Laws of Mechanics:

Newton’s Three Laws of Motion

Basis of formulation of rigid body mechanics.
First Law: A particle originally at rest, or moving in a straight line with constant
velocity, tends to remain in this state provided the particle is not subjected to an
unbalanced force.
Applicable in Inertial frame of reference.

First law contains the principle of the equilibrium of

forces main topic of concern in Statics
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion

Second Law: A particle of mass “m” acted upon by an unbalanced force “F”
experiences an acceleration “a” that has the same direction as the force and a
magnitude that is directly proportional to the force.

m F = ma

Second Law forms the basis for most of the analysis in Dynamics
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion

Third Law: The mutual forces of action and reaction between two particles are equal,
opposite, and collinear.

Third law is basic to our understanding of Force.

Forces always occur in pairs of equal and opposite forces.
Newton’s Laws of Gravitational Attraction
Weight of a body (gravitational force acting on a body) is required to be computed in Statics
as well as Dynamics. This law governs the gravitational attraction between any two particles.

Statement: Any particle of matter in the universe attracts any other with a force varying
directly as the product of the masses and inversely as the square of the distance between
them.
m1m2
F=G
r2
F = mutual force of attraction between two particles
G = universal constant of gravitation
Experiments G = 6.673x10-11 m3/(kg.s2)
Rotation of Earth is not taken into account
m1, m2 = masses of two particles; r = distance between two particles

Isaac Newton put forward the law in 1687 and used it to explain the observed motions of the planets and
their moons, which had been reduced to mathematical form by Johannes Kepler early in the 17th century.
Newton’s Laws of Gravitational Attraction
Gravitational Attraction of the Earth

Weight of a Body: If a particle is located at or near the surface of the earth, the only
significant gravitational force is that between the earth and the particle
Weight of a particle having mass m1 = m :
Assuming earth to be a non-rotating sphere of constant density and
having mass m2 = Me
mM e
W =G r = distance between the earth's centre and
the particle
r2 Let g = G Me /r2
W = mg = acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2)
Scalars and Vectors

Scalars: Only magnitude is associated.

Ex: time, volume, density, speed, energy, mass
Vectors: Possess direction as well as magnitude, and must obey the parallelogram law of addition (and the triangle law).
Ex: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, moment, momentum

Speed is the magnitude of velocity.

Vectors

A Vector V can be written as: V or V n or V

n = unit vector whose magnitude is one and whose direction that of V
Magnitude of V =

Unit vector can be formed by dividing any vector, such as the geometric position
vector, by its length or magnitude
Vectors

Free Vector: whose action is not confined to or associated with a unique line in
space
Ex: Movement of a body without rotation.

Sliding Vector: has a unique line of action in space but not a unique
point of application
Ex: External force on a rigid body
€ Principle of Transmissibility
€ Imp in Rigid Body Mechanics

Fixed Vector: for which a unique point of application is specified

Ex: Action of a force on deformable body
Working with Vectors
Vector Addition/Substraction

Parallelogram Law: The parallelogram law of vector addition is used to add two vectors when the
vectors that are to be added form the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram by joining the tails of the
two vectors. Then, the sum of the two vectors is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram.
Only for Concurrent and Coplanar forces.

Resultant Force (diagonal) Components (sides of parallelogram)

Triangle Rule: Resultant Force and Components from Law of Cosines and Law of
Sines
Resolution of Vectors
A single force F acting on a particle may be replaced by two or more forces which,
together, have the same effect on the particle. These forces are called the components of
the original force F, and the process of substituting them for F is called resolving the
force F into components.
The number of ways in which a given force F may be resolved into two components is unlimited

RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS OF A FORCE

Sometimes it is desirable to resolve a force into two components which are perpendicular to each other. In Figure the force F
has been resolved into a component Fx along the x axis and a component Fy along the y axis. The parallelogram drawn to
obtain the two components is a rectangle, and Fx and Fy are called rectangular components
Unit Vectors

To resolve the force two vectors of unit magnitude, directed respectively along the positive x
and y axes, will be introduced at this point. These vectors are called unit vectors and are
denoted by i and j.
The rectangular components Fx and Fy of a force F may be obtained by multiplying
respectively the unit vectors i and j by appropriate magnitudes.

The magnitude Fx and Fy are called the scalar components of the force F,
The actual component forces Fx and Fy should be referred to as the vector components of F.
Resultant of Several Concurrent Vectors
• Concurrent forces: set of forces that all pass through
the same point.

