Let's explore these questions about language and its structure.

1. Synthetic vs. Analytical Languages

• Synthetic Languages: Use grammatical information within words (inflections, prefixes,

suffixes). They tend to have fewer words but more complex word structure. Examples: Latin,
German, Finnish.

• Analytical Languages: Use separate words to convey grammatical relationships

(prepositions, articles, word order). They often have more words but simpler word
structures. Examples: English, French, Mandarin.

2. Why Stratify Language and Speech?

Stratifying language and speech (breaking them into levels) helps linguists:

• Understand the complexity: Language is a multi-layered system, and breaking it down

reveals how these layers interact.

• Analyze and describe: Different levels have distinct features and rules. Stratification allows
for a more focused analysis of each level.

• Compare languages: Stratification allows for comparison of different languages'

grammatical systems and how they achieve similar meaning.

3. Primary vs. Secondary Levels

• Primary Levels: The fundamental, core levels of language: Phonetics/Phonology,

Morphology, Lexicology, and Syntax. These are directly involved in creating meaning.

• Secondary Levels: Higher-level aspects of language that build upon the primary levels.
Examples: Semantics (meaning), Pragmatics (contextual meaning), Discourse analysis
(interactions between sentences), etc.

4. Linguist Consensus on Stratification

While most linguists agree that language is layered, there's not complete consensus on the
exact number of levels or how they are precisely defined. Some frameworks use more levels,
others fewer.

5. Basic Language Levels

The most commonly recognized basic levels are:

• Phonetics/Phonology: Sounds and sound systems

• Morphology: Word structure and formation

• Lexicology: Vocabulary and meaning

• Syntax: Sentence structure

6. Language Levels vs. Speech Levels

• Language Levels: Refer to the abstract system of language itself, the rules and principles.

• Speech Levels: Refer to the actual production and perception of language in real-world
situations, including variations in pronunciation, intonation, and style.

7. Special Terms

The terms for levels can be quite specific:

• Phonetic/Phonological Level

• Morphological Level

• Lexical Level

• Syntactic Level
8. Phonetic - Phonological Level

Studies the production, perception, and organization of speech sounds. It examines:

• How sounds are made (articulation)

• How sounds are heard (acoustic properties)

• The patterns of sounds in a language (phonemes, phonological rules).

9. Morphological Level

Examines how words are constructed from smaller units called morphemes (meaningful
units). It deals with:

Morpheme identification: Identifying morphemes within words (e.g., un-happy, walk*-ed)

• Word formation processes: Affixation, compounding, etc.

10. Lexicological Level

Studies the vocabulary of a language. It focuses on:

• Meaning of words

• Word relationships (synonyms, antonyms)

• The history of words (etymology)

• Word formation processes.

11. Syntax - Minor Study

Deals with the structure of phrases and clauses within sentences. It focuses on:
• Word order: How words are arranged within a phrase

• Grammatical functions: Subject, object, verb, etc.

• Phrase structure rules: How phrases are built up.

12. Syntax - Major Study

Focuses on the structure of sentences as a whole. It examines:

• Sentence types: Declarative, interrogative, imperative

• Sentence patterns: Subject-verb-object, etc.

• Grammatical relationships: How elements within a sentence relate to each other.

13. Level Interaction

The levels of language do not function in isolation. They work together in a complex and
interwoven manner. For example, the meanigng of a sentence depends on the meaning of
the words (lexicon), the grammatical structure (syntax), and the sounds used
(phonetics/phonology).

14. Function of "Hallo"

"Hallo" is a greeting, a social utterance used to initiate conversation and acknowledge

another person. It carries a pragmatic function (social interaction) and does not have a direct
lexical meaning.

15. Grammatical Structure

The grammatical structure of a language refers to the rules governing the arrangement of
words into sentences and phrases. It includes:
• Word order: The order of words within a sentence

• Inflection: Changes to words to mark grammatical functions

• Phrase structure: How phrases are formed and arranged.

16. Basic Grammatical Means in English

English primarily relies on:

• Word order: Subject-verb-object is the most common order.

• Function words: Prepositions, articles, conjunctions

• Inflection: Limited inflection, primarily for verbs (tense, person) and nouns (plurals)

17. Grammatical Means of English

English employs various grammatical means:

• Word order: SVO (Subject-Verb-Object) is the basic pattern, but variations occur.

• Inflection: Affixes (suffixes primarily) are used to mark tense, number, person, etc.

