Welding and Fabrication notes Welding and Fabrication notes

WELDING

Welding and Fabrication

ARC WELDING AND OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING

Introduction to Welding Technology

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Workshop rules

Workshop safety is everyone's responsibility, the following rules have been put in place to
ensure the safety of all students and staff. Please read the safety rules carefully before
entering the workshop.

• Student affected by drugs or alcohol are not permitted in the workshop

• Students with any health problems that may affect workplace safety (e.g., medication,
epileptic fits) must report these conditions to the workshop staff
• Notify the workshop staff of your arrival
• No food or drink in the workshop
• Wear the correct protective equipment for the tools you are using – ask if in doubt
• All chemicals (e.g. glues and paints) must be checked through Chemwatch and with
workshop staff before use
• Immediately notify the workshop supervisor of any faulty or broken equipment
• Ask how to use the tools safely
• Make sure your work piece is fixed securely before work commences
• Keep leads up off the floor
• Keep clear of any person operating tools and machinery (bumping an operator or get
tangled in the lead could cause serious injury to you or the operator)
• Do not talk to anyone operating electrical equipment and machinery
• Keep your work area tidy
• Clean up any spills immediately
• Wash hands after using equipment and materials
Ensure your safety in the workshop
Safety Glasses must be worn at all times when in the workshop
When exiting the workshop
Check that any tools you have been using have been put away in the appropriate spots, clean
up your work area and notify the workshop staff.

Clothing & footwear

• Safety glasses - every person entering the workshop must collect these items from just
inside the door. They must be worn at all times.
• Students that wear glasses should be aware these are not safety glasses, they are only
impact resistant and may shatter, safety glasses must be worn.
• All loose clothing (e.g. shirts hanging out) must be tucked in.
• Safety boots or enclosed shoes must be worn in the workshop. Do not enter under any
circumstances without this footwear, there are no exceptions to this rule.
• Remove rings and loose jewellery before operating machinery they can be a hazard.

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Behaviour
Fooling around and practical jokes in the workshop will not be tolerated. These students will
be told to leave.

First Aid
All accidents, cuts and abrasions must be reported before leaving the workshop. If an
accident does happen, no matter how small, it must be reported to the workshop staff and an
Accident Report Form filled out. Filling out this form is imperative for any future
complications resulting from an accident.

Fires or other emergencies

Think before reacting to any emergency in the workshop, ensure you are reacting safely
before you assist in an emergency. Do not attempt to fight any fire unless you have been
trained to do so.

Machinery usage
When students are operating machinery, all other students are to stay clear and not to talk to
the operator. If you feel uneasy or unsafe operating any tools or machinery in the workshop,
inform the workshop supervisor and help will be provided.

Introduction to Welding Technology

Welding is a fabrication process used to join materials, usually metals or thermoplastics,
together. During welding, the pieces to be joined (the workpieces) are melted at the joining
interface and usually a filler material is added to form a pool of molten material (the weld
pool) that solidifies to become a strong joint.

In contrast, Soldering and Brazing do not involve melting the workpiece but rather a lower-
melting-point material is melted between the workpieces to bond them together.

Types of Welding
There are many different types of welding processes and in general they can be categorized
as:

Arc Welding: A welding power supply is used to create and maintain an electric arc
between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. In such
welding processes the power supply could be AC or DC, the electrode could be
consumable or non-consumable and a filler material may or may not be added.

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The most common types of arc welding are:

• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW): A process that uses a

coated consumable electrode to lay the weld. As the electrode
melts, the (flux) coating disintegrates, giving off shielding
gases that protect the weld area from atmospheric gases and
provides molten slag which covers the filler metal as it travels
from the electrode to the weld pool. Once part of the weld
pool, the slag floats to the surface and protects the weld from
contamination as it solidifies. Once hardened, the slag must be

chipped away to reveal the finished weld.

• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW): A process in which a
continuous and consumable wire electrode and a shielding gas
(usually an argon and carbon dioxide mixture) are fed through
a welding gun.
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW): A process that uses a
nonconsumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The
weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by a
shielding gas, and a filler metal that is fed manually is usually
used.
Gas Welding: In this method a focused high temperature flame generated by gas
combustion is used to melt the workpieces (and filler) together. The most common type
of gas welding is Oxy-fuel welding where acetylene is combusted in oxygen.

Resistance Welding: Resistance welding involves the generation of heat by passing a

high current (1000–100,000 A) through the resistance caused by the contact between
two or more metal surfaces where that causes pools of molten metal to be formed at
the weld area. The most common types of resistance welding are Spot-welding (using
pointed electrodes) and Seam-welding (using wheel-shapedelectrodes).

Energy Beam Welding: In this method a focused high-energy beam (Laser beam or
electron beam) is used to melt the workpieces and thus join them together.

Solid-State Welding: In contrast to other welding methods, solid-state weldingprocesses

do not involve the melting of the materials being joined. Common types of solid-state
welding include; ultrasonic welding, explosion welding, electromagnetic pulse welding,
roll welding, friction welding (including friction-stir- welding), etc.

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Welding Terminology
There is some special technical vocabulary (or language) that is used in welding. The basic
terms of the welding language include:

Filler Material: When welding two pieces of metal together, we often have to leave a
space between the joint. The material that is added to fill this space during the welding
process is known as the filler material (or filler metal).

Welding Rod: The term welding rod refers to a form of filler metal that does not
conduct an electric current during the welding process. The only purpose of a
welding rod is to supply filler metal to the joint. This type of filler metal is often used
for gas welding.

Electrode: In electric-arc welding, the term electrode refers to the component that
conducts the current from the electrode holder to the metal being welded. Electrodes are
classified into two groups: consumable and non-consumable.

o Consumable electrodes not only provide a path for the current

but they also supply filler metal to the joint. An example is the
electrode used in shielded metal-arc welding.
o Non-consumable electrodes are only used as a conductor for the
electrical current, such as in gas tungsten arc welding. The filler
metal for gas tungsten arc welding is a hand fed consumable
welding rod.
Flux: Before performing any welding process, the base metal must be cleaned form
impurities such as oxides (rust). Unless these oxides are removed by using a proper
flux, a faulty weld may result. The term flux refers to a material used to dissolve oxides
and release trapped gases and slag (impurities) from the base metal such that the filler
metal and the base metal can be fused together. Fluxes come in the form of a paste,
powder, or liquid. Different types of fluxes are available and the selection of appropriate
flux is usually based on the type of welding and the type of the base metal.

Types of Welded Joints

The weld joint is where two or more metal parts are joined by welding. The five basic types
of weld joints are the butt, corner, tee, lap, and edge.

Butt Joint: it is used to join two members aligned in the same

plane. This joint is frequently used in plate, sheet metal, and
pipe work.

Corner and Tee Joints: these joints are used to join

two members located at right angles to each other. In
cross section, the corner joint forms an L-shape, and
the tee joint has the shape of the letter T.

Lap Joint: this joint is made by lapping one piece of metal over
another. This is one of the strongest types of joints available;
however, for maximum joint efficiency, the overlap should be

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at least three times the thickness of the thinnest member of the

joint.

Edge Joint: it is used to join the edges of two or more members

lying in the same plane. In most cases, one of the members is
flanged, as seen in the figure. This type is frequently used in
sheet metal work for joining metals 1/4 inch or less in thickness
that are not subjected to heavy loads.

Types of Welds
There are many types of welds. The most common types are the bead, surfacing, plug, slot,
fillet, and groove.

• A weld Bead is a weld deposit produced by

a single pass with one of the welding
processes. A weld bead may be either
narrow or wide, depending on the amount of
transverse oscillation (side-to-side
movement) used by the welder. A weld bead
made without much weaving motion is often
referred to as a stringer bead. On the other
hand, a
weld bead made with side-to-side oscillation is called a weave bead.

• Several weld beads applied side-by-side are

usually used in Surfacing which is a welding
process used to apply a hard, wear-resistant
layer of metal to surfaces or edges of worn-
out parts.

