4

YARNS Caic iMece. e

mapiua spl s'
Aex sp -

HIGHLIGHTS
Methods of yarn construction
Yarn number or count
Yarn twist
Types of yarn
Sewing thread
• Yarn defects

In the previous chapters we have learned about various kinds of natural and man-made fibres,
are then made into
their processing methods, properties, uses and care. Once processed, the fibres
yarns by using various kinds of spinning methods. There are various mechanical and chemical
yarn
methods of spinning, and they are chosen on the basis of the properties of the fibre. These
types of
construction methods, yarn properties such as yarn number and twist, and the various
yarns have been dealt with in detail in this chapter.

PROCESS OF YARN CONSTRUCTION

or
of fibres or filaments formed into continuous strand with without
a
A yarn is a linear assembly
twist, with high lexibility, reasonable amount of tensile strength and good tactile characteristics.
Based on the process of yarn-making and the kind of fibre used,
yarns can be of the following
types:

Spun yarns made of short-length fibres

be:
Filament yarns made from long continuous fibres. These could
or without twist
Multiflament: Composed of a number of filaments laid together with
Monofilament: Composed of a single Alament
Tape or nerwork yarns which are not made from conventional fibres but slit/split polymer
Glms
 92 Textile Science

Or unevenness by coupling of slivers from different origins. This is also a good stage for
has a series of rollcr
olending- Drawing or drafting is carricd out on draw frame which
a

every consecutive roller pair is

oating at ditercnt specds (Figure 4.2). The speed of the spccd brings about thinnine
greater than the roller sct preceding it. This difference in
six to ciph
drawing of the sliver at the first drvframe. Scveral card slivers (normally
are combind. As each set of successive rollers is moving faster than the preceding set of
rollers, the sliver becomcs thinner as it is drawn forward. The fnal
thickness of the drawn
sliver is usually cqual to a single card sliver.

of a draw frame
rigure 4.2: Diagrammatic representation
Drawing rollers

Slow Fast

Sliver cans

Drawn sliver

Source. Drawn by the authors.

6. Roving: The drawn sliver moves into the roving frame which thins down the sliver to
one-eighth of its original diameter and also gives it a slight twist. This makes the strand
a
longer, finer and frmer. It is now referred to as a 'roving. The slivers from the drawing
frame are fed into a 3x3 drafting zone. As in previous process, every consecutive roller pair
is moving faster than the roller set preceding it. The first set of rollers moves at a relatively
low speed, the middle one at intermediate speed and the final one at a speed ten times that
of the first set of rollers. This drafts out the sliver further reducing its diameter and also
brings about some parallelisation. The strand then reaches the flyer which is rotating at a
constant speed with the help of a spindle. Due to this, the length of the strand berween
che last set of rollers and the Ayer gets a small amount of rwist (Figure 4.3). The roving is
then wound onto the bobbin/package which is driven by an external motor. This roving
is then taken for ring spinning to convert it into the final yarn.
7. Ring pinning: Ring spinning is the process of conversion of roving into fnal yarn. The
roving travels through thrce zones in this process--first through the drafting zone, then
 93
Figure 4.3: Diagrammatic Representation of Roving

Draft rollers

Slight twist
inserted Sliver can

Source: Drawn by the authors.

Figure 4.4: Ring spinning

through the twisting zone and finally
through the winding zone. Drafting Drafting rollers
is carried out with the help of three
sets of rollers. These lead to further
drzving and thinning of the roving.
Thinned out roving then passes
through a lappet guide to a spinning
frame and is then guided towards Lappet guide
a
U-shaped guide known as the
traveller. The traveller moves frecly
around the bobbin in a circular way,
The zone between the lappet guide
and the traveller is called the twisting Ring with traveler
Zone and that between the traveller
and the bobbin is called the winding
zone. Finally,
the yarn is wound on
the bobbin (Figure Source: Drawn by the authors.
4.4).
 94 Texlle Science

Woollen Yarn Spinning System

The hrst
step in the manufacturc of woollen yarn
The diameter
of a fibre is measUred
IS to carcfully sort and grade the raw stock is one-fmilfionth of i
of wool microns (a micron
Ording to the quality, lcngth and diameter of the meter). Based
on their díarmeter,
a can fine (18-20 rnicrons).
hbre. At this stage, fbres are also cleancd using fibres be or
are then washed medium (21-24 microns) Coarse
machinc called duster. Thewool Gbres
process (>25 microns).
With wvarm soapy water and wcak alkali. This grease
1S known as scouring and
removes any traces of
the fibres. After washing, the
and perspiration from
dilute sulphuric
fibres are dried in hot air.
wool ibres is carried
out by dipping them in
of the seeds) while
Followigthis, carbonising any vegetable matter like secds and burrs (hooked
remove
acid. This is done to process. this process the Figure 4.5: Woollen yarn
burnt off during the At the end ofare under
dried spinning system
Cxcess acid is squeezed out
and the fbres
a the vegetable
carefully-controlled temperature. As result, shaken offby Sorting and grading
gets brittle and can be easily crushed and
matter are entangled and haphazardly
che rollers. Till this stage, fibres
up before spinning. This
placed, requiring to be straightened
fibres are passed between Scouring
is done chrough carding where the
These rollers disentangle
rollers having fine wire teeth.
other. Any dirt or foreign
fbres and lay them parallel to cach After carding, a
matter is also removed due to this action. before
Carbonising
called roving is carried out just
light twisting operation
slivers in place. In the
spinning. This action helps hold the
drawn out and twisted
spinning operation, the wool roving is process flow of Carding
together to make a yarn. Figure 4.5 gives the
che Woollen Yarn Spinning System.

Worsted Yarn Spinning System Roving

The process of manufacturing worsted yarn which is finer
and more durable as compared to woollen yarn involves three
additional steps gilling, drawing and combing after carding Spinning
(Figure 4.6). After the wool ibres have been disentangled
and arranged in a parallel fashion by the use of carding Source: Drawn by the authors.
machines, gilling of the carded slivers is carried out. In gilling,
a number of carded wool slivers are
fed into gillboxes together
which results in mixing and drafting A gillbox (or glll) is the machine
ensures that the slivers have parallel of the slivers. This that further aligns the fibres in
and even fibre distribution.
Gilling is followed by washing the carded slivers and biends
of fibre in sliver form and together slivers from different
then again gilling it for the second
time. cards.
Yarns
95
At this stage fibres are ready for the combing process
which further straightens the fibre, removes Figure 4.6: Worsted yarn
short length spinning system
ibres and also cleans the fibre by further removing any
impurities. The. short length fibres which get loose
removed during Sorting and grading
combing are known as noils. These ibres can be used as
raw material for woollen yarns. Presently, two systems are
Scouring
being used for preparing wool slivers for combing process:
oil combed system,
which is used for longer fbres
(4-7 inches) where oil is added during the combing process Carbonising
and as result, cohesion between fibres increases, facilitating
a

leaner, smoother and stronger yarn; and (6) dry Carding

system which was initially used
combed
only for short length Gbres
Lur is now used for both short and long Gilling
fibres, and where
rhe resultant yarn is fuzzy in appearance
and suited for soft
fuller worsted yarns. Combing
The wool tops-i.e. long length fibres
arranged in a
highly parallel mannerare now subjected to Drawing
drawing or
drafting. It is an advanced operation which draws out the
sliver, doublesand redoubles
it together in progressive stages. Roving
A slight twist is also imparted at this stage so
that the wool
slivers are converted into roving which is
then spun into Spinning
worsted yarn.
Source: Drawn by the authors.
Table 4.1: Differences between woollen and Worsted yarn
Woollen yarn Worsted yarn
Spun from short staple wool fibres (1-3 inches Spun from high-quality long staple wool fibres
long)and have medium to coarse diameter. (>3 inches) having fine diameter.
The partially parallel arrangement of fibres Fibres are arranged in a more parallel manner
increases air spaces between fibres, and this with minimum air spaces.
provides warmth.
Short fibres in woollen yarns are held together The longer lengths of fibre in worsted yarns are
with low to medium twist which gives a soft, fuzzy tightly twisted to produce a smooth lustrous
and matte look to the yarn. effect.
Fabrics (suede, tweed flannel, broadcloth, etc.) Fabrics (gabardine, serge, etc.) are wrinkle- and
are bulky, have low tensile strength, are less dirt-resistant, give a crisp tailored look to the
durable and do not crease well. garment, are more durable with high tensile
strength, and drape and crease well.

Source: Compiled by the authors.