• Function words: Articles (the, a), prepositions (on, in), conjunctions (and, but)

• Phrases: Groups of words with a single function, e.g., noun phrase, verb phrase.

• Clauses: Units containing a subject and predicate.

• Sentence types: Declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamative.

18. Comparison to Native Language

To compare the grammatical structure of English with your native language, consider:
• Word order: Is it different? How does it affect meaning?

• Inflection: Does your language use more inflection? What grammatical functions are
marked?

• Function words: Are they used in a similar way?

• Sentence structure: Do the two languages use similar sentence patterns?

19. Lexical vs. Grammatical Meaning

• Lexical Meaning: The dictionary definition of a word, its core meaning.

• Grammatical Meaning: The meaning conveyed by grammatical elements (inflections, word

order, function words) that relate words to each other in a sentence. For example, "He ran"
and "He runs" have different grammatical meanings (past vs. present tense).

20. Morphemic Analysis

Morphemic analysis is the process of breaking down words into their constituent
morphemes. This helps to:

• Identify the meaning of each morpheme.

• Understand how words are constructed.

• Analyze the history of words (etymology).

Let me know if you have any other questions or would like to delve deeper into any specific
aspect of language structure!

## Morphemes and Grammatical Categories: A Deep Dive

Here's a breakdown of the concepts you've listed, focusing on understanding morphemes

and grammatical categories:
21. Morpheme Revelation Procedures:

• Z. Harris: He proposed an "item and arrangement" approach. This involves analyzing text
to identify recurring patterns of sounds (items) and their positions within words
(arrangement). These patterns can suggest the presence of morphemes.

• Ch. Hockett: Hockett focused on "morphemic analysis", which involves:

* Identifying minimal units of meaning: Breaking down words into their smallest
meaningful parts.

* Analyzing distribution: Examining the positions and combinations of these units within
words and sentences.

* Testing for meaning: Determining if each unit contributes to the overall meaning of the
word.

22. What is a morpheme?

A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language. It cannot be further divided into
smaller meaningful units.

23. What is a morph?

A morph is the physical realization of a morpheme. It's the actual sound or written form of a
morpheme.

24. What is an allomorph?

An allomorph is a variant form of a morpheme. Different forms of a morpheme can have the
same meaning. For example, the plural morpheme in English can be realized as "-s" (cats), "-
es" (boxes), or a zero morph (sheep).

25. Criteria for Classifying Morphemes:

• Functional classification:

* Lexical morphemes: Carry core meaning (e.g., "cat," "run").

* Grammatical morphemes: Indicate grammatical relationships (e.g., "-ing," "the").

• Number correlation between form and content:

* Monomorphemic: One morpheme per word (e.g., "cat").

* Polymorphemic: Multiple morphemes per word (e.g., "un-happy-ness").

26. Functional Morphemes:

• Lexical: Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs

• Grammatical: Articles, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, suffixes, prefixes

27. Form-Content Correlation:

• Monomorphemic: "run," "book"

• Polymorphemic: "running," "bookcase"

28. Categorizing Grammatical Meanings:

Categorizing grammatical meanings helps us understand the structure and organization of

language. It enables us to:

• Analyze the relationships between words in a sentence.

• Identify patterns and rules of grammar.

• Develop grammatical descriptions and theories.

29. Conceptions of Grammatical Categories:

There's no single universally agreed-upon conception. Different linguists may emphasize
different aspects or approaches, leading to a range of perspectives on grammatical
categories.

30. Conceptions on Grammatical Category:

• Traditional Grammar: Emphasizes a fixed set of categories (e.g., noun, verb, adjective)
based on semantic features and syntactic functions.

• Structuralism: Focuses on the distribution of words and their relationships within a

sentence.

• Generative Grammar: Defines categories based on syntactic rules and their underlying
structures.

31. Requirements for a Grammatical Category:

• Distinctive meaning: The category should convey a distinct grammatical function or

relationship.

• Systematic distribution: Members of the category should share similar syntactic behaviors.

• Semantic coherence: Members should have a shared set of semantic features or

relationships.

32. Translation of "Level":

Please provide your mother tongue so I can give you an accurate translation.

33. Grammatical Categories of Nouns and Verbs:

• Case of Nouns: Indicates the role of the noun in a sentence (e.g., subject, object,
possessive).

• Voice of Verbs: Indicates the relationship between the verb's action and the subject (e.g.,
active, passive).
• Aspect of Verbs: Describes the way the action of the verb unfolds in time (e.g., perfect,
progressive).

