The Terrestrial Planets

The terrestrial planets are quite different from the giants. In addition to being much smaller, they are
composed primarily of rocks and metals. These, in turn, are made of elements that are less common
in the universe as a whole. The most abundant rocks, called silicates, are made of silicon and oxygen,
and the most common metal is iron. We can tell from their densities that Mercury has the greatest
proportion of metals (which are denser) and the Moon has the lowest. Earth, Venus, and Mars all
have roughly similar bulk compositions: about one third of their mass consists of iron-nickel or iron-
sulfur combinations; two thirds is made of silicates. Because these planets are largely composed of
oxygen compounds (such as the silicate minerals of their crusts), their chemistry is said to be oxidized.

When we look at the internal structure of each of the terrestrial planets, we find that the densest
metals are in a central core, with the lighter silicates near the surface. If these planets were liquid, like
the giant planets, we could understand this effect as the result the sinking of heavier elements due to
the pull of gravity. This leads us to conclude that, although the terrestrial planets are solid today, at
one time they must have been hot enough to melt.

Differentiation is the process by which gravity helps separate a planet’s interior into layers of different
compositions and densities. The heavier metals sink to form a core, while the lightest minerals float to
the surface to form a crust. Later, when the planet cools, this layered structure is preserved. In order
for a rocky planet to differentiate, it must be heated to the melting point of rocks, which is typically
more than 1,800 F.

Q. Which of the following can be inferred about the past temperatures of terrestrial planets?

a. At a point, their temperatures were at least 1,800 F or higher

b. At a point, their temperatures were below 1,800 F

c. Their temperatures currently range a great deal

d. Their temperatures have remained the same throughout time

. Question
Plate Tectonics

Geology is the study of Earth’s crust and the processes that have shaped its surface throughout
history. Heat escaping from the interior provides energy for the formation of our planet’s mountains,
valleys, volcanoes, and even the continents and ocean basins themselves. But not until the middle of
the twentieth century did geologists succeed in understanding just how these landforms are created.

Plate tectonics is a theory that explains how slow motions within the mantle of Earth move large
segments of the crust, resulting in a gradual “drifting” of the continents as well as the formation of
mountains and other large-scale geological features. Plate tectonics is a concept as basic to geology as
evolution by natural selection is to biology or gravity is to understanding the orbits of planets. Looking
at it from a different perspective, plate tectonics is a mechanism for Earth to transport heat efficiently
from the interior, where it has accumulated, out to space. It is a cooling system for the planet. All
planets develop a heat transfer process as they evolve; mechanisms may differ from that on Earth as a
result of chemical makeup and other constraints.

Q. What can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the state of the Earth without plate tectonics?

a. The Earth would become very cold

b. The Earth would explode

c. The Earth would overheat and be uninhabitable

d. The Earth would remain the same size and not evolve
Question

Calorimetry

One technique we can use to measure the amount of heat involved in a chemical or physical process is
known as calorimetry. Calorimetry is used to measure amounts of heat transferred to or from a
substance. To do so, the heat is exchanged with a calibrated object (calorimeter). The temperature
change measured by the calorimeter is used to derive the amount of heat transferred by the process
under study. The measurement of heat transfer using this approach requires the definition of a
system (the substance or substances undergoing the chemical or physical change) and its surroundings
(the other components of the measurement apparatus that serve to either provide heat to the system
or absorb heat from the system). Knowledge of the heat capacity of the surroundings, and careful
measurements of the masses of the system and surroundings and their temperatures before and after
the process allows one to calculate the heat transferred.

A calorimeter is a device used to measure the amount of heat involved in a chemical or physical
process. For example, when an exothermic reaction occurs in solution in a calorimeter, the heat
produced by the reaction is absorbed by the solution, which increases its temperature. When an
endothermic reaction occurs, the heat required is absorbed from the thermal energy of the solution,
which decreases its temperature. The temperature change, along with the specific heat and mass of
the solution, can then be used to calculate the amount of heat involved in either case.