• A Fillet weld is triangular in shape and this weld is used to join

two surfaces that are at approximately right angles to each other in a
lap, tee, or comer joint.

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• Plug and Slot welds are welds made through holes or slots in one
member of a lap joint. These welds are used to join that member to
the surface of another member that has been exposed through the
hole.

• Groove welds (also may be referred to as Butt welds) are simply

welds made in the groove between two members to be joined. The
weld is adaptable to a variety of butt joints, as seen in the figure.

o Groove welds may be made

with one or more weld beads,
depending on the thickness of
the metal. If two or more
beads are deposited in the
groove, the weld is made with
multiple-pass layers, as shown in
the figure. As a rule, a multiple-
pass layer is made with stringer
beads in manual operations.

o The buildup sequence refers

to the order in which the
beads of a multiple-pass weld
are deposited in the joint.
Usually, before adding the
next pass, the previous pass
needs to cool down to a
certain temperature which is

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called the inter-pass

temperature. Also, before
adding the next pass, the
surface of the previous pass
needs to be cleaned
fromslag, especially with
SMAW, using a wire brush
or other appropriate method.

Parts of a weld

• A groove is an opening or space provided between the edges of the

metal parts to be welded.
o The groove face is that surface of a metal part included in the
groove, as shown in view A.
• A given joint may have a root face or a root edge.
o The root face, also shown in view A, is the portion of the
prepared edge of a part to be joined by a groove weld that has
not been grooved. As you can see, the root face has relatively
small dimensions.
o The root edge is basically root face of zero width, a shown in
view B. As you can see in views C and D in the illustrations, the
groove face and the root face are the same the same metal
surfaces in some joints.

groove
weld
that has
not been
grooved
. As you
can see,
the root
face has
relativel
y small
dimensi
ons.

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• The specified requirements for a particular joint are expressed in

terms such as bevel angle, groove angle, groove radius, and root
opening which are illustrated in the figure.
o The bevel angle is the
angle formed between the
prepared edge of a
member and a plane
perpendicular to the
surface of the member.
o The groove angle is the
total angle of the groove
between the parts to be
joined. For example, if the
edge of each of two plates
were beveled to an angle
of 30 degrees, the groove
angle would be 60degrees.
o The groove radius is the radius used to form the shape of a J- or
U-groove weld joint. It is used only for special groove joint
designs.
o The root opening refers to the separation between the parts to be
joined at the root of the joint. It is sometimes called the “root
gap”.

• Root penetration refers to the depth

that a weld extends into the root of the
joint. Root penetration is measured on
the center line of the root cross section.
• Joint penetration refers to the
minimum depth that a groove weld
extends from its face into a joint,
exclusive of weld reinforcement.
➢ In some cases, root penetration and joint penetration, can refer
to the same dimension.

• Weld reinforcement is a term

used to describe weld metal in
excess of the metal necessary
to fill a joint. The
reinforcement needs to be
grinded in some cases
depending on the intended use

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of the joint.

Parts of Welds
It is important to be familiar with the terms used to describe a weld. The figure showsthe parts
of groove weld and fillet welds.

• The face is the exposed surface of a weld on the side from which
the weld was made.
• The toe is the junction between the face of the weld and the base metal.
• The root of a weld includes the points at which the back of the
weld intersects the base metal surfaces.
• In a fillet weld, the leg is the portion of the weld from the toe to the root.
• In a fillet weld, the throat is the distance from the root to a point
on the face of the weld along a line perpendicular to the face of the
weld. Theoretically, the face forms a straight line between the toes.
• The size of a fillet weld refers to the length of the legs of the
weld. The two legs are assumed to be equal in size unless otherwise
specified.
Some other terms which are used to describe areas or zones of welds are:

• The fusion zone is the region of the base metal that is actually
melted. The depth of fusion is the distance that fusion extends into
the base metal or previous welding pass.

• The heat-affected zone (HAZ)

refers to that portion of the base
metal that has not been melted;
however, the structural or
mechanical properties of the
metal have been altered by the
welding heat.

