and learner approximate by way of seeking for answers –
task oriented learning.
9. Content presentation should not be portrayed as though the content is final.
Teachers should endeavor to relearn the content while learners learn the
content the first time.
10. The teacher should encounter the learner as equals in this shared humanity.
The learner may look delicate, ignorant etc, but the focus should be on what
the learner is becoming- Identify learner’s strengths and weaknesses and be
able to advice them appropriately in terms of careers, talents etc.

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 11. The teachers’ role is to guide, train and elicits the inner capacities that often lie
dormant/idle.

The importance of creativity in education

1. To develop individuality.
2. It is an educational approach that is directed at personal growth and
personal liberalization from limiting circumstances of life.
3. Reflection and action, inherent in creativity is bound to produce a human
response that is adequate and adaptive to the reality of a situation.
4. Human beings are usually actors, producers, creators and workers. An
approach which seeks to equip them appropriately is welcome.
5. It tends to promote critical thinking and activity oriented learning process.
6. It enhances the independence of mind, thought and action leading to
autonomy.
7. Allows for the exploration of self in connection with inherent potentialities.
8. It helps the learner to realize that he/she is a task/project, - not yet complete
– open ended being who can transform himself as he reconstructs the
environment.
9. It promotes self esteem, self expression, self determination, self reliance etc.

EDUCATION AND HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS

The term consciousness is derived from the Latin verb ‘consicite’ where sicite means
to know. It is an activity of the mind which involves awareness, feeling, perception
and knowledge. In essence, consciousness involves two aspects:

1. The subject person who knowing.

2. The object being known.

Being conscious always implies being aware of something. When one is conscious of
something, they direct their intellectual/mental attention to either something outside
themselves; to the subject of their attention or to themselves introspectively i.e. in this
process, one makes themselves actively present to it. They come into contact with it.

Levels of Consciousness
There are four levels of consciousness:
(i) Empirical consciousness
This is the lowest level of awareness where man experiences things empirically
through senses. This level of consciousness is also shared with animals, even plants
that may be said to be conscious of the environment. It is also a level of pre-
reflection common to children.
(ii)Intellectual consciousness
This is the second stage of consciousness. It is a stage of concept formation where
the mind develops ability to identify things, to name them. It is a stage of
construction as opposed to concrete awareness. Concepts like table, chair etc begin
to form in the mind.
(iii)Rational consciousness

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 Here the process of reasoning begins. An individual begins to make judgements
based on values/norms of society. Conformity to societal norms sets in.
(iv)Responsible consciousness
The level is also called critical consciousness. It involves the ability to make
judgement about the world (phenomena) and react to it in critical turmoil. Critical
reflection involves questioning the norms, routine of things. It transcends the
known strives to bring novelty, new approaches to doing things. Each stage of
consciousness is essential for every individual. In teaching/learning environment,
it is important to develop all the four stages/levels of awareness. The ultimate aim
of education ought to be attainment of responsible conscious news. Where an
individual attains this level, one discovers that they are limited in many ways; that
there exist inhibitions along one’s development.
III. DIALOGICAL DIMENSION OF EDUCATION: EDUCATION AS A
SOCIAL PHENOMENON
1. The term dialogue is derived from the Greek words ‘dia’ and ‘logos’ meaning
communication or speaking words between two or more people. It is a moment where
humans meet to reflect on their reality as they make and remake it.
2. Education as a dialogue proposes a middle-ground approach between the traditional
approach and the progressive approach to education. It attempts to bridge the gap
between transmission and socialization, prevalent in traditional view and liberation
and individualization emphasized by Progressivists. Proponents of dialogue observe
that both views fail to address the basic meaning of human existence which is co-
existence.
3. This means that there should be no polarity between the individual and the society
rather, both the society and the individual need to be catered for in education.
4. Education ought to develop knowledge and understanding in ways that are consistent
with the society’s values as well as the development of one’s personality; individual.
5. Dialogue entails mutual agreement, mutual respect and understanding between
individual and society. It encourages the process of speaking to each other. The
teacher (representing society) and the learner ought to be involved in dialogue during
their activities.
6. The basis of the teacher learner relationship ought to be realization that the learner is
a human being who has a right to exist and to express himself/herself.
7. Dialogue requires the teacher and the learner to encounter each other as equals, each
of them playing an essential role as far as education is concerned. Based on this
equality, education should be seen as a process of communication.

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8. This aspect rules out methods and procedures of monologue which destroy the
realization of a fulfilling education. Monologue constitutes an assault on the
consciousness of the other, rendering it silent, passive etc.
9. Dialogue makes education to be inter-subjective: a process involving encounter,
participation.
10. Education as dialogue rules out authoritarian approaches by the teacher i.e. force and
corporal punishment. Such measures make students to be docile and submissive.