Flax System
The Aax system of yarn processing comprises hackling, carding, drawing, and spinning. Hackling
is a simple combing process which removes the fibres from the non-fibrous material, straightens
 Tow
Spun compact
y Processed hlament. purposes. extruded together Filament Filament

5. 3.
Yarns

protruding
o other
Vahutacturers
nerets
is Yarns fibres orifice, are around spun Vortex lustrous Subsequently, bour.strand starch draftedaway Twist-less and In the
the andperformplacedfed in Selftwist
Pmeet alternate
composed packing
by
Sometimes, from or yarn Yarns introduced

yarn when
S
and
the side
side
having from All only and spinning:
During
grains. all about
systems ibres which
and
is between
fattyspinning:
To
roving
the by spinning:
sideby
man-made spinneret)
consists
then they
yarn has Z
ends unite
function directions
Filament grouped
slightly directions thrce- side
of are
substances
at
an a
large this The through

the into two-part it wound

a are a moves

of and used extruded

twist Vortex
is point. them,
-fourth and
suspension pair
process

number bundles yarns

or of twisted
outer
dried
time,
In
released
The
Fibres their fibres together.
filament a bulky. forward
of thenalong
develops
for this
multi spindle

starch
onto
of one
cyclically. imparting
a principle
spinning
and
tow
making
layer structure:

in
rollers.
lhis of pair relcased,

in surface filament
are by method, they an the
an a strand

of of
flament.
fabric
fibres the orifice package
of to ensures because
of
into holes.filaments produced
Filament
as of oven grains
starch bring untwist twist
inch rollers length

natural
the
swirling fibres
is
One
cotton keeps
As they behind

spun formation, is core

based
they apart
(very
Many
smooth, Gbres
Thicker fibres by at swell
in
of it
that of
their in whichuntwist of
are and grains
the
yarns yarns an 100°C.
a to and
opposite
going emerge opposite
as the this
that fibres
could largely long air. on and
twist-less
rollers a
roving
they
are yarn.
swirl air wrapped.
sheath.
thoroughly result rotation.

filaments
they
monofilaments
High-speed
vortex. the is straight
rotating
and method

resulting
could continuous The spread
picked from emerge

by
directions
have into is is
be as around
air form If
the resist The yarns
State
supplied
boiled in direction

roller
such
yarns. cut filament
jet four Al of
been
be As In over
up and from and a
following
pulled yarn spinning
wet the 2-ply yarns spinning
in pilling. into ciher the or they the and by in 2-ply by
produccd
the nip,
extruded reduced Since fibres)
vortex
the with stage. an twist eight
their
oscillating,

short yarns are spindle. vortex has steamed

the other he yarn.
enter fibre
alkaline yarns. are
togecher monoilament
a hey strands roller
typically a technology. areas
held is
sideways
wet
methods:
Round filament
which centre
suspension
In takes are Eight
simultancously
bulk
staple
while air and
system,
are as cotton
this
nip. The
to
aurrents Hat, an at solution face
close
impart
pass
wet a made get
form
and
cross-sections

yarns lengths
used are of adhesive 110°C

ach right twisted movement The

rovingsrovings

silk drafted parallel strand.

torwist
ribbon-like,

a
either through The of state,
to rollers

large
cover.
is for
(single
wrap for
inactive
to other angle unite
arere
cach 97
have industrial vortex wash
and a flm. it in
twisted fibres fbres one The
narural is
sliver through
cause
hardly fibre the the
then

o
 increases,
There
(c) (b) (a) In Direct
indicating
The mass W'arnwill
Metric Denier: a
dircct in diameter cxpression
beveen
Yarn YARN
Ta: is deinition
cross
The
a
System
count
cause The narrow through ribbons.
Split
the direct of
yrn, nunbering
Man-nade These inserted.
break Tow-to-Yarn
spun
strerching

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tapes
film The intoThe
Tow-to-Top
98
is
yarn the squashing
of the
NUMBER

yarns Fllm
It which slots
it
cxtruded

is the relationship counting two Yarn is a length arc is a The into stapleopening
above defincd yarn into
slot fibres
the weight becomes and
cooled
or
theayarn lengths
heatcd
It systems systenms which are
oount
to
mcasures
poscs major Tape shorter

is weight irregularity
and OR produced tow Spinning
tow cleaning

as or
contains form System
have
the systenm
and
under
eliminate

suchby
YARN stcps
can lattcning
a mass describe Yarns is
weight in thicker
between
that the lengths. dircctly
a and
grams
rather
a the
in be number the drawn controlled

thin in from
conventional

and
grams
the are the of potcntial
the
that made
in
COUNT
expressed lincar
dificult a slitting
and yarn thickness
the layer
carding
in of the
cployed.
phrases
of
strand
which production thin It passed
it into
kilograms rclative is breaks
of 1000 coarser. indicating
density
yarn number the conditions.
that directly
9000 shects top steps
in yarn problem.
of extends or of through spinning

m number
'mass
wo is yarn.
size
throughresembles
converting

at (top
m Direct
unavoidable.

or are
of of of
1
yarn. or
count
per diferent the
and fincness

ln or it
are
cxtrusion,
or
films
taken

the
the
process.
weakest
is eliminated
yarn. mass hence
This
other
fineness
lincarly The a
km count and
unit
a
tor drafting
sliver
circular plastic
thcm
sheet
is of
of
yarn.
the is
the lengh'
systems-direct
per
make Also,
because
of words, polymer
spinning,
points.
can
the of Ihe which
varn
weight unit a
and
or wrap.
to cooling,

rollers. in
yarn. yarn dic tapc staple
of size, corrcct
dircct
yarns thc
decreascs tube
is
this
three and length

count as to Thcy yarns.

that drawn
made proccss

Dircct is form slitting, lengths

i.e. of
measurement
a The
length are mathematical then are
a
basic
as unit and or assessment

its a
can
The out
rollers up
only cut and
types:
the the
measurement

of
yarn width. slittube canof
yarn
length per indirect

length roughly into

be polymer
drawing
into to staple
the
cxtruded yarn stretch also
that
unit impossible. is
a narrow
narrow Alament
numbe of relaionsbin

of sytems.
per
thicknes numericl
is
and size befbres).
yarm. mass, circular
then
is the producd Textile
unit of taps.
cxtrudetwinding
througi Strips and
tow tow
the ltis
sit. wia
Vst
o and is
theCu
Siena
OgetheraTwist
YARN

yam) Measúrement
for large value Irrespective
determination
2. wcight.
InIt
Indirect
1 measuring Thcre Yarns
measures
Ihis cxact Digital yarn leas a rel and
metric

and
TWIST
a quadrant is count
ben Ouadrant cxtcnt
for (b) (a) the
120 of yarn
yarn, that that arc
is
IS reading
weight around can gives some a
pointer
its Worsted
Wool
Cotton
Therc
indirect
SYstem

expressed
the count
balance:
yards
package (Indirect
the on wcight. weigh wcigh thrcc
is a length
be the even length
yarn
of
of
measure balance, Count:
calculated

lea balance: the of

f Count: Count: is system,
lea. the the
drawn
a
(direct can of optimum which
Yarn onc one basic an
a
specific
Modern
drum
With may indicator
creel,
Yarn
of
a
count form
The
yarn
systcm invcrse
per

as be pound. pound.
lt types
a specified

of extrapolated
from indicates
The are: in
methods
Count It is It the uni
'twist count).
and Wrap
is is
byspiral the
have a
yarn
Numbering
number
the the
counting
number
quadrant
which
the of rela yarn mass
relationship
length laboratory
simply a help
of
per yarn a and yarn
number
number
indircct

turns Reel length

number

yarn guide
the uscd are-an
inch' a the number
of
of of
rotating package
of warning
is yarn numbering
thc
the given to yarn a a
wrap revolutions
tensioning
which required.
yarn
System)
(120
balance
for of counts:
yarn
of of
or the
balances betwecn

number
count is
determining

accurate hanks hanks hanks

or
tpi to required
is a rcel, bell.
yards) available
count wherc
by has
or is
or a
yarn
determined
handle.
This designed
of
"turns
indicate winding
fixed device.
The a directly. Tex employed, of of the
of to small is value 560 300 840
yarn
is masS
turns produce placed
in length wrap is (Direct for the
length
a the yards yards yards
per order
The
sideways testing.
for number
remains

per by
the the simple
To to yarn
number

reel on directly
the two
metre to placing weight Yarn that
unit to determine may
machine
make
a
hook. Two
number sample
constant

hold yarns
120 coiled
FA
traverse
Numbering basic to Hank weigh and of
tpm). length
it by lea be the
indicate
a uníts
yards. hand- of loose-coiled
che
the in digital bundle)
is
a consisting 120
It
measures the or length requirements
of
definite
Is
the
onc
and
(generally constituent
the the hank to common
count fincncss
of
tex,
digital
methods.
or spread
yard
system).
the
and
term pound. length
thc
measuring
of
yarn
motor-driven
yarn depends length.
Used
length
denier lea the an bundle
of per
balance. the of
an (loose
a for There cotton
number balances accurate
for to the
ibres loops
inch reter unit
The reel, varies.