Q. Paragraph 1 suggests that calorimetry …

a. Calorimetry measures the heat of all objects

b. It can only be used to measure the amount of heat in a chemical process

c. There is more than one way to measure the amount of heat in a chemical or physical process

d. The heat is exchanged with a calorimeter

Dorothy Hodgkin

Because the wavelengths of X-rays (10-10,000 picometers [pm]) are comparable to the size of atoms,
X-rays can be used to determine the structure of molecules. When a beam of X-rays is passed through
molecules packed together in a crystal, the X-rays collide with the electrons and scatter. Constructive
and destructive interference of these scattered X-rays creates a specific diffraction pattern. Calculating
backward from this pattern, the positions of each of the atoms in the molecule can be determined
very precisely. One of the pioneers who helped create this technology was Dorothy Crowfoot
Hodgkin.

She was born in Cairo, Egypt, in 1910, where her British parents were studying archeology. Even as a
young girl, she was fascinated with minerals and crystals. When she was a student at Oxford
University, she began researching how X-ray crystallography could be used to determine the structure
of biomolecules. She invented new techniques that allowed her and her students to determine the
structures of vitamin B12, penicillin, and many other important molecules. Diabetes, a disease that
affects 382 million people worldwide, involves the hormone insulin. Hodgkin began studying the
structure of insulin in 1934, but it required several decades of advances in the field before she finally
reported the structure in 1969. Understanding the structure has led to better understanding of the
disease and treatment options.

Q. What can be inferred about Dorothy Hodgkin and her discovery of this technology?

a. She discovered it because her parents were archaeologists

b. She created the treatment for diabetes based on her study of insulin

c. It took her a decade to report on the structure of insulin

d. She and her research are indirectly responsible for various forms of treatment for multiple diseases
. Question

During long space missions, astronauts can lose approximately 1 to 2 percent of their bone mass per
month. This loss of bone mass is thought to be caused by the lack of mechanical stress on astronauts’
bones due to the low gravitational forces in space. Lack of mechanical stress causes bones to lose
mineral salts and collagen fibers, and thus strength. Similarly, mechanical stress stimulates the
deposition of mineral salts and collagen fibers. The internal and external structure of a bone will
change as stress increases or decreases so that the bone is an ideal size and weight for the amount of
activity it endures. That is why people who exercise regularly have thicker bones than people who are
more sedentary. It is also why a broken bone in a cast atrophies while its contralateral mate maintains
its concentration of mineral salts and collagen fibers. The bones undergo remodeling as a result of
forces (or lack of forces) placed on them.

Q. Which of the following can be inferred from this passage?

a. Decreased physical activity results in thinner, weaker bones

b. Astronauts are weaker than other people

c. Mechanical stress weakens human bones

d. Broken bones maintain their strength and mass

Question

A Stroke

The common name for a disruption of blood supply to the brain is a stroke. It is caused by a blockage
to an artery in the brain. The blockage is from some type of embolus: a blood clot, a fat embolus, or
an air bubble. When the blood cannot travel through the artery, the surrounding tissue that is
deprived starves and dies. Strokes will often result in the loss of very specific functions. A stroke in the
lateral medulla, for example, can cause a loss in the ability to swallow. Sometimes, seemingly
unrelated functions will be lost because they are dependent on structures in the same region. Along
with the swallowing in the previous example, a stroke in that region could affect sensory functions
from the face or extremities because important white matter pathways also pass through the lateral
medulla. Loss of blood flow to specific regions of the cortex can lead to the loss of specific higher
functions, from the ability to recognize faces to the ability to move a particular region of the body.
Severe or limited memory loss can be the result of a temporal lobe stroke.

Q. What can be inferred about strokes from this passage?

a. Strokes are caused by a surge of blood to one area

b. Strokes can only result in the loss of a single bodily function

c. The bodily functions affected are determined by where the stroke occurs

d. All strokes result in the same loss of functions

Question

Hearing Loss

Deafness is the partial or complete inability to hear. Some people are born deaf, which is known as
congenital deafness. Many others begin to suffer from conductive hearing loss because of age, genetic
predisposition, or environmental effects, including exposure to extreme noise (noise-induced hearing
loss), certain illnesses (such as measles or mumps), or damage due to toxins (such as those found in
certain solvents and metals).

Given the mechanical nature by which the sound wave stimulus is transmitted from the eardrum
through the ossicles to the oval window of the cochlea, some degree of hearing loss is inevitable. With
conductive hearing loss, hearing problems are associated with a failure in the vibration of the
eardrum and/or movement of the ossicles. These problems are often dealt with through devices like
hearing aids that amplify incoming sound waves to make vibration of the eardrum and movement of
the ossicles more likely to occur.