11. It also rules out the eleviation of the learner above the teacher as advocated by the
progressive movement. This is because doing so reduces the educating environment
into a chaotic atmosphere. The teacher should not abdicate his position as an adult,
but should exercise his/her role with care and concern, be humane to the learners.
12. This will motivate them to seek after, to explore and inquire into knowledge under
the caring guidance of the teacher. Essentially, dialogue is a democratic
communication. It affirms the freedom of the participants to make and remake their
culture in many ways.
13. Dialogue puts the object to be known between the two subjects of knowing. They
meet around it and through it for mutual inquiry.
14. The educator/teacher normally has prior contact with the object to be known. It is he
who presents it to the class for learners to discuss. However, the teacher’s prior
knowledge of the object does not mean that he/she has exhausted all dimensions of
the object.
15. It is required that the teacher relearns to avoid transferring knowledge statically as a
fixed possession of the teacher; dialogue demands a dynamic approximation towards
the object.
16. Dialogue does not mean that everyone in class must say something even if they have
nothing to say. It only sustains a level of freedom for any learner who may want to
say something.
17. Dialogue requires that the starting point of learning be ordinary experiences of
reality.
18. There should be no dichotomy between reality and the content of study.
Conceptualize knowledge as much as possible.

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 19. Teaching should be conversational; moderate your voice accordingly.
20. Making learning task oriented – problem based.
21. Teacher must be able to grasp the learner’s entry behaviour in terms of their critical
level of cognition, literacy and vocabulary, political and social ideas they possess.
22. The words used ought to be familiar – clarity of words will result into clarity of
thought hence effective communication.
Emphasis
Role of teacher
Role of learner
Methods of instruction

EDF 211-LESSON TWELVE

12.0. LEARNING FOR THE 21ST CENTURY AND BEYOND

(A) GENERAL OUTLOOK
Excerpts from a report from a new public-private coalition known as the Partnership
for 21st Century Skills articulates a vision of how schools can best prepare students to
succeed in the first decades of the 21st century. Central to the report's
recommendations is a call for schools to focus on six key elements of 21st century
learning:

1. Core Subjects: The importance of the core subjects identified in any education
system. The challenge here is for schools and policymakers to expand their focus
beyond "basic competency" to understanding the core academic content at much higher
levels.
2. Learning Skills: They need to know how to use their knowledge and skills-by
thinking critically, applying knowledge to new situations, analyzing information,
comprehending new ideas, communicating, collaborating, solving problems, and
making decisions."
3. 21st Century Tools: Recognizing that "technology is, and will continue to be, a
driving force in workplaces, communities, and personal lives in the 21st century,"
Emphasis should be on the importance of incorporating information and
communication technologies into education from the elementary grades upwards.
4. 21st Century Context: should cover experiences that are relevant to students' lives,
connected with the world beyond the classroom, and based on authentic projects.
5. 21st Century Content: The report's authors believe that certain content essential for
preparing students to live and work in a 21st century world is missing from many state
and local standards (elaborated later here).
6. New Assessments that Measure 21st Century Skills: today’s assessment remains
an emerging and challenging field that demands further study and innovation.
Recommendations include moving beyond standardized testing as the sole measure of
student learning; balancing traditional tests with classroom assessments to measure the

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full range of students' skills; and using technology-based assessments to deliver
immediate feedback.

(B). 21ST CENTURY LEARNING SKILLS AND ICT LITERACY

(a) Information and communication technology literacy
 Thinking and problem-solving skills
 Critical thinking and systems thinking
 Problem identification, formulation, and solution
 Creativity and intellectual curiosity
Using problem-solving tools (such as spreadsheets, decision support, and design
tools) to manage complexity, solve problems, and think critically, creatively, and
systematically.
(b) Information and communication skills
 Information and media literacy skills
 Communication skills
Using communication, information processing, and research tools (such as word
processing, e-mail, groupware, presentation software, and the Internet) to access,
manage, integrate, evaluate, create, and communicate information.
(c) Interpersonal and self-direction skills
 Interpersonal and collaborative skills
 Self-direction
 Accountability and adaptability
 Social responsibility
Using personal development and productivity tools (such as e-learning, time
managers, and collaboration tools) to enhance productivity and personal
development.

C. 21ST CENTURY CONTENT

(i) Global awareness
 Using 21st century skills to understand and address global issues
 Learning from and working collaboratively with individuals representing
diverse cultures, religions, and lifestyles in a spirit of mutual respect and open
dialogue in personal, work, and community contexts
 Promoting the study of languages other than English as a tool for understanding
other nations and cultures
(ii) Financial, economic, and business literacy
 Knowing how to make appropriate personal economic choices
 Understanding the role of the economy and the role of business in the economy
 Applying appropriate 21st century skills to function as a productive contributor
within an organizational setting
 Integrating oneself within and adapting continually to our nation's evolving
economic and business environment
(iii) Civic literacy
 Being an informed citizen to participate effectively in government
 Exercising the rights and obligations of citizenship at local, state, national, and
global levels
 Understanding the local and global implications of civic decisions
 Applying 21st century skills to make intelligent choices as a citizen