• Order of Verbs: In some languages, verb order is a grammatical category, influencing

sentence meaning.

34. Types of Grammatical Categories:

• Nominal: Categories related to nouns (e.g., number, gender, case).

• Verbal: Categories related to verbs (e.g., tense, mood, voice, aspect).

• Adjectival: Categories related to adjectives (e.g., comparison, degree).

• Phrasal: Categories related to phrases (e.g., prepositional phrases).

• Clausal: Categories related to clauses (e.g., type of clause).

35. Peculiar Features of Nouns:

• Number: Singular vs. plural.

• Gender: In some languages, nouns have grammatical gender.

• Case: Indicates the role of the noun in a sentence (as mentioned above).

• Countability: Whether a noun can be counted (e.g., "cat" vs. "water").

36. Grammatical Categories of Nouns:

The number of grammatical categories for nouns varies depending on the language.
Common categories include:

• Number

• Gender

• Case
37. Regular and Irregular Plural Formation:

• Regular: The plural form is created by adding a suffix (e.g., "-s," "-es").

• Irregular: The plural form is formed in a non-standard way, often with vowel changes or
irregular suffixes (e.g., "child" - "children").

38. Means of Irregular Plural Formation:

• Vowel changes: "man" - "men," "foot" - "feet"

• Irregular suffixes: "child" - "children"

• Zero morph: "sheep" - "sheep"

39. Case in English:

English has a very limited system of case. It primarily has two cases:

• Nominative: Used for the subject of a verb.

• Genitive: Indicates possession (e.g., "the cat's tail").

40. Conceptions on the Category of Case:

• Traditional Grammar: Emphasizes case as a marker of noun function in a sentence.

• Structuralism: Focuses on the distribution of case markers and their role in syntactic
structures.

• Generative Grammar: Views case as a feature assigned to nouns based on their syntactic
position and role in a sentence.

Remember: This is a comprehensive overview. You can further explore these topics by
consulting linguistics textbooks and resources.
Let's explore the remaining questions about grammatical categories and verb characteristics:

41. Case in English vs. Other Languages:

• English: English case system is very reduced compared to other languages. It mainly has
two cases, nominative and genitive, and their distinctions are not as marked as in languages
with more extensive case systems.

• Other languages: Many languages (e.g., Latin, Russian, German) have more robust case
systems with several cases that indicate different grammatical roles (e.g., nominative,
accusative, dative, genitive, etc.).

So, the category of case in English is not as stable or developed as in many other languages.

42. Gender in English Nouns:

• English: English does not have a grammatical category of gender for nouns. While there
are some words where the gender is linked to the biological sex (e.g., "actor" - male,
"actress" - female), this is not a grammatical feature but a semantic one.

43. Gender vs. Sex:

• Sex: Refers to biological differences between males and females.

• Gender: Refers to a social and cultural construct of masculinity and femininity, often
assigned to individuals based on their sex but not always aligning with it.

44. Gender in English vs. Other Languages:

• English: No grammatical gender.

• Other languages: Many languages (e.g., French, Spanish, German) have grammatical
gender systems where nouns are assigned masculine, feminine, or sometimes neuter
genders, influencing the agreement of articles, adjectives, and pronouns.
45. Characteristic Features of Adjectives:

• Modify nouns: They describe the qualities or characteristics of nouns.

Attributive function: They are often placed before the noun they modify (e.g., "a beautiful*
house").

Predicative function: They can also be used after a linking verb (e.g., "The house is
beautiful*").

Degrees of comparison: They can express relative qualities (e.g., bigger, most beautiful*).

46. Qualitative vs. Relative Adjectives:

Qualitative adjectives: Describe inherent qualities or attributes (e.g., happy, red, tall*).

Relative adjectives: Describe a noun in relation to something else (e.g., wooden, daily,
French*).

This distinction is important for understanding how adjectives function and for their use in
different grammatical contexts.

47. Adjectives with Both Inflections and "More/Most":

Many adjectives form their comparative and superlative degrees by adding inflections (-er, -
est) or using the words "more" and "most." Examples include:

Inflections: tall - taller - tallest*

"More/Most": beautiful - more beautiful - most beautiful*

48. Suppletion in Adjective Comparison:

Yes, there are some adjectives that use suppletion (using a completely different word) to
form their comparative and superlative forms:

• Good - better - best

• Bad - worse - worst

49. Substantivization:

Substantivization is the process of turning a word that is not usually a noun (e.g., an
adjective) into a noun. This can be done by:

Adding a suffix: the poor - the poor

Using it in a noun phrase: the beautiful - the beautiful

50. "More/Most" as Lexical or Grammatical Means:

"More" and "most" are considered grammatical means when forming the comparative and
superlative degrees of adjectives. They function as grammatical markers that signal the
degree of comparison.