or the to the of
yatn.
a 99
of
 Direction 100
The
under-twisted.
parallel does A
yarn
Balance
is are the the cohesion. Increasing given
characteristics: condition

of stage The Amount

arm yarn position,those of
conform
the if, of
letters
reduced when
more yarn hbres 4. 3. 2. 1.
turns
amount conform
the fbres direction

not of which
the fabric. End e.g. Stage Finenesr: Length:
to of the
letter
to allow
is
of comtortable
hairiness,
perpendicular
a or manufacture

of he when to it S of
the said and This latter use: carded at letter
inclined

is or
the the yarn twist
Twist fbres S. the Twist
of that of to Z. of
Similarly,
yarn Short held
Balance
it to Yarn
productivity
is twist require Yarns
processing.
Finer
varies stage.
per twist
Z the inclinedthey
Similarly, direction
wist
to be also slivers A
length
twist balanced
comort
increases
fibres unit
(Figure
direction to in single
is
on
termed
for
yarns is in are the the indicated
with The
more embroidery
of
the
to knitting
require
Twist length
denoted
a
given held Z of axis
upon the and the vertical yarn
and require
require
amount
4.7).
to twist the
yarn is
lower. skin. yarn as the strength.
the of the in
in if pilling the yarn more also
in by yarn of central
has
case
itself.
it require more following
the axis the yarns by
is Higher axis optimum threads
more a the position,
also has depends
of twisted number central vertical S the
there
Moreover, properties. thereby strength twist
twist
at of arm yarn twist
an the twist
twist any
the are use
lesser
important
right
twist require as
is
reducing
twist. compared on than
any until than
twist
a amount alsoLow-twist the Source:

slope varn longer

Increasing
less coarser
increases a stages
consideration
point as Figure

is the twist compared

in balanced
of strength.
to fibres.
Drawn

the yarns
when the of yarns.

fbre,
rwist
the the
as combed
manufacture 4.7:
compared
by
cost are
when
if
to Increase
twist there
to the Direction

prone
it hold
the authors.
the since
is beyond
slivers.
two
eitherindiviauend
is yarns

it
the to in
pertect
to the of
or in more
twist this
sewing

used
yarn
S

more
over-twisted placn length and
hbre-to-tor Telle
also
level under Zsa
yarns
pilmy threads
for
of woVI Sa
y att makd
at ool a

Functions ars
CLASSIFICATION
Twist
an but ofplicd
three
DasedDeption
Ppearance
lhey
Oimple Simple
of Based
, 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. elongated the
the 6. 5. 4. 3. 6.
Reduces Imparts Increases AlterS Adds
in same
together.
Low-twist Low-twist strength.
A Twist power Tuvist
of
Ensures
affects It opposite
types:
on
yarns have
yarns Yarns
following
on in
high rwist is
the
appearance.

appearance
strength the of thickncss

the are and an affects

reduces
Twist
number
amount
of ensures
the the
bulk
texture
abrasion basic
U-shaped
The
number are the
direction.

more even yarns yarns properties

three close
the componcnt

of even BASED
the yarn
the and force
and
simple
fabrics close
durable twist
types:
of
are are of hairiness cover
packing

adds resistance
loop
of in parts high more
twist
decreases.

which The the

strands packing
ON
yarns
made per
texture

or of elasticity
when
yarn
amount

a parts
and
inch.
and YARN
in flufty
in covering
of yarn
binds
the of all two thus
tht as less
lustre
out and their
the as the of
it
Simple and
yarn
yarn,
compared in thc ends of the
make has prone the twist
as
STRUCTURE
produced
of size,
general
power components

yarn,
compared warmer ensures fibres
a them

i.e.
following
of insertcd
up high to yarns
and yarn
are higher of together i.e.
to
snagging

the amount uniformn

strucrure,

higher the would

than a are the
are
to low in
yarn evenly yarn,
ways: in single
the high-twist
the a held
unitorm abrasion
amount
given be ply
simple and so
of textured.
in
yarns highly-twisted
twist,
that
close well yarn
yarns
twist shape.
are cross-section,

balanccd
should
yarns
easy
are yarns. resistance
more
as
of to
and in twist cach used
twist.

can is to the
therefore maintain. yarns,
increases
other. and be for
(c) (b) (a) hairiness.
the plying,
be and Le.
Simple hang
of
Textured

Complex
(i) (ü) () which
a same
higher
Single
high
the Cord Ply the neatly should

folowE
unbalanced.

Crepe yam yarns

covering
amount
as
yarns yarns yarn
yarn
are tensile
singles

101
into
yarn dull
be
 (Figure
yarn and textures
of have
Complex
Complex

stability a
and base variable 102
4.9).
they (tit)
fabrics
yarn, yarns Yarns
(i) ()
(Figure Cord single

in up is into Single
provide
Source: a ply Ply
twist (a)
the effect are yarn yarns.
the ply is yarn fibres
made Simple
4.8c). yarn. untwisted,
yarn. and yarn
along characterised
is
from
yarn for Drawn
is a a
(Figure
yarn
a The ply combination
is
The an their combination
a
and interesting by ply yarn
individual

it. effect 4.8a). basic

the yarn
The a length.

binder by authors. is assemblage

yarn named
irregularities
binder is single of
twisted
two
appearance

Most Figure
of
is yarn. two
responsible
(b) on yarns or
yarn
complex Ply or in the more of
4.8: fibres.
The yarn more
the basisare
holds
base to in singles,

size. Simple direction obtained

theyarns
the for yarn
ply of When

fabric.
They yarns the plied
yarns
base the number(Figure the
are opposite
design,
is are and yarn
responsible Corded single
to
and twisted
uneven obtain
is
to of
4.8b).
the texture untwisted,

(c) single

effect
complex or Cord a the together

Ply. in composite
twist
Each

andfor texture strands

yarn
yarns
look
givingy
yarns
Due
in
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,it Textile
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of lengt Consist
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ma
mag Sc
he
Yarns
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3. 2. 1.
t
6. Flock get increasing
are Thick areas have certain
Slub Source:
yarn loops heavy
of
three-dimensional

it loops
Looplcurve
the types
an several
Nublspot boucle
fibres
thick made
twist
yarns: and (Figure a yarn:
(Figure
with which around low arcas
yarn: and
are of Drawn

times
yarn:
coarse yarn: in or the from thin twist,
They
complex

the the
inserted
These
bulbous
yarns: 4.10).
which

project 4.11). pressure

This the by
base
man-made
are
single and
to In also
base yarn. These effect. are are either yarns
the
the These
and make from at spots. are flutty,
authors.

nub like
and yarn.
regular single
in are:
the it Th are The the filaments are
thus single Figure

yarn the a is
yarns soft
cfect into effect 3-ply
spinneret
similar thicker
held
body loop
tufts intervals
and
or 4.9:
a the 2-ply
varn
large yarn, in yarn yarns.
are in
base
of place
which
and to than
bulky.

yarns.
Complex

to slub
intermittenty

the held
andSegment is is are
but The give
yarns. the
held
yarn. by curled These
yarn
rarely
has the
in a
small created
adjacent
There

stationary
base place novedty.
These areas
bìnder
a or
tighter
up tufts are
binder
spot
is
by to by
in a

at and
yarn regular Source.
Figure

the Binder
Core
Efect

also efect 4.10:

(1gure
intervals. Drawn
or
base

is High
Slub
wrapped
Low
by twist 103
41 Ir the twist
yam

is authors

a around

2-ply
 properties.
11.
is Cor-pun yarncompletely
Thecompletely 10.
out thenyarnyarn Chenill around 9. 8.
base wo single Spiral 7.
that at twist (pile)
but Sedsplash added.
is yarn, Knou/knop 104
with are
or yarn:
is
right
yarns yarn: in being

thecovered produced and is

are soft
yarn: the rwisted
an the Source:

angles inserted. thicker elongated created

giving
that These yar: only yarn:
core In placed velvery Chenille
together. Figure
this are yarns diference
Drawn

yarn or type (Figure a

soft
trom
Asbetween appearance.
yarn
shapc this
In a
tuft It
adds
wrapped
a
yarn
of is by
4.11:

fuller the
(Figure
result,
the ditferent
are type
of similar
tho
of 4.14). core fhne made
rescmbling
a being Loop/Curve

to by yan
look the two
is
a 4.13). yarn
of
yarn,
different
authors.

yarn
strength,
another
the pile core Short short
sizes.
up that to
to secms a the
base the covering yarns
yarns lengths When
of a nub colour while
yam

chenille
thick wo seed. nub
yarn.
whereas
yarn stand to
spiral
or is
formed
yarn the or
and pile these more
it
of spot spot

the is
Source:
Source:

effect
Figure

Drawn
yarn Drawn
Flgure

4.12:

lends
4.13: by
by the Nub/Spot
the
the Spiral
authors

auOs
deired Tecilk
yarn
yam

Si
to when insertspackagescrng
ns
False-twist flamentsyarns.
re with air is over-fed
air Air-jet Air-jet
and improved ending
afe
Smoower.
smooth
Testured
Textured

this bulky,
current stream
displaced
i5 each all
and a
action
it Moreover,
texturising Texturising
a
cools twist is
continuous