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Welding Symbols
Welding symbols are used on drawings to indicate the type and specifications of theweld.
• The figure shows the American Welding Society (AWS) standard
welding symbol. The most important features of the welding symbol
are illustrated below:
• The table shows the Basic weld symbol for the different types of welds.
• The figures below show some examples for the use of welding symbols.

Shielded metal arc

welding Principle
Shielded metal arc welding (Stick welding, Manual metal arc welding) uses a
metallic consumable electrode of a proper composition for generating arc between itself
and the parent work piece. The molten electrode metal fills the weld gap and joins the
work pieces.

Process
This is the most popular welding process capable to produce a great variety of welds.
The electrodes are coated with a shielding flux of a suitable composition.

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The flux melts together with the electrode metallic core, forming a gas and a slag,
shielding the arc and the weld pool.
The flux cleans the metal surface, supplies some alloying elements to the weld,
protects the molten metal from oxidation and
stabilizes the arc.The slag is removed after Solidification.

Advantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):

Simple, portable and inexpensive equipment;
Wide variety of metals, welding positions and electrodes are applicable;
Suitable for outdoor applications.
Disadvantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):
The process is discontinuous due to limited length of the electrodes;
Weld may contain slag inclusions;
Fumes make difficult the process
control. Applications of Shielded Metal Arc
Welding (SMAW):
Submerged Arc
Welding Principle
Submerged Arc Welding is a welding process, which utilizes a bare consumable metallic
electrode
producing an arc between itself and the work piece within a granular shielding flux applied
around theweld.

Process

The arc heats and melts both the work pieces edges and the electrode wire.
The molten electrode material is supplied to the surfaces of the welded pieces,
fills the weld pool and joins the work pieces.

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Since the electrode is submerged into the flux, the arc is invisible.
The flux is partially melts and forms a slag protecting the weld pool from
oxidation and otheratmospheric contaminations.

Advantages of Submerged Arc Welding (SAW):

Very high welding rate;
The process is suitable for automation;
High quality weld structure.

Disadvantages of Submerged Arc Welding (SAW):

Weld may contain slag inclusions;
Limited applications of the process - mostly for welding horizontally located plates.
Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (Gas Tungsten Arc

Welding)Principle

Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) is a welding process, in
which heat is
generated by an electric arc struck between a tungsten non-consumable electrode and the
work piece.

Process

The weld pool is shielded by an inert gas (Argon, helium, Nitrogen) protecting the
moltenmetal from atmospheric contamination.
The heat produced by the arc melts the work pieces edges and joins them.
Filler rod may be used, if required.
Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding produces a high quality weld of most of metals.
Flux is not used in the process.

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Advantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW):

Weld composition is close to that of the parent metal;
High quality weld structure
Slag removal is not required (no slag);
Thermal distortions of work pieces are minimal due to concentration of heat in small
zone.

Disadvantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW):

Low welding rate;
Relatively expensive;
Requres high level of operators skill.

Metal Inert Gas Welding (Gas Metal Arc

Welding)Principle

Metal Inert Gas Welding (Gas Metal Arc Welding) is a arc welding process, in which
the weld is shielded by an external gas (Argon, helium, CO2, argon + Oxygen or other
gas mixtures).

Process

Consumable electrode wire, having chemical composition similar to that of the

parent material, is continuously fed from a spool to the arc zone.
The arc heats and melts both the work pieces edges and the electrode wire.
The fused electrode material is supplied to the surfaces of the work pieces, fills
the weld pool and forms joint.
Due to automatic feeding of the filling wire (electrode) the process is referred to
as a semi-automatic.

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The operator controls only the torch positioning and speed.

Advantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW):

Continuous weld may be produced (no interruptions);
High level of operators skill is not required;
Slag removal is not required (no slag);

Disadvantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW):

Expensive and non-portable equipment is required;
Outdoor application are limited because of effect of wind, dispersing the shielding gas.
Plasma Arc Welding is the welding

process Principle

Plasma Arc Welding is the welding process utilizing heat generated by a constricted
arc struck
between a tungsten non-consumable electrode and either the work piece (transferred arc
process) or water cooled constricting nozzle (non-
transferred arc process).