51. Root-Vowel and Final-Consonant Change:

Some adjectives form their comparative and superlative forms through root-vowel and final-
consonant changes:

• Good - better - best

• Old - older - oldest

52. Features of Verbs:

• Express action, state, or occurrence: Verbs are the core of a sentence and depict what is
happening.

• Conjugate: They change form to show tense, person, number, and mood.

• Transitive or intransitive: Verbs can take direct objects (transitive) or not (intransitive).

• Finite or non-finite: Verbs can be finite (conjugated) or non-finite (unconjugated).

53. Verbs as "Systems of Systems":

Verbs are often called "systems of systems" because they are a complex and multifaceted
part of speech. They involve multiple systems:

• Tense system: Past, present, future.

• Mood system: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative.

• Voice system: Active, passive.

• Aspect system: Perfect, progressive, simple.

• Person and number: First, second, third person; singular, plural.

54. Morphological Development of Verbs:

Verbs are considered the most morphologically developed part of speech in many languages
because they have a wide range of inflections and forms to express a variety of grammatical
nuances.

55. Classification of Verbs:

Verbs can be classified based on various criteria:

• Transitivity: Transitive, intransitive

• Finite vs. non-finite: Finite, non-finite

• Regular vs. irregular: Regular, irregular

• Lexical meaning: Action verbs, state verbs, linking verbs

56. Finite vs. Non-Finite Verb Forms:

Finite: Conjugated forms of verbs that show tense, person, and number (e.g., walks, walked,
will walk*).

Non-finite: Unconjugated forms that don't show tense, person, or number (e.g., walking, to
walk, walked*).

57. Non-Finite Verb Forms:

Infinitives: to walk*

Gerunds: walking*

Participles: walking, walked*

58. Irregular Verbs:

Irregular verbs do not follow the standard patterns for forming their past tense and past
participle forms (e.g., go - went - gone, see - saw - seen).

59. Basic Forms of the Verb:

The basic forms of a verb are typically:

Infinitive: to walk*

Base form: walk*

Past tense: walked*

Past participle: walked*

60. Terminative vs. Non-Terminative Verbs:

Terminative verbs: Express actions that have a clear end point (e.g., eat, run, sleep*).

Non-terminative verbs: Express actions that continue or don't have a defined endpoint (e.g.,
love, know, exist*).

Remember: This is a summary of these linguistic concepts. For deeper understanding,

explore more resources on verb morphology and grammatical categories.

Let's delve into these questions about verbs, grammatical categories, and linguistic relations:

61. Notional vs. Functional Verbs:

Notional Verbs: Express the core meaning or action of a sentence. They carry the main
semantic weight. Examples: run, eat, sleep, think, love*

Functional Verbs: Serve grammatical functions and help to create grammatical structures.
They have little independent meaning but help to indicate tense, voice, mood, etc.
Examples: be, have, do*

62. Functional Verbs:

Auxiliary Verbs: Help to form tenses, moods, and voices. Examples: be, have, do*

Linking Verbs: Connect the subject to a predicate nominative or predicate adjective.

Examples: be, seem, become, appear*

63. Auxiliary vs. Linking Verbs:

Auxiliary Verbs: Used with main verbs to form verb phrases (e.g., I am going, He has eaten,
They do not know*).
Linking Verbs: Connect the subject to a noun or adjective that describes or renames it (e.g.,
She is a doctor, He seems happy*).

64. Modal Verbs:

• Peculiar Features:

Defective: They cannot form all verb forms (e.g., can, could, may, might, must, should,
will, would*)

Express possibility, ability, obligation, permission, etc.

Always followed by a main verb in the base form

• Why Defective? They are called defective because they lack certain forms (e.g., -ing forms,
past participles) and can't be used independently as main verbs.