Texturising
fibres/yarns
of handle and flament.
yarns yarns
have other separates into is them, texturisation

fedthen used
crimping from
of
twisting
down,
in into low which the except
and increased have Source:

the finally this instead process

their They
texturising

clockwise
the method
method
extensibility
the greater permanent
it through
hold strands air-jet them have
is heating untwisting
modifiesnatural Drawn

and
twisted
of is softness

heat the absorbency improved

of
yarn
can the
chamber texturising, so
untwisting,
the of most closely-packed
loops, by
direction
unit also and
strands
such as the Figure

in
multifilament
the
air and
the at
the
texturising

their
versatile to geometry
authors.

controlled yarg
jet. be into
that
to
increase warmth, properties coils,
Core 4.14:
opposite
(Z-twist).
adopted
of require
the
Pile
the physical
yarn even
crimps
which yarn yarn
resultant
to which
mechanical
fhlaments.

their
positions
Chenille

produce
in
yarns non-thermoplastic

of etIn like
for thermoplasticity

direction,

The
tension

involves
producing
characteristics
place compressed

specific
the
increased
or
or Yarn
and yarn
yarn process
There to textured
other

yarn a without
entangles
various
textured

i.e.
and by distortions

twisting are volume.

has is pill
simultaneously, blended
air deshaping, yarns,

no
counter
heat-set
and any of many haphazard

them
is fibres yarn in and
twist efect. blown
appearance twist. the It the crease in
of
thermoplastic
yarn can
texturising
Abres.
methods

imparts
an
and
clockwise

in Yarn
by deforming,
configurations.
individual

the The looping at be resistance,

otherwise

by a
hence twisted
a
twisting
trom
passing
resemble
yarns high
texturised.

of
texturisation
stretch,

(S-twist).
where

this and speed. twisting,

flaments
straight,
105
form
the yarn, different
produced

beter
suppiy
curling
Yarn
a bulk,
The
method spun cold
device
heat The
Due and
 •
Good • •
Good
Low •
Good
and • essential

It • whichsewability adequately,
chemical
colour
shrinkage should of Uniform
thread
Good Good
•
In Thread Essential

elasticity
missed thread Good order in overallimportance
Thus, whichgeotextiles,
the garments,
qualities:
is for cross-section.
knownevenly-spun
twistedstrands
increases abrasion
tensile imparted for long appearance
joining object one
resistance
fastness
stitches.
be whilethickness resistance
and a Qualities
sewing
maintains both,
with diameter 108
to a it sewing
or
for torque-free excellent
run.
in as together
a
avoid
recovering
sewing.
abrasion resistance
strength should
reraining thrcad etc. accessories,
dierent
thread (plies) to more intended

surface
a
to of to thread
and the by These
yarn

while
retain seam thread ncedle by of slender material.
pieccs
is
to following
durability
have
Good wearing
intcgrity
torming
which
to of to coating,
or
the of
threads produce
puckering.
sewing
resistance).

and withstand to considerable

components
yarn strand

washing,
its from free heat
good
perform
Sewing
garment's upholstery,
has strong of be
Two material
colour smooth quality used
of
of
a are a are lubricant
usually
any thread any
produced
fabric. seam circular a
used
smooth
tighly
or to
wash cord more
bleaching, when type knots
surface
Source: in or stitch treated

with an
of and or
exposed
tension proper
or while

dry-cleaning,
broken
to
impart
wear.

sewing.
Drawn Unravelled

Knitted

to
different
on rwist pieces
by
Figure
frictionless fabric
the the textured

balance
seam. for authors.

etc. smoother
4.19:
agents.
yarn

minimising
sewing Knit-deknit

faster
(lubrication

texturising
movement
tangin3

of Heater process Testilu

Sin
hreadprocess Construction
fibreSubstrate,
Table
classitication it impartingrubber,can Wide Classiflcation
arns
bype Criteria for
of 4.2.specihc be varicties
the
ie. etc. made
specific.
the
of
end-use.
or
a cither
threads Filament
Core-spun blend
of of
sewing
Spun Combination end-use
Synthetic
Natural Sewing

from
thread
Various of thrcads
Table
properties. Gbresa Thread
thread
filament Textured multifilament
Smooth Monofilament
single

or Types

blend 4.2: criteria such are

ibre available
Classitication
Fineness
as
for cotton type

classifying

effect extensibilityUsually strength

or Made used lacks thickness. Made thread excellent
to These Cotton where It than but Made
abrasion

the by Most nylon. and

of
such
in
the and
Possesses
good limited
and
polyester
produce
is its Cotton
the
can from
restrictively
flexibility
from
a cotton
spun sewability blending

commonly
is has
excellent

of
thread polyester as market
made
sewing is
individual
or polyester
combination
from
therefore
resistance

use. thread
sewing cotton,
widely sewability sewing
be and two
Though
single
polyester polyester resistance
a
multiple
twisted both tendency

snagged
from
thread
cotton
all sewability.
is
or and of essential
an using for
covering
in used strands filament is threads
threads
linen,
more for continuous
natural cotton used most
to
important diverse
polyester
leather
feels it th
together
draperies
is and ply staple
of of is of
and chemicals

most
Description

strong in staple the preferred

combination
widely to different
silk,
during continUOus construction polyester.
along shrink,
scratchy
the
durability.
are forms same
and poyester quaites
But textile
power, goods. fibre commonly
have
rayon,
apparel
and ii criterion
then synthetic
yarn and and fibre with
used.
is
wear and and and been thrcad
wrapped
the
filament size.
as like not applications.

twisted which
used and
but inexpensive,
This core it strength abrasion,

to strands
upholstery.
having
industry. which
is
thread
E.g.
high
hence
very
used
summarised
nylon,

and increase staple while constructions

the is type
stronger
polyester,

wash. textured
for therefore together
around
with
fibres
combines
durable

uniform is tenacity.
has due selecting polyester,
has and made etc.
high
(Contd.)
of of fibres,
These
nylon
it
to 109
it.
in
 Defects YARN

1. thethe and thickness materials

uses
and as (unwanted
Slub: endscope weight a
thread
with
an used A
Difference
Source.

an in
DEFECTS

by In assembly thrcad
filament

arca yarns product.

a
varying nutshell,
or for for inprove Finishes
Table 110
which used without
This of of
producing
is
always
many
is
Compiled
specilic classitication

Critenia

tor material are the a

between
sewability
4.2:
ibre possible is (staple
of applied

is purposes product
caused irregularities yarn.designated the it twist. fibres
end-USe

can a'yarn,
(Contd.)
of
yarns. method by
like novelty
Technological or Yarns or such used a the repellence, to
fabric
by filament be Thread
authors.
Other Glazed
Gassed

extrauneven
concluded
but ilaments Mercerised

by of as to
finishes
which
that yarns
a
abrasion yarn join thread
yarns). the fibre). processing,
knitting, and anti-bacterial/anti-mildew, thread

twisting affect
yarn are having pieces
that may
applied thread
imparting
advances
a Types

Yarn
This The fine,
and the numbering
a not weaving,
a of
wear., would
or quality
twist i.e. wide
always
even substantial
fabrics
to
the
by characteristic
in mechanical

waste the inserted

variety
and embroidery
threads

like limited
This indicate
of field
system.

be
together,

leather,
and glaze any resistant
The
high
the This
which
strength
to This
caught the strong
clog
impart

defect of a lerngth flame

to can
other thread
speed.
thread
finish
finish
fabric.
of
yarn This
into
or yarns
thread.
increase
colour

the to
causes

a appearance
can i.e. proof,
canvas,
be
special

abrasion becomes
remnoves
when increased

can
weakduring chemical
andand and needle rubbed
when
is
system the are ne
The manufacturing

for treated
generally

yarn
be relativelycrochet,
etc. its used
chemical it
be spot defects
produced
used sewing, functional
vinyl,
is
iores

found the or whenhighly passed

fibre
lustre, Description
off
is defines
spinning
for machine

in process and based as etc. the fuZz to with given

the are threads. small and sewing

thread and
itlustrous, swell.
dye
in performance

for
while
use treated
is through
from
caustic

to
bou
yar
o
as have on its different
so parts. polished. penetration
cotton
tolow and on.a include heavy
widened the
fineness
cross-section,

yarn while
stronger
the soda
Therefore
Available the
the A with surtace thread Textile

v
length
sewing ilame slution
can material
But
to raw end water wax
or this
and
al o
be in or and Stien

2.
•
3. 2.
•
1.
relationship
Yarn pieces Thread:together. Varn together C:lament
Spun .
Varns the
on Yarn they Yarn
Jars
ehne What 3. 2.
Differentiate
What Define The
number: twist:
yarn: 4.
S Slub Yarn of yarn.
amount the
placesNeps: moreThick Thin
or
Denier
mainly
material Sewing
varns: can numbering
rcan is cent
and a
thread.
are is between only weight
long
yarn the Yarn
a twist Spun
be be less places:
textured
Z yarn?
Yarn
spun
and
thanplaces:
classihed
in
folowing
yarn grouped Filarment
thread
of strand