When the hearing problem is associated with a failure to transmit neural signals from the cochlea to
the brain, it is called sensorineural hearing loss. One disease that results in sensorineural hearing loss
is Ménière’s disease. Although not well understood, Ménière’s disease results in a degeneration of
inner ear structures that can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus (constant ringing or buzzing), vertigo (a
sense of spinning), and an increase in pressure within the inner ear. This kind of loss cannot be treated
with hearing aids, but some individuals might be candidates for a cochlear implant as a treatment
option. Cochlear implants are electronic devices that consist of a microphone, a speech processor, and
an electrode array. The device receives incoming sound information and directly stimulates the
auditory nerve to transmit information to the brain.

Q. What can be inferred about Ménière’s disease from paragraph 3?

a. It is a disease that has not been studied extensively

b. It is a common disease that many people suffer from

c. There are no treatments available

d. Its only symptom is hearing loss

Question

Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory (LTM) is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term memory, the
storage capacity of LTM has no limits. It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened
more than just a few minutes ago to all of the things that you can remember that happened days,
weeks, and years ago. In keeping with the computer analogy, the information in your LTM would be
like the information you have saved on the hard drive. It isn’t there on your desktop (your short-term
memory), but you can pull up this information when you want it, at least most of the time. Not all
long- term memories are strong memories. Some memories can only be recalled through prompts. For
example, you might easily recall a fact— “What is the capital of the United States?”—or a procedure
—“How do you ride a bike?”—but you might struggle to recall the name of the restaurant you had
dinner at when you were on vacation in France last summer. A prompt, such as that the restaurant
was named after its owner, who spoke to you about your shared interest in soccer, may help you
recall the name of the restaurant.

Long-term memory is divided into two types: explicit and implicit. Understanding the different types is
important because a person’s age or particular types of brain trauma or disorders can leave certain
types of LTM intact while having disastrous consequences for other types. Explicit memories are those
we consciously try to remember and recall. For example, if you are studying for your chemistry exam,
the material you are learning will be part of your explicit memory. Implicit memories are memories
that are not part of our consciousness. They are memories formed from behaviors. Implicit memory is
also called non-declarative memory.

Q. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about explicit memories?

a. They are easier to remember than implicit memories

b. They are all eventually forgotten as we age or experience trauma

c. They are formed subconsciously

d. They are more often affected by age and brain trauma than implicit memories

Hunter-Gatherer

Hunter-gatherer societies demonstrate the strongest dependence on the environment of the various
types of preindustrial societies. As the basic structure of human society until about 10,000–12,000
years ago, these groups were based around kinship or tribes. Hunter- gatherers relied on their
surroundings for survival—they hunted wild animals and foraged for uncultivated plants for food.
When resources became scarce, the group moved to a new area to find sustenance, meaning they
were nomadic. These societies were common until several hundred years ago, but today only a few
hundred remain in existence, such as indigenous Australian tribes sometimes referred to as
“aborigines,” or the Bambuti, a group of pygmy hunter-gatherers residing in the Democratic Republic
of Congo. Hunter-gatherer groups are quickly disappearing as the world’s population explodes.
1. What can be inferred about hunter-gatherers?

a. Their lifestyle is not sustainable as the population grows

b. There are no more of these societies in existence

c. The number of them continues to remain the same

d. They are more common today than several hundred years ago

Meritocracy

Meritocracy is another system of social stratification in which personal effort—or merit—determines

social standing. High levels of effort will lead to a high social position, and vice versa. The concept of
meritocracy is an ideal—that is, a society has never existed where social rank was based purely on
merit. Because of the complex structure of societies, processes like socialization, and the realities of
economic systems, social standing is influenced by multiple factors, not merit alone. Inheritance and
pressure to conform to norms, for instance, disrupt the notion of a pure meritocracy. Sociologists see
aspects of meritocracies in modern societies when they study the role of academic performance and
job performance, and the systems in place for evaluating and rewarding achievement in these areas.

Q. This passage suggests that meritocracy is …

a. A very real possibility in the future

b. Very unlikely to solely govern society due to complex structures

c. Taking over modern societies as a system of social stratification

d. Not solely based on merit but other factors as well