65. Grammatical Categories of the Verb:

English verbs have several grammatical categories:

• Tense: Past, present, future

• Mood: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative

• Voice: Active, passive

• Aspect: Simple, progressive, perfect

• Person and Number: 1st, 2nd, 3rd person; singular, plural

66. Most Intricate Grammatical Category:

• Tense: It's often considered the most intricate because it involves complex relationships
between time, events, and the grammatical forms of verbs. English tense system can be
challenging to learn due to irregularities and variations in usage.
67. Reciprocal and Reflexive Voices:

• English: English doesn't have a distinct grammatical category for reciprocal and reflexive
voices. They are typically conveyed using pronouns or prepositions.

Reciprocal: They love each other.*

Reflexive: She hurt herself.*

68. Statives:

Definition: Words that describe states or conditions rather than actions. They typically
don't have a progressive form and often express states of being, possession, or perception.
Examples: know, love, understand, believe, see, hear, smell, taste, feel*

• Why Called "Statives": They are called statives because they describe static states rather
than dynamic actions.

69. Unanimous Conception of Statives:

There's no universally agreed-upon definition of statives because:

Gradual shifts: Some verbs can have both stative and dynamic meanings (e.g., think* can be
used as both a state and an action).

• Language-specific: The categorization of verbs as stative or dynamic can vary across

languages.

70. Statives vs. Notional Parts of Speech:

• Statives: Primarily express states or conditions, often lack progressive forms.

• Other notional verbs: Focus on actions, events, or processes, typically have progressive
forms.
71. Tenses in English:

English has a 12-tense system (including simple and perfect tenses in present, past, and
future). However, some linguists argue that the system is more nuanced and complex, with
some tenses being considered "secondary" or "compound."

72. Linguistic Relations between Words:

Paradigmatic: Words that are interchangeable in a sentence (e.g., cat and dog* are in
aparadigmatic relationship).

Syntagmatic: Words that occur together in a sentence (e.g., the cat sat on the mat*).

73. Paradigmatic Relation:

• Definition: Words that belong to the same grammatical category and can occupy the same
position in a sentence.

Example: big, small, tall, short* (all adjectives modifying a noun).

74. Syntagmatic Relation:

• Definition: Words that co-occur in a sequence and form a grammatical or semantic unit.

Example: The cat sat on the mat.* Each word is syntagmatically related to the next in the
sentence.

75. Agreement:

• Definition: When two or more words in a sentence have to match in terms of grammatical
features (e.g., number, gender, person).

Example: The cats are sleeping. (subject cats agrees with the verb are* in number).
76. Government:

• Definition: When one word controls the grammatical form of another word.

Example: I gave her a book. The verb gave governs the object book*, requiring it to be in
the accusative case.

77. Collocation:

• Definition: Words that typically occur together and form a predictable combination.

Example: heavy rain, strong wind, bright sunshine*

78. Agreement, Government, and Collocation in Other Languages:

Yes, these relations exist in most languages, although the specific rules and forms may vary.

79. Syntactic Relation:

• Definition: The relationship between words based on their grammatical functions and
roles in a sentence.

80. Predicative Relation:

• Definition: The relationship between a subject and its predicate (what is said about the
subject).

Example: The cat is sleeping. The predicate is sleeping describes the subject cat*.

81. Phrase (Word Combination):

• Definition: A group of two or more words that function as a single unit in a sentence.
Example: the big red ball, running quickly, on the table*

82. Word vs. Phrase:

• Word: A single unit of meaning that cannot be further divided.

• Phrase: A group of words that functions as a unit and has a single meaning.

83. Word, Phrase, and Sentence:

• Word: The smallest unit of meaning.

• Phrase: A group of words with a single meaning.

• Sentence: A complete thought, containing a subject and a predicate, and often expressing
a statement, question, command, or exclamation.

Remember: These concepts are interconnected and fundamental to understanding

language structure. As you explore these topics, consider how they apply to your native
language and how they contribute to the overall meaning of sentences.

Let's unpack the concepts related to phrases, sentences, and their classifications:

**84. Conceptions of Phrases:**

* **Traditional Grammar:** Views phrases as groups of words that function as a single unit
in a sentence. They are classified based on their head word (e.g., noun phrase, verb phrase).

* **Structuralism:** Focuses on the distribution and relationships between words within a

phrase.

* **Generative Grammar:** Defines phrases as constituents generated by syntactic rules,

with specific hierarchical structures.

**85. Distinguishing Phrase Types:**

* **Head word:** The central word that determines the phrase's category (e.g., *noun* in
a noun phrase).

* **Syntactic function:** The role the phrase plays in the sentence (e.g., *subject*,
*object*, *modifier*).

* **Internal structure:** The arrangement and relationships between the words in the
phrase.