What
between
or twist
yarns yarn of Cross
staple than
an yarn system yarns, that
twist
Briefly the numbering ocCur

These
yarns?
length
object is is
are
twist
of sectional These
that
are terms: a the
together.
yarn as per ibres of hbre
the discuss
flexible,
composed
simple,
(number
defines flament as the
the measure
unit small of are
Explain following:

and to consists
twisted
normal
are yarns.
the
essential
systems
a length size regions
naterial.
complex
the regions
mass yarns
its small
fineness
tight average

any of of
of of
classification. together
of twists yarn.
spiral and
qualities
rwo of describe diameter
hlament
staple
or balls
140400
in in
a and split the crosS-section
indirect
strand KEY
per or SUMMARY the
methods
EXERCISES
turns fibres
textured thickness
(tape)
to of
This fibres
which hbres hold fibres
the yarn WORDS
inch)
entangled
defcct
of
yarn.
relative
given twisted system

yarns. them
per
that
makes
of
Simple Balance Complex Cotton
or (very
varns
is
responsible
cent that
strand of can have
texturising.
to long together. is
yarn. in
of
a a have
size based place. fibres.
of
the and
of
count yarn be a normal
yarns intended coninuous normal cros-scctional

found
thread complex
a or Direct a
tor on
yarn Based cross-scctional

fneness in
order length
yarn.
the system
yarn.
appropriate
on mainly

yarns
to fibres)
appearancc

heir
of be to per This
of
a
yarn
used hold

which
unit yarn method
They
in sine defect
staple

for to the mss. numbering are of size

and 30-100
various as sitch constituent
are
a performance of
construction,
sudden fibre can of
either 30-60
mathematial
one
end yarns. per be
or rwisted
is thick
found
cernt 111
uses more ibres based per
of
 Tatile
Scin
Today, the man-made fbres produced in India include polyester (staple and filamen),
ple and flament), acrylic (staple), nylon 6 (Glamen) and polypropylene (staple and
flamen)
ia is the second largest producer of polyester (staple and filament fibre) and viscose Rlameng
bre. It is the third largest manufacturer of viscose staple fibre and eighth largest manufactur,
acrylic staple fibre. However, the specialised man-made fibres like acetate, tri-acctae,
rammonium rayon, nylon 66, nylon 1l, spandex, poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) and modacrylic
hot being manufactured in India. In India, viscose staple Abre is produced only by
Industries. Reliance Industries produces about 64 per cent of polyester staple fibre and 48 Grasim
of polyester filament per cent
yarn. Century Enka and JCT Ltd. produce about S5 per cent of nylon
flament yarn. Century Rayon and Indian Rayon
Corporation produce about 80 per cent 6
viscose filament yarn (Gol of
n.d.).

PRODUCTION OF MAN-MADE FIBRES

Man-made fbres/filaments are
manufactured using chemical spinning processes, All spinning
processes to produce man-made Gbres are
based on the following threc steps:
1. Preparationof spinning solution or dope
2. Extrusion of the dope through the spinneret to
form a ibre
3. Solidifying the fibre by coagulation, evaporation or
cooling
The dope, a flowing solution, is prepared by dissolving the raw
polymer) in a suitable solvent or by melting the polymer. material (natural or synthesised
The dope is then forced or pumped
through the holes in a spinneret, which is similar to a shower process is known as
extrusion. As filaments emerge from the holes of the spinneret, head. This
first to a rubbery state and then solidified. An untwisted rope the aliquid polymer is converted
fibres is called a tow. This process of extrusion of number of these filament
and solidification of endless filaments is called
chemical spinning. There are three methods of spinning filaments
dry and melt spinning. of manufactured fibres: wet,

Wet Spinning Figure 3.1: Wet spinning

Dissolved
Wet spinning is the oldest chemical spinning process. It is polymer
applied to polymers which do not melt or which cannot be
dissolved in a volatile solvent. Therefore, a non-volatile solvent
Solvent
is used to convert the raw material into a solution and later the Extraction
solvent must be removed by chemical means. The spinneret is
submerged in a chemical/spinning bath and as the flaments
emerge they precipitate in the bath and solidify. The spinneret
is then washed to remove the chemicals deposited on their Spinneret
surface and then dried (Figure 3.1). Viscose rayon is produced Source: Drawn by the authors.
Man-made Fibres
59
Lrrhis process. This method of wet spinning is more complex Dry spinning
Figure 3.2:
than the other two and is used when
spinning by the other
methods is not possible. Dissolved
two
polymer

Dry Spinning

Dry spinning is used for fibre forming substances that dissolve

avolatile solution. The dope is extruded into an Spinneret
a evaporating
cabinet flled with hot air. The fibre is solidified by
evaporating
the solvent (Figure 3.2). The solvent vapours can be removed Evaporating
cabinet
and condensed for reuse. Since the filaments do not come in
contact with a precipitating liquid, there is no need for drying.
This process is used in the production
of acetate, triacetate,
acrylic, modacrylic and spandex.

Melt Spinning

Melt spinning is used for those fibre forming substances that

can be melted without getting decomposed.
In this method, the
polymer first melted in
is an autoclave, then extruded through
the spinneret and finally solidiñied by cooling, Solid polymer Source: Drawn by the authors.
chíps are dropped from the hopper into the autoclave where
heat melts the solid polymer into a viscous liquid. The liquid
is then pumped through filters to remove any impurity and Figure 3.3: Melt spinning
then delivered to the spinneret at a controlled rate of fAow.
Melted
When the liquid polymer emerges from the spinneret hole, a polymer
cool stream of air is passed over the fibre causing it to harden
(Figure 3.3). Nylon, olein and polyester are produced by this Cool air
method. An advantage of melt spun fibres is that they can
Spinneret
be extruded in different cross-sectional shapesviz., round,
trilobal, pentagonal, octagonal, etc.

Special Spinning Methods

Gel Spinning

Gel spinning is a special process used to obtain fibres with

high strength or other special properties. The polymer of
an extremely high molecular weight is dissolved and a very
viscous (thick) solution is obtained. This highly viscous
solution is the gel. The polymer chains in the gel are bound
together at various points. This produces strong inter-chain
forces in the resulting flaments that can significantly increase Source: Drawn by the authors.
 60 Textile Science

the fibre axis

the tensile strength of the fibres. In addition, the liquid crystals are aligned along
due to the action of shear forces during extrusion. The flaments emerge with an unustaygn
process can also be described as dry
degree of oricntation, further enhancing strength. The a
wet spinning, since the ilaments first pass through air and are then further cooled in liquid
are
produced by the method of gel
bath. Some high-strength polyethylene and aramid Gbres
spinning.
Emulsion Spinning
If the polymer has a very high melting point or is insoluble it cannot be extruded through any
of the aforementioned processes, it is spun by emulsion spinning. The polymer is made into an
emulsion, forced through a narrow tube and then fused by
application of heat without melting. The polymer is then Anemulsion isa fine dispersion
solid particles are not
extruded through a spinneret into a coagulation bath and where
then stretched to impart orientation. Completely dissolved in the
solvent.
Post-spinning Processes
Figure 3.4: Effect of drawing on
These are common to all methods of chemical spinning polymer chain orientation in a fibre
and include washing, drawing (stretching) to improve
orientation (Figure 3.4) and heat setting for thermoplastic
ibres to impart dimensional stability.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAN-MADE FIBRES

Man-made fibres are classified into the following three
categories:
1. Fibres from natural polymers: The most common
man-made ibre made from naturally occurring Source: Drawn by the authors.
polymer is viscose rayon. Viscose is made from
cellulose obtained mostly from the wood pulp of various trees. Other cellulose based
man-made fibres are cupramnonium rayon, acetate and triacetate, lyocell and modal.
Less common fbres of this type are made from rubber, alginic acid and regenerated
protein.
2. Fibres from synthetic polymers: These are organic fibres that are made from polymers that
are synthesised from petrochemicals. The most common are polyester, polyamide (often
called nylon), acrylic and modacrylic, polypropylene, segmented polyurethanes or elastic
ibres or elastanes (or spandex in the USA), and speciality fibres such as high-performance
aramids.
3. Fibres from inorganic materials: The inorganic man-made fibres are made from materials
such as glass, metal, carbon or ceramic. These fibres are very often used to reinforce plastics
to form composites.
Man-made Fibres
No@S33 61
EIBRES FROM NATURAL POLYMERS
Date.qom.B201i
Accession