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 (D) LIFELONG LEARNING IN THE 21ST CENTURY AND BEYOND
Lifelong learning is now recognized by educators, governing bodies, accreditation
organizations, certification boards, employers, third-party payers, and the general
public as one of the most important competencies that people must possess.
Promoting lifelong learning as continuous, collaborative, self-directed, active,
broad in domain, everlasting, positive and fulfilling, and applicable to one’s
profession as well as all aspects of one’s life has emerged as a major global
educational challenge. Meeting this challenge will require changes in the way
teachers teach and learners learn, as teachers take on a more facilitative role and
learners take more responsibility for setting goals, identifying resources for
learning, and reflecting on and evaluating their learning. Malcolm S. Knowles, is
the “father of adult learning”.
Lifelong Learning: A Definition
defined lifelong learning as “a continuously supportive process which stimulates
and empowers individuals...to acquire all the knowledge, values, skills and
understanding they will require throughout their lifetimes...and to apply them with
confidence, creativity, and enjoyment in all roles, circumstances, and
environments.”
This definition emphasizes lifelong learning as (a) continuous (it never stops); (b)
supportive (it isn’t done alone); (c) stimulating and empowering (it’s self-directed
and active, not passive); (d) incorporating knowledge, values, skills, and
understanding (it’s more than what we know); (e) spanning a lifetime (it happens
from our first breath to our last); (f) applied (it’s not just for knowledge’s sake); (g)
incorporating confidence, creativity, and enjoyment (it’s a positive, fulfilling
experience); and (h) inclusive of all roles, circumstances, and environments (it
applies not only to our chosen profession, but to our entire life) (4).
Lifelong Learning and Traditional Learning
a. Lifelong learning is more than adult education, which often is restricted to
providing people with opportunities to engage in (school-like) learning
activities during their adult life.
b. The challenge for lifelong learning is to fundamentally rethink learning,
teaching, and education for the information age in an attempt to change
mind-sets.
c. Lifelong learning involves and engages learners of all ages in acquiring and
applying knowledge and skills in the context of authentic, self-directed
problems.
d. By integrating working and learning, people learn within the context of their
work on real-world problems.
e. The learner’s involvement in goals setting is a prerequisite to motivated and
self-regulated learning. Goal setting implies the personal commitment of
the learner and is an integral part of learning in life.
f. In traditional learning, the goals are fixed and predetermined, providing
students with little or no chance of involvement.
g. Traditional learning tends to motivate by extrinsic rewards, such as praise
from the teacher or others, grades, or financial compensation. As a result,

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 students can develop a dependency on praise, leading to feelings of
insecurity and non-development of task motivation.
h. Learning flows from a variety of activities, for example, observing how
other people do something, discussing with others, asking someone, looking
up information, trying something for oneself and learning from trial and
error, and reflecting on all the previous activities. The mental activities
involved in learning may be divided into four categories: (a) social
interaction, (b) processing verbal and other symbolic information, (c) direct
experience, and (d) reflection.
i. In real life, learners decide on the type of activities in which to engage, often
with input from others, but the final responsibility is with the learner.

j. In traditional learning, most of the regulating is done by the teacher and

educational system. This makes learning look like a neat, step-by-step
procedure, from the beginning of the book to the end, from the start of the
program to the examination. Learning processes in real life are much less
predictable and straightforward.

Traits and Skills of Lifelong Learners

Lifelong learning is largely self-directed learning, “a process in which learners take
the initiative, with the support and collaboration of others; for increasing self- and
social awareness; critically analyzing and reflecting on their situations; diagnosing
their learning needs with specific reference to competencies they have helped identify;
formulating socially and personally relevant learning goals; identifying human and
material resources for learning; choosing and implementing appropriate learning
strategies; and reflecting on and evaluating their learning.” Steps to lifelong learning
can be articulated as:
(a) reflection,
(b) setting goals,
(c) assessing knowledge and skills,
(d) creating a learning plan,
(e) putting the plan into action, and
(f) evaluating and refocusing...
An individual’s learning potential and the development from novice to expert depend
on:
a. The development of expertise in learning to learn (knowing what and how to
learn),
b. Having access to a relevant knowledge base to build on, and
c. Being motivated to learn.
Barriers to Lifelong Learning
Certain obvious issues, such as lack of motivation, time, and adequate resources, can
interfere with an individual’s success as an independent adult learner. In addition,
more subtle problems, such as a lack of awareness of knowledge deficit, personal

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reluctance to change, ambivalence (indecisiveness), and group mentality, can also be
significant barriers to positive educational change.
Promoting lifelong learning as continuous, collaborative, self-directed, active, broad
in domain, everlasting, positive and fulfilling, and applicable to one’s profession as
well as all aspects of one’s life has emerged as a major global educational challenge.
Meeting this challenge will require changes in the way teachers teach and learners
learn, as teachers take on a more facilitative role and learners take more responsibility
for setting goals, identifying resources for learning, and reflecting on and evaluating
their learning.

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