**86. Phrases Based on Syntactic Relations:**

* **Noun Phrase (NP):** Functions as subject, object, or complement. Examples: *the cat*,
*my friend*, *a beautiful house*

* **Verb Phrase (VP):** Expresses the action or state of the verb. Examples: *runs quickly*,
*is sleeping*, *will have eaten*

* **Adjective Phrase (AdjP):** Modifies nouns or pronouns. Examples: *very happy*,

*extremely tired*, *quite tall*

* **Adverb Phrase (AdvP):** Modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Examples: *very
quickly*, *quite slowly*, *extremely well*

* **Prepositional Phrase (PP):** Begins with a preposition and functions as a modifier or

complement. Examples: *on the table*, *in the garden*, *with great care*

**87. Phrases Based on Word Groups:**

* **Simple phrases:** Consist of a single word group (e.g., *the cat*, *runs quickly*).

* **Complex phrases:** Contain multiple word groups (e.g., *the big red ball*, *running
quickly down the street*).

**88. Sentence Definition:**

A sentence is a grammatical unit that expresses a complete thought and typically contains a
subject (what the sentence is about) and a predicate (what is said about the subject).
**89. Features of Sentences:**

* **Subject-predicate structure:** Contains a subject and a predicate.

* **Meaningful completion:** Expresses a complete thought.

* **Grammatical correctness:** Follows the rules of grammar and syntax.

**90. Primary vs. Secondary Predication:**

* **Primary Predication:** The main predication in a sentence, involving the verb and its
subject. Examples: *The cat *is sleeping*. *

* **Secondary Predication:** A predication within a phrase, often involving a modifier or

complement. Examples: *The cat is *sleeping soundly*.* (The predicate *sleeping soundly*
modifies the subject *cat*.)

**91. Sentence Classification Criteria:**

* **Structural classification:** Based on the sentence's structure (e.g., simple, compound,

complex, complex-compound).

* **Aim of the speaker:** Based on the speaker's intention (e.g., declarative, interrogative,
imperative, exclamatory).

* **Presence of sentence parts:** Based on the presence or absence of the subject or

predicate (e.g., one-member, two-member, elliptical).

**92. Structural Classification:**

* **Simple sentence:** Consists of one independent clause.

* **Compound sentence:** Consists of two or more independent clauses joined by

coordinating conjunctions.

* **Complex sentence:** Consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses.
* **Complex-compound sentence:** Consists of two or more independent clauses and one
or more dependent clauses.

**93. Classification Based on Speaker's Aim:**

* **Declarative sentence:** Makes a statement.

* **Interrogative sentence:** Asks a question.

* **Imperative sentence:** Gives a command or request.

* **Exclamatory sentence:** Expresses strong emotion.

**94. Classification Based on Sentence Parts:**

* **One-member sentence:** Contains only a subject or a predicate, but not both.

* **Two-member sentence:** Contains both a subject and a predicate.

**95. One-Member vs. Two-Member Sentences:**

* **One-member sentences:** Express a complete thought without a subjector predicate in

the traditional sense (e.g., *Silence!*).

* **Two-member sentences:** Have both a subject and a predicate, making the sentence
grammatically complete.

**96. Elliptical Sentences:**

Elliptical sentences are sentences where some words or phrases are omitted but can be
understood from the context. They are incomplete grammatically but convey a complete
meaning.

**97. Elliptical Sentence Restoration:**

* **Syntagmatically restored:** The missing parts can be restored based on the sentence's
structure.

* **Paradigmatically restored:** The missing parts can be restored based on the sentence's
context and the grammatical categories involved.

**98. Composite Sentences:**

Composite sentences are sentences that consist of two or more clauses.

**99. Compound, Complex, and Mixed Composite Sentences:**

* **Compound sentence:** Two or more independent clauses joined by coordinating

conjunctions.

* **Complex sentence:** One independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

* **Mixed sentence:** Combines features of both compound and complex sentences, with
multiple independent and dependent clauses.

**100. H. Sweet's "Co-Complex" and "Sub-Complex":**

H. Sweet used these terms to distinguish between:

* **Co-complex sentences:** Sentences with two or more independent clauses, each with
its own subject and predicate (similar to compound sentences).

* **Sub-complex sentences:** Sentences with one main clause and one or more
subordinate clauses (similar to complex sentences).

These terms are less commonly used in modern linguistics, but they highlight the distinction
between sentences with multiple independent clauses and sentences with one main clause
and dependent clauses.