There are two categories of man-made ccllulosic fibres: regeneracd ccllulosic

sodifed cellulosic fibres. Both the fibres arc made from cotton fbresad regenerated
linters md wodpalp. A regeneratc
Gbre is produccd by dissolving and cxtruding a
natural polymer, or its chemical derivative, as a
continuous flament. After this fibre formation process
is either retaincd or regenerated. the chemical nature of the natural polymer
Examples of regenerated cellulosic fibres are the various typcs
ravon--viscose rayon, cuprammonium rayon, high wet modulus rayon, of
navnosic rayon. Modified fibres are made by chemically high tenacity rayon and
modifying, dissolving and extruding a
narural polymer as acontinuous filament. Examples of this
kind are secondary acetate and triacetate.
Sincethe fibre-forming substance for these fibres is not cellulose
but chemically-modified cellulose
(ie cellulose acetate, an ester), these are called regenerated
modified fibres.
Wiscose Rayon Figure 3.5: Chemical structure of rayon
(ayon fibres are made from cellulose that
has been reformed or regenerated! Figure 3.5 CH,OH H OH
shows the chemical structure of rayon. Rayon
is 100 per cent cellulose and has the same
chemical composition as natural cellulose.
C HC
However, it consists of cellulose of lower -O
degree of polymerisation (DP) than cotton OH CH,OH
cellulose. The DP of viscose polymer is
(300-450). The various varieties of rayon fibres are: viscose rayon, cuprammonium rayon, high
wet modulus rayon, polynosic rayon and high tenacity rayon. 677
Production RASe7s
Viscose rayon is produced from cellulose which is majorly obtained from wood pulp. Cotton
linters (short cotton fibres) can also be used. The wood pulp, taken from the trees of eucalyptus,
beech and pine, is treated to remove lignin and resin. The pulp is then pressed and cut into
sheets. More than 95 per cent of these sheets is made up of cellulose. The various steps involved
in the process of manufacturing viscose are as follows (Figure 3.6):

Steeping: (Sheets in 17-20% aqueous NaOH (caustic soda)

of cellulose pulp are immersed
solution at the temperature range of 18-25°C in order to swvell the cellulose fbres and
convert cellulose to alkali cellulose (Eqn 3.1).
+
(CçH,0,), + nNaOH (CH,O,0Na), nH,O ...(3.1)
Pressing: The swollen mass of alkali cellulose pressed to a wet weight equivalent of
is
2.
2/2-3 times the original pulp weight to obtain an accurate alkali to cellulose ratio.
3. Shredding: The pressed alkali cellulose is shredded mechanically to yield finely
divided,
area of the alkali
fluffy particles called 'crumbs'. This step increases the overall surface
cellulose mass, thereby increasing its ability to react in the steps that follow.
 Textile
62 Scien.
rayon
Elgure 3.6: Steps in the production of viscose
NaOH
Sodium Hydroxide solution
Punified wood pulp (NaOH)
or cotton linters
|Dissolving Tank

Steeping Pressing
Storage Tank

Shredder
Filter Press

White Crumbs
Feed Tank

Ageing Room
Spin Bath Washing
Drying
Xanthating Carbon
disulphide

Source: Drawn by the authors.

4. Ageing The alkali cellulose is aged

under controlled conditions of time (for 50 hours) and
temperature (between 18°C and 30°C)
in order to depolymerise the cellulose to
degree of polymerisation to get a the desired
solution of the right viscosity and cellulose
In this step the average molecular weight concentration.
of the original pulp is reduced.
5. Xanthation: The
aged alkali cellulose crumbs are
carbon disulphide under controlled placed in vats and allowed to react with
temperature (20-30°C) to
compound called cellulose xanthate (Eqn form an orange-coloured
3.2).
(CH,0,0Na),+ nCS, (CçH,0,0-SC-SNa),
6. Dissolving. Xanthate crumbs are •.. (3.2)
dissolved in dilute NaOH
shear mixing conditions
to obtain a viscous orange-coloured
solution at 15-20°C under high
substituents on the cellulose solution. The large xanthate
force the chains apart,
and allowing water molecules reducing the inter-chain
to solvate and separate hydrogen bonds
of the otherwise insoluble cellulose. the chains, leading to the dissolution
viscosity, it is termed Since the cellulose xanthate
viscose in this stage. solution has very high
7. Ripening: Viscose
is allowed to stand
occur during for a
ripening-redistribution period of time to 'ripen'. Two important processes
reaction allows some and loss of xanthate groups.
of the xanthate groups The reversible xanthation
This free CS, can to revert to cellulosic
then escápe or react hydroxyls and free CS
parts of the cellulose with other
chain. In this way, crystalline hydroxyl groups (OH)
regions are gradually in the other
broken down and
Man-made Fibres 63
more complete solution is achievcd. The colour the
a
of ripened viscose solution is gola
with the consistency similar to that
of honey.
8. Filering. The viscose solution is filtered to remove
undissolved materíals that might disrupt
the spinning process or cause defects in the rayon flament. At thís point, delustering
agents or pigments for colouring the fibres can be
added.
9. Degassing: Bubbles of air entrapped in the viscose are removed
through the proceSS of
degassing prior to extrusion, so that voids or weak spots in the fine rayon filaments are
avoided.
10. Spinning (wet spinning): The viscose solution is metered
through a spinneret into a spin
bath containing 10% sulphuric acid (for acidification and regeneration of sodium cellulose
xanthate to cellulose), 18% sodium sulphate (for rapid coagulation of viscose), and 1%
zinc sulphate (which controls the rate of regeneration), Once the cellulose xanthate is
neutralised and acidified, rapid coagulation of the rayon filaments occurs (Eqn 3.3).
(CçH,0,O-SC-SNa), +(n/2)H,SO,(CçH,0),+nCS, + (n/2)Na,SO, ••. (3.3)
11. Drawing: The rayon filaments are stretched while the cellulose chains are still relatively
mobile. This causes the chains to stretch out and orient along the fibre axis. As the
chains become more parallel, inter-chain hydrogen bonds form and give the filaments the
properties necessary for use as textile fibres. Stretching is vital to get the desired tenacity
and other properties of rayon.
12. Washing: The freshly regenerated rayon contains many salts and other water soluble
impurities which are removed through one of several washing techniques.
13. Cutting: If the rayon is to be used as staple fibre, the group of filaments (i.e. tow) is
passed through a rotary cutter to provide a fibre which can be processed in much the
Same way as cotton.

Properties
Rayon fibres are normally white in colour. The lustre of rayon can be modified by the addition
are extruded. The cross
of the delustering agent titanium dioxide to the solution before the fibres
section of rayon fibre is an irregular circle with serrated edges. Lengthwise lines called sriations
are seen in the longitudinal section. Figure 3.9 gives the cross-section and longitudinal sections of
allman-made fibres. Viscose rayon has silk-like aestheticswith superb drape and feel. Its cellulosic
base contributes many properties similar to chose of cotton
or other natural cellulosic fibres. The
as compared to cotton
strength of viscose rayon is low because of its lower polymer chain length
and also because the physical structure is different.
There is a considerable decrease in strength when the A plll(or bobble) is a small ball of fibres
a
hbre is wet. Viscose has high percentage of -OH that forms on a piece of cloth because
of washing and wearing of fabrics that
3oups present in amorphous regions that contribute causes loose fibres to push out from
to its hygroscopic behaviour. Thus, due to high
the surface.
moisture regain, rayon is breathable, comfortable to
Man-made Fibres 59
L
rhis process. This method
of wet spinning is more complex Figure 3.2: Dry spinning
han the other two and is used when spinning by the other Dissolved
two methods is not possible. polymer

Dry Spinning

Dry spinning is used for ibre forming substances that dissolve Spinneret
in a volatile solution.
The dope is extruded
into an evaporating
cabinet flled with hot air. The fibre is solidified by evaporating
Evaporating
the solvent (Figure 3.2). The solvent vapours can be removed cabinet
andcondensed for reuse. Since the filaments do not come in
contact wih a precipitating liquid, there is no need for drying.
Thic process is used in the production of acetate, triacetate,
acrylic, modacrylic and spandex.

Melt Spinning

Melt spinning is used for those fibre forming substances that

can be melted without getting decomposed. In this method, the
polymer is first melted in an autoclave, then extruded through Source: Drawn by the authors.
the spinneret and finally solidified by cooling. Solid polymer
chips are dropped from the hopper into the autoclave where
heat melts che solid polymer into a viscous liquid. The liquid
is then pumped through filters to remove any impurity and Figure 3.3: Melt spinning

then delivered to the spinneret at a controlled rate of flow. Melted

a
When the liquid polymer emerges from the spinneret hole, polymer
cool stream of air is passed over the fibre causing it to harden
are produced by this Cool air
(Figure 3.3). Nylon, olefin and polyester
can
method. An advantage of melt spun fibres is that they Spinneret
be extruded in different cross-sectional shapes-viz., round,
crilobal, pentagonal, octagonal, etc.