A set of concurrent forces applied to a particle

may be replaced by a single resultant force that is
the vector sum of the applied forces.

• Vector force components: two or more force

vectors that, together, have the same effect as a
single force vector.
Q1. Subtract a 40 N force pointing in the positive x direction from a 100 N force at
an angle 45° to the x axis in the first quadrant and directed away from the origin.
Q2
Q3. Determine the Resultant.
Q4
Equality and Equivalence of Vectors

Equality of Vector: Two vectors will be equal if they have same Magnitude, Directions
and Dimensions
.
Equivalence Vector: Two vector are equivalent in a certain capacity if each produces the very
same effect in this capacity
Scalar Products
• The scalar product or dot product between two vectors A and B is defined as
A • B  A B cos   scalar result 
or A cos  B A

B
The work concept for a force F acting on a particle moving along a path described by s can be given as

W   F ds
The scalar coefficients in the dot product of two vectors multiply in the ordinary way, while
only the vectors themselves undergo the vector operation

 m A    nB   m A 
nB cos m A, nB 
  mn  A B cos  A, B    mn   A  B 

Scalar or Dot products are:

commutative : A • B  B • A
distributive: A •  B  C   A • B  A • C
not associative:  B  C  • A  Undefined
Scalar products with Cartesian / rectangular / orthogonal components:
A  A iˆ  A ˆj  A kˆ
x y B  B iˆ  B j ˆ B kˆ
z x y z

 
A • B  Axiˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ • Bxiˆ  By ˆj  Bz kˆ  because

A • B   Ax Bx    Ay By    Az Bz  iˆ • iˆ  1 ˆj • ˆj  1 kˆ • kˆ  1 iˆ • ˆj  0 ˆj • kˆ  0 kˆ • iˆ  0

A scalar product of two vectors is the sum of the ordinary products of the respective
components
If a vector is multiplied by itself as a dot product, the result is the square of the
magnitude of the vector
A  A  Ax2  Ay2  Az2

= A A  A2

A  Ax2  Ay2  Az2

The dot product may be of immediate use in expressing the scalar rectangular component of a
vector along a given direction
Component of C in s direction is the orthogonal projection of C along s

C S
 C cos 
Dot product of C and s according to fundamental definition
C  sˆ  C sˆ cos 

here, sˆ  1

So, C  sˆ  C cos  Hence, C S  C  sˆ

In 3-D Space:
The unit vector r̂ directed out from the origin in terms of the orthogonal
scalar components
Applications of the Scalar Product

• Angle between two vectors:

PQ PQ cos PxQx Py Qy Pz Qz

Px Qx Py Qy Pz Qz
cos
PQ
• Projection of a vector on a given axis:
POL  P cos   projection of P along OL

P • Q  PQ cos 

P•Q
 P cos   POL
Q

• For an axis defined by a unit vector:

POL  P • 

 Px cos  x  Py cos  y  Pz cos  z

Q1 Given the vectors 𝑨 = 10𝒊 + 20𝒋 + 3𝒌 and 𝑩 = −2 − 10𝒋 + 12𝒌
A.B = ?; cos(A,B); Projection of A along B
Q2. Show that cos(A,B)=𝑙𝑙 ′ + 𝑚𝑚′ + 𝑛𝑛′ . Here, l,m,n and l’,m’,n’ are direction cosines of
A and B respectively w.r.t. to the xyz frame.
Q3. A block A is constrained to move along a 20 ͦ incline in the yz plane. How far does
the block have to move if the force F is to do 10 ft-lb of work?
Q4. A force vector of magnitude 100 N has a line of action with direction cosines l=0.7,
m=0.2, n=0.59 relative to a reference xyz. The vector points away from the origin. What
is the component of the force vector along a direction a having direction cosines l=-0.3,
m=0.1, n=0.95 for the xyz reference?
Principle of Transmissibility: Equivalent Forces
• Principle of Transmissibility -
Conditions of equilibrium or motion are not affected by
transmitting a force along its line of action.
NOTE: F and F’ are equivalent forces.

• Moving the point of application of the force F

to the rear bumper does not affect the motion or
the other forces acting on the truck.
Moment of a Force About a Point 1

• A force vector is defined by its magnitude and direction. Its effect on

the rigid body also depends on its point of application.
• The moment of F about O is defined as
MO = r × F.
• The moment vector MO is perpendicular to the plane containing O and
the force F.