Special Spinning Methods

Gel Spinning

Gel spinning is a special process used to obtain fibres with

high strength or other special properties. The polymer of
an extremely high molecular weight is dissolved and a very
viscous (thick) solution is obtained. This highly viscous
solution is the gel. The polymer chains in the gel are bound
together at various points. This produces strong inter-chain
forces in the resulting filaments that can significantly increase Source: Drawn by the authors.
 60 Textile Science

the tensile strength of the ibres. In addition, the liquid crystals are aligned along the fibre axis
due to the action of shear forces during extrusion. The filaments emerge with an unusually high
degree of orientation, further enhancing strength. The process can also be described as dry
wet spinning, since the filaments first pass through air and are then further cooled in a liquid
bath. Some high-strength polyethylene and aramid fAbres are produced by the method of gel
spinning.
Emulsion Spinning

If the polymer has a very high melting point or is insoluble it cannot be extruded through any
of the aforementioned processes, it is spun by emulsion spinning. The polymer is made into an
emulsion, forced through a narrow tube and then fused by
application of heat without melting. The polymer is then An emulsion is a fine dispersion
extruded through a spinneret into a coagulation bath and where solid particles are not
then stretchedto completely dissolved in the
impart orientation. solvent.
Post-spinning Processes
Figure 3.4: Effect of drawing on
These are common to all methods of chemical spinning polymer chain orientation in a fibre
and include washing, drawing (stretching) to improve
orientation (Figure 3.4) and heat setting for thermoplastic
fibres to impart dimensional stability.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAN-MADE FIBRES

Man-made fibres are classified into the following three

categories:
1. Fibres from natural polymers: The most common
man-made fibre made from naturally occurring Source: Drawn by the authors.
polymer is viscose rayon. Viscose is made from
cellulose obtained mostly from the wood pulp of various trees. Other cellulose based
man-made fibres are cupramonium rayon, acetate and triacetate, lyocell and modal.
Less common fibres of this type are made from rubber, alginic acid and regenerated
protein.
2. Fibres from synthetic polymers: These are organic fibres that are made from polymers that
are synthesised from petrochemicals. The most common are polyester, polyamide (often
called nylon), acrylic and modacrylic, polypropylene, segmented polyurethanes or elastic
fibres or elastanes (or spandex in the USA), and speciality fbres such as high-performance
aramids.
3. Fibres from inorganic materials: The inorganic man-made fibres are made from materials
such as glass, metal, carbon or ceramic. These fibres are very often used to reinforce plastics
to form composites.
nce HOME
OF
Man-made Fibres KUTE NoS 61

Dre.qm.g-20
Accessiop
EIBRES FROM NATURAL POLYMERS
There are rvwo categorics of man-nade cellulosic fibres: regenerargd cellulosicfbrcsark regeneraeg
modified cllulosic fibres. Both the fibres are made from cotton lintersnd wostpap. A regenerated
fbre is produced by dissolving and extrudinganatural polymer, or its chemical derivative: 2s a
continuous filament. Afterthis ibre fornation proccss the chemical naturc of the natural polymer
is cither retaincd or rcgcncrated. Examples of regcneratcd cellulosic fibres arc the various types of
ayon-viscosc rayon, cuprammoniunm rayon, high wet modulus rayon, high tenacity rayon and
polynosic rayon. Modiied fibres are made by chemically modifying, dissolving and cxtruding a
narural polyner as continuous flament. Examples of this kind are secondary acetate and triacetate.
a

Since the ibre-forming substance for these fibres is not cellulose but chemically-modified cellulose
Ge. cellulose acetate, an cster), these are called regenerated modified fibres.
rayon
Yiscose Rayon Figure 3.5: Chemical structure of
are made from cellulose that
havon
trs
has been reformed or regenerated| Figure 3.5 CH,OH H OH
C
shows the chemical structure of rayon. Rayon
ik 100 per cent cellulose
and has the same
as oH H

chemical composition natural cellulose.

However, it consists of cellulose of lower
H OH CH,OH
decree of polymerisation (DP) han cotton n
cellulose. The DP of viscose polymer is
(300-450). The various varieties of rayon fibres are: viscose rayon, cuprammnonium rayon, high
modulus rayon, polynosic rayon and high tenacity rayon.

Froduction
RASS739
Viscose rayon is produced from cellulose which is majorly obtained from wood pulp. Cotton
linters (short cotton fibres) can also be used. The wood pulp, taken from the
trees of eucalyptus,
beech and pine, is treated to remove lignin and resin. The pulp
is then pressed and cut into
sheets. More than 95 per cent of these sheets is made
up of cellulose. The various steps involved
are as follows (Figure 3.6):
in the process of manufacturing viscose
. Seeping. Sheets of cellulose pulp are immersed in 17-20% aqueous NaOH (caustic soda)
to swell the cellulose fbres and
solution at the temperature range of 18-25°C in order
convert ccllulose to alkali cellulose (Eqn 3.1).
+ (CH,0,ONa), + nH,0 (3.1)
(CH,0,), nNaOH
Pressing: The swollen mass of alkali cellulose pressed to a vet weight equivalent of
is
Z an to ratio.
22-3 times the original pulp weight to obtain accurate alkali cellulose
3. Shreddng: The pressed alkali cellulose is shredded mechanically to yield fnely
divided,
Auffy particles called 'crumbs. This step increases the overall surface
area of the alkali
cellulose mass, thereby increasing its ability to react in the steps that follow.
 Textile Science

62 rayon
production of viscose
Stops in the
Flgure 3.6: NaOH solution

Sodium Hydroxido
Purified wood pulp (NaOH) Dissolving Tank
or cotton linters

Storage Tank
Steeping Pressing

Shredder Filter Press

White Crumbs Feed Tank

Washing
Ageing Room Spin Bath Drying

Carbon
Xanthating disulphide

Source: Drawn by the authors.

controlled conditions of time (for 50 hours) and

4. Ageing: The alkali cellulose is aged under to the desired
temperature (between 18°Cand 30°C) in order to depolymerise thecellulose
concentration.
degree of polymerisation toget a solution of the right viscosity and cellulose
is reduced.
In this step the average molecular weight of the original pulp
5. Xanthation: The aged alkali cellulose crumbs are placed in vats and allowed to
react with
carbon disulphide under controlled temperature (20-30°C) to form an orange-coloured
compound called cellulose xanthate (Eqn 3.2).
+ (3.2)
(CGH,O,0Na), nCS, (CçH,O,0-SC-SNa),
6. Disolving: Xanthate crumbs are dissolved in dilute NaOH solution at 15-20°Cunder high
shear mixing conditions to obtain a viscous orange-coloured solution. The large xanthate
substituents on the cellulose force the chains apart, reducing the inter-chain hydrogen bonds
and allowing water molecules to solvateand separate the chains, leading to the dissolution
of the otherwise insoluble cellulose. Since the cellulose xanthate solution has very high
viscosity, it is termed viscose in this stage.
7. Ripening. Viscose is allowed to stand for a perlod
of time to 'ripen'. Two'important processes
occur during ripening-redistribution and loss
of xanthate groups. The reversible xanthation
reaction allows some of the xanthate groups to revert to cellulosic hydroxyls
and free Co
This free CS, canthen escápe or react with other hydroxyl groups
parts of the cellulosc chain. In this way, crystalline (-OH) in the other
regions are gradually broken down au
Man-made Fibres 63

a more complete solution is achieved, The colour

of the ripened viscose solucion is gola
vith the consistency similar to that of honey.
s. Filtering: The viscose solution is
fltered to remove undissolved materials that might disrupt
che spinning process or cause defects in the rayon flament. At this point, delustering
agents or pigments for colouring the fbres can be added.
9. Degassing Bubbles of air entrapped in the viscose are removed through the process of
degassing prior to extrusion, so that voids or weak spots in the fne rayon flaments are
avoided.
10. Spinning (wet spinning): The viscose solution is metered through a spinneret
into a spin
bath containing 10% sulphuric acid (for acidification and regeneration of sodium cellulose
xanthate to cellulose), 18% sodium sulphate (for rapid coagulation of viscose), and Iyo
zinc sulphate (which controls the rate of regeneration). Once the cellulose xanthate is
neutralised and acidified, rapid coagulation of the rayon Glaments occurs (Eqn 3.3).

(CH,0,0-SC-SN), + (nl2)H,SO,(CH,0), + nCS, + (n/2) Na,SO, (3.3)

11. Drawing: The rayon filaments are stretched while the cellulose chains are still relatively
mobile. This causes the chains to stretch out and orient along the ibre axis. As the
chains become more parallel, inter-chain hydrogen bonds form and give the flamentsthe
properties necessary for use as textile fibres. Stretching is vital to get the desired tenacity
and other properties of rayon.
12. Washing: The freshly regenerated rayon contains many salts and other water soluble
impurities which are removed through one of several washing techniques.
13. Cutting: If the rayon is to be used as staple fibre, the
group of flaments (i.e. tow) is
a can be processed in much the
passed through a rotary cutter to provide fibre which
same way as cotton.

Properties
rayon can be modified by the addition
Rayon fibres are normally white in colour. The lustre of cross
before the fibres are extruded. The
of the delustering agent titanium dioxide to the solution
edges. Lengthwise lines called striations
section of rayon fibre is an irregular circle with serrated
are seen in the longitudinal section. Figure 3.9 gives the cross-section and
longitudinal sections of
cellulosic
all man-made fibres. Viscose rayon has silk-like aesthetics with superb drape and feel. Its
cotton or other natural cellulosic fibres, The
base contributes many properties similar to those of
length as compared to cotton
Strength of viscose rayon is low because of its lower polymer chain
and also because the physical structure is different.
There is a considerable decrease in strength when the A pll (or bobbl) is a small ball of fibres

hbre is wet. Viscose has a hígh percentage of -OH that forms on a piece of cloth because
of washing and wearing of fabrics that
groups present in amorphous regions that contribute causes loose fibres to push out from
to itshygroscopic behaviour. Thus, due to high the surface.
to
moisture regain, rayon is breathable, comfortable
 Textile Science
64
clastic
rccovery and resiliency, rayon
wear and can vivid colours.,
Duc to low unless the fabric is
is no pilling
bec
casily dyed
in
wrinkles badly. It docs not build up static clectricity, and thcre
lammable and burns
like paper,
made from short, low-twist yarns. As a ccllulosic fibre,
rayon is
Propertics of viscose rayon arc given in Table 3. 1.

Uses and Care and abrasion resistance.

moderate dry strength fibres such as polyester,
has
Rayon comfortable, soft to the skin, and ability to blend
is easily with
One of rayon's strengths its versatility and or lustre, softness or absorbency and th
is toreduce cost. for
yc, hylon, acetate, corton, wool or wrung followine
resulting comfort. products should not be twisted
thus the or a gentle cycle in
the washing
he strengh of rayonfbre is low, a towel
padded by using solvents, dry cleaning does not damage
laundering. Rather they should be not affected by organic
is
machine can be used. Since it
rayon fabrics.
Uses
Major Domestic and Industrial millinery, rainwear, slackS, sports
,. Apparck Blouses, coats,
dresses, jackets, lingerie, linings,
ties, work clothes.
shirts, sportswear, suits, draperies, sheets, slipcovers,
carpets, curtains,
Home furnishings: Bedspreads, blankets,
rablecloths, upholstery. tyre
non-woven products,
Orher Industrial products, medical and surgical products,
cord.

Cuprammonium Rayon
Production
Cupprammonium rayon is produced by a solution of cellulosic material in aqueous ammonia
(NH) and copper sulphate (CuSO,) at low temperature in a nitrogen atmosphere. It is put
in mixer along with caustic soda (NaOH). The step of ripening or ageing is not required for
cuprammonium production. The solution is filtered and then wet spun. Filaments are neutralised
in sulphuric acid, followed by washing, lubrication,
drying, twisting into yarn and winding.
This is a more expensive process than that rayon. The cross-section
of viscose of a fibre of
cuprammonium rayon is almost round. The
main disadvantage of the cuprammonium process
is the toxicity of copper sulphate.
It must be fully recovered from the process,
large-scale production is limited. and as a result
Properties and Uses

Its properties are quite similar

lightweight fabrics. A good
to those of viscose rayon.
The fibre can be made
use in warm-weather conductor of heat and fairly
absorbent, it is especially into very
clothing. suitable for
 Man-made
Fibres
65
Wet Modulus Rayon
High

One of the drawbacks of viscOse rayon

cotton. This limitation is its very low wet
substitute for led to the development strength. This limits its usage as a
rayon does not exhibit drastic of High Wet Modulus
(HWM) rayon.
HWM reduction in strength when wet.
samne process ås viscose HWM rayon is produced
using the but with some modifications
bath
composition--i.e. the addition of certain
chemicals in
in the spinning conditions and
rate of regeneration
of cellulose in the extrusion the spinning bath that slow down the
draw bath. Apart
from these,
higher ratios are also employed to
of orientation and achieve improve Draw ratio is the extensibility
the degree much higher tenacities can be subjected to the
that
as well as wet conditions. A comparison
in dry of properties fibre during a process.
of viscose
rayon and HWM rayon is given in Table 3.1.
Rayon
High Tenacity

High Tenacity (HT) rayon was developed for high performance

and industrial applications rather
han for apparel. For many years rayon was used for the manufacture of tyre
HI
ssubstituted cords before it
was by nylon and polyester. HT rayon possesses superior
viscose tensile strength as compared
to regular and has a greater percentage of crystalline
regions which translate to greater
crrength. For the production of
HT rayon certain modifications are made in the composition of
rhe spinning bath, like increasing the quantity
of zinc sulphate (up to about 4 per cent). This helps
retard the coagulation of viscose. A greater stretch is also
imparted to improve the orientation.
Slow regeneration of cellulose and stretching rayon will lead to greater areas
of of crystallinity
within the fibre and therefore increased strength.

Polynosic Rayon

These fibres have a very high degree of orientation, achieved as a result of very high stretching
(up to 300 per cent) during processing along with DP values as high as 800. They have a unique
ibrillar structure, high dry and wet strength, low elongation (8-1l per cent), relatively low water
retention and very high wet modulus.

Lyocell
Lyocell is a new generation of cellulosic fibre that was first commercially produced in 1992, by
Acordis CellulosicFibres in the US. The US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) defines lyocell as
a fibre 'composed
of cellulose precipitated from an organic solution in which no substitution of
the hydroxyl groups takes place and no chemical intermediates are formed.' The FTC classifes
yocellas a subcategory under rayon. Lyocell fbres are manufactured by wet spinning process.
The cellulose is direccly dissolved in the solvent N-methylmorpholine n-oxide (NMMO) and
water. The solution is then fltered and spun through spinnerets to make the filaments, which are
spun into water. The NMMO solvent is recovered from this aqueous solution and reused. Lyocell
nbres, like other cellulosics, are soft, strong, mnoisture-absorbent and biodegradable. They have
a dry strength higher than other cellulosics and approaching that of polyester. They also retain
O per cent of their strength when wet. They are wrinkle resistant and can be laundered easily.
 fromduring sites.polymerised are The Production
Acrylic
withby Any
machine 70
retardant
vinyl modacrylic units macromoleculesassociation
BISFA Acrilan, (modacrylic) acrylicAcrylic FIBRES Major used be mildewof
avoided.
some
reactedstarting • hear. type
a Both caution.
solution
polymerisation
Therefore,
chloride,
(CIRFS Other. sportswear

Domestic
in
(Bureau ibre fbres FROM
Home Apparek
a if organic wash
properties. Zefran, variety acetate Medium

of
incorrectly
of
fbre
to_produce withmaterials Acrylic of fbre was are SYNTHETIC
Cigarete
furnishing:

Both
detcrgent
cycle
man-made

in vinylidene n.d.). Blouses,

and solvents.

of
International
comonomers,
chains having
a oxygen Creslan
the and
solvent.
was first applications,
triacetate
to fbres should
Typical third stored,
reaction
flters, Industrial low may
for contain

in first developed
Draperies,
dresses are Acetate
polyacrylonitrile
ironing

Two
in acrylonitride
chloride
the
ibre and
developed
largest
POLYMERS

thermoplastic,
be be
fbre used.
the
comonomers
por havea riacetate
used.
to usually at
least
chain producers)
Courtelle

cdass and Uses but will

processintroduce presence upholstery temperatures Triacetate
or la by fll mostly
luxurious
dissolve
Bleaches

vinyl 50-85 at Standardisation

of for foundation
is
with
(CH,=CH-CN)

least by DuPont
synthetic pillows, more
routes (PAN).
defines
for Union
and
of per in for
reactive bromide
must performs
anionic
catalysts
acrylic
85
acrylic
apparel
feel resistant.
in acetone,
should they
are cent per
Pure acrylic Carbide in fbre
quilted
garments,
and
be
used: and USA
groups used by are cent and appearance.
will used
a
acrylonitrile des and
dye (Eqn
are
mass
vinyl Teklan
after
products
Extended
be softenso little
(a)
sites. in (by fibres Fibres as as home used. nail
with
wet as 3.4).
propylene modacrylic

of acetate mass) Dynel. Orlon

polyester
lingeric,
polish
better
care.
spinning,
PAN
mentioned
acrylonitrile.

as Arificielles;

and
furnishings.,
and
The 'fibres
Therefore.
exposure Acetate

than
is melt
is
very
or of Verel Other
while
and linings,
removers The

then acrylonitrile and acrylonitrile

acetate

give methyl
composed with ibres
may
in above, inert
ammonia,
The
modified
nylon,
chey to
which spun
the an for trade
rheshould are in
sunlight

with
fibre
comonomers acrylate. international modacrylic
Commercial
shirts,
are be Textile

into are names attacked

application also his
the repeating

addco
no is whicn flame
of acrylic
popularly

beaffectearespect, Scienc
hbro linear slacks should
hor then
y The are
by
used

Source:

Drawn

Eiqure

by
the
authors. 3.9:
Longitudinal

Longitudinal

section

and
ACETATE
POLYESTER ACRYLIC
RAYON cross-sectional

NYLON

Cross

views
section

of
various

fibres