• Magnitude of MO, MO =Fd

measures the tendency of the force to cause rotation of the body about
point O along MO. The sense of the moment may be determined by the
right-hand rule.
• Any force Fʹ that has the same magnitude and direction as F is equivalent if it also has the
same line of action and therefore, produces the same moment.
Moment of a Force About a Point
• Two-dimensional structures have length and breadth but negligible depth and are
subjected to forces contained only in the plane of the structure.
• The plane of the structure contains the point O and the force F. MO, the moment of the
force about O, is perpendicular to the plane.

Case A: Simple Case

Case A: Complex Case
Varignon’s Theorem
• The moment about a given point O of the resultant of several concurrent forces
is equal to the sum of the moments of the various forces about the same point
O.
(
r  F1 + F2 + )= rF +rF +
1 2

• Varignon’s Theorem makes it possible to replace the direct determination of the

moment of a force F by the moments of two or more component forces of F.
Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force
The moment of F about O,

MO = r  F, r = xi + yj + zk
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k

M O = M xi + M y j + M z k

i j k
= x y z
Fx Fy Fz

= ( yFz − zFy ) i + ( zFx − xFz ) j + ( xFy − yFx ) k

The components of M0,Mx, My, and Mz, represent the moments about the x, y, and z axis, respectively.
Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force
The moment of F about B, M B = rA / B  F
rA / B = rA − rB

= ( x A − xB ) i + ( y A − y B ) j + ( z A − z B ) k

F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k

i j k
M B = ( x A − xB ) ( y A − yB ) ( z A − zB )
Fx Fy Fz
Find the moment of the two forces first
about point A and then about point B
a. Scalar Product
b. Vector Approach
 Strategy: The solution requires resolving the tension in the
wire and the position vector from A to C into rectangular
components. You will need a unit vector approach to
determine the force components.

The moment MA of the force F exerted by the wire is

obtained by evaluating the vector product,

M A = rC A  F

The rectangular plate is supported

by the brackets at A and B and by a
wire CD. Knowing that the tension
in the wire is 200 N, determine the
moment about A of the force exerted
by the wire at C.
 M A = rC A  F
rC A = rC − rA = ( 0.3 m ) i + ( 0.08 m ) k
rC D
F = F  = ( 200 N )
rC D

− ( 0.3 m ) i + ( 0.24 m ) j − ( 0.32 m ) k

= ( 200 N )
0.5 m
= − ( 120 N ) i + ( 96 N ) j − ( 128 N ) k

i j k
M A = rC A  F M A = 0.3 0 0.08
−120 96 −128

M A = − ( 7.68 N  m ) i + ( 28.8 N  m ) j + ( 28.8 N  m ) k

A curved rod lies in x-y plane has a
radius of 3 m. If a Force of F=80N
acts at it’s end as shown, determine
the moment of the force about point
B.
A curved rod lies in x-y plane has a
radius of 3 m. If a Force of F=80N
acts at it’s end as shown, determine
the moment of the force about point
B.
Pipe assembly is subjected to 80 N
Force. Determine moment of this
force about A
Moment of a Force About an Axis
Moment of a Force About an Axis
Pipe assembly is subjected to 80 N
Force. Determine moment of this
force about A
 Q Determine the magnitude of the moment produced by the force of F=200N about the hinged
axis (the x axis) of the door.
Ques:

A cube is acted upon by a force P as

shown. Determine the moment of P
a) about the edge AB and
b) about the diagonal AG of the cube.
c) Determine the perpendicular
distance between AG and FC.

Strategy: Use the equations presented in this section to compute the moments
asked for. You can find the distance between AG and FC from the expression
for the moment MAG.

Access the text alternative for this image.

 Moment of P about A,

M A = rF A  P
Modeling and Analysis:
rF A = ai − a j = a ( i − j )

P= P /( 2 ) j −( P / 2 ) k = ( P / 2 ) ( j −k )
MA = a ( i − j )( P / 2 ) ( j − k )

(
M A = aP / 2 ) (i + j +k )
• List an alternative to the position vector rF A ,

a) Moment of P about AB,

M AB = i • M A = i • aP /( 2 ) (i + j +k )
M AB = aP / 2
c) Moment of P about the diagonal AG,

M AG =  • M A

ai − aj − ak
( )
rG A 1
= = = i − j −k
rG A a 3 3

MA =
aP
2
(
i + j +k )
M AG =
1
3
(
i − j −k •
aP
2
) (
i + j +k )
aP
(1−1−1)
aP
= M AG = −
6
6
• What if, for  , you had chosen rA G instead?
How would that change the answer?
 d) Perpendicular distance between AG and FC.
First check that AG and FC are perpendicular:

P• =
P
2
( j − k ) • 13 ( i − j − k ) = P
6
( 0 −1+1)

(
= 0 since by definition P •  = ( P ) ( 1 ) cos  )
Therefore, P is perpendicular to AG.
aP a
M AG = = Pd d=
6 6

In a problem like this, it is important to visualize the forces and moments in

three dimensions so you can choose the appropriate equations for finding them
and also recognize the geometric relationships between them.
Moment of a Couple
• Two forces F and –F having the same magnitude, parallel lines of
action, and opposite sense are said to form a couple.
• Moment of the couple,
(
M = r1  F + r2  − F )
= ( r1 − r2 )  F

= r F 𝒓𝑨 = 𝒓𝟏
𝒓𝑩 = 𝒓𝟐
M = rF sin  = Fd
• The moment vector of the couple is independent of the choice of the
origin of the coordinate axes, i.e., it is a free vector that can be applied at
any point with the same effect.
Moment of a Couple 2

The moment vector of the couple is independent of the choice of the origin of the
coordinate axes, i.e., it is a free vector that can be applied at any point with the same
effect.
Moment of a Couple 2

• Two couples will have equal moments if.

• F1d1 = F2d2 .
• the two couples lie in parallel planes, and.
• the two couples have the same sense or the
tendency to cause rotation in the same
direction
Couple: Example
Moment required to turn the shaft connected at Case I Case II
center of the wheel = 12 Nm
Case I: Couple Moment produced by 40 N
forces = 12 Nm

Case II: Couple Moment produced by 30 N

forces = 12 Nm

If only one hand is used?

Force required for case I is 80N
Force required for case II is 60N
Addition of Couple
Couple Vectors

• A couple can be represented by a vector with magnitude and direction equal

to the moment of the couple.
• Couple vectors obey the law of addition of vectors.
• Couple vectors are free vectors, i.e., there is no fixed point of application –
it simply acts on the body.
• Couple vectors may be resolved into component vectors.
Resolution of a Force Into a Force at O and a Couple

• Force vector F can not be simply moved to O without modifying its effect
on the body.
• Attaching equal and opposite force vectors at O produces no net change of
effect on the body.
• The three forces may be replaced by an equivalent force vector and couple
vector, i.e, a force-couple system.
Moment of a Couple about a Line
 EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS

Two force systems are equivalent if they are capable of initiating the same motion of the rigid body.
The conditions required to give two force systems this equal capacity are:
1. Each force system must exert an equal “push or “pull” on the body in any direction. For two
systems, this requirement is satisfied if the addition of the forces in each system results in equal force
vectors.
2. Each force system must exert an equal “turning” action about any point in space. This means that
the moment vectors of the force systems for any chosen point must be equal.
Translation of a Force to a Parallel Position

▪ If at position a we apply equal and opposite

forces, one of which is F and the other –F.
▪ The system of three forces is formed that is
equivalent to the original single force F.

➢ The original force F and the newly introduced Force -F is in the

opposite sense, hence form a couple. The moment of couple is
represent as C.
Reverse Case
Resultant of a Force System
Special Cases
Case A: Coplanar Force System
Case B: Parallel Force System in Space
Equation of Equilibrium
Free-Body Diagram
Test your self
Free-Body Diagram
The first step in the static equilibrium analysis
of a rigid body is identification of all forces
acting on the body with a free body diagram.

• Select the body to be analyzed and detach it

from the ground and all other bodies and/or
supports.
• Indicate point of application, magnitude,
and direction of external forces, including
the weight of the body.

• Indicate point of application and assumed

direction of unknown forces from reactions
of the ground and/or other bodies, such as
the supports.

• Include the dimensions that will be needed,

such as those necessary to compute the
moments of the forces.

Access the text alternative for these images.

Practice 1

The frame shown supports part

of the roof of a small building,
and the tension in cable BDF is
known to be 150 kN. Your goal
is to draw the free body
diagram (FBD) for the frame.

Access the text alternative for this image.

B
The 12-m boom AB weighs 2 kN; the distance from the axle A to the
center of gravity G of the boom is 6 m. For the position shown,
determine (a) the tension T in the cable, (b) the reaction at A.
Determine the reactions at A and C when (a) α=0
(b) α =30