Process

Plasma is a gaseous mixture of positive ions, electrons and neutral gas molecules.
Transferred arc process produces plasma jet of high energy density and may be
used for high speed welding and cutting of Ceramics, steels, Aluminum alloys,
Copper alloys, Titanium alloys, Nickel alloys.Non-transferred arc process
produces plasma of relatively low energy density.
It is used for welding of various metals and for plasma spraying (coating).
Since the work piece in non-transferred plasma arc welding is not a part of electric
circuit, the plasma arc torch may move from one work piece to other without
extinguishing the arc.

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Advantages of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):

Requires less operator skill due to good tolerance of arc to misalignments;
High welding rate;
High penetrating capability (keyhole
effect); Disadvantages of Plasma Arc
Welding (PAW):
Expensive equipment;
High distortions and wide welds as a result of high heat input (in transferred arc process).
Electroslag

Welding Principle

Electroslag Welding is a welding process, in which the heat is generated by an electric

current passing
between the consumable electrode (filler metal) and the work piece through a molten
slag covering theweld surface.
Process

Prior to welding the gap between the two work pieces is filled with a welding flux.
Electroslag Welding is initiated by an arc between the electrode and the work
piece (or starting plate).
Heat, generated by the arc, melts the fluxing powder and forms molten slag.
The slag, having low electric conductivity, is maintained in liquid state due to
heat produced by the electric current.
The slag reaches a temperature of about 3500°F (1930°C). This temperature is
sufficient formelting the consumable electrode and work piece edges.

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Metal droplets fall to the weld pool and join the work
pieces. Electroslag Welding is used mainly for steels.

Advantages of Electro slag Welding:

High deposition rate - up to 45 lbs/h (20 kg/h);
Low slag consumption (about 5% of the deposited metal weight);
Low distortion;
Unlimited thickness of work
piece. Disadvantages of Electro
slag welding:
Coarse grain structure of the weld;
Low toughness of the weld;
Only vertical position is possible.

UNIT II RESISTANCE WELDING PROCESSES 9

Spot welding, Seam welding, Projection welding, Resistance Butt welding, Flash Butt
welding, Percussion welding and High frequency resistance welding processes -
advantages, limitations and application

Resistance Welding

Resistance Welding is a thermo-electric process where heat is generated at the

interface of the parts to be joined by passing an electrical current through them
or a precisely controlled time and under a controlled pressure (also called
force).
The name “resistance” spot welding derives from the fact that the resistance
of the workpieces and
electrodes are used in combination or contrast to generate the heat at their
interface.
Advantages:

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Less skill is required to operate the resistance welding machine.
1.
2. This type of welding is well suited for mass production as it gives a high
production rate.
3. There is no need of using consumables such as brazing materials, solder
or welding rods in this process except for the electrical power and a relatively s
maller electrode wear.
4. Heating the workpiece is confined to a very small part which results less
distortion.
5. It is possible to weld dissimilar metals as well as metal plates of different
thickness
6. It has a short process time.
7. It offers more safety to operate because of low voltage.
8. It produces clean and environmentally friendly weld.
9. A reliable electro-mechanical jo int is formed.
10. The heat is localized, action is rapid und no filler metal is required
11. The operation can be easily mechanized and automated due to the need of less
skill
12. Beth reliability and reproducibility can be obtained with high degree.
13. The welding process is more economical
Limitations:
1. The resistance welding machine is highly complex with various elements such
as heavy transformer, electrodes and heavy conductors for carrying the high
current electrode force applying mechanism such as a pneumatic cylinder and its
supply heavy machine structure to support the large forces and an expensive
timeline arrangement.
2. Certain resistance welding processes are limited only to lap joints.
3. Spot welds have low tensile and fatigue strength.
4. Equipment is not portable as it is heavy
5. The cost of equipment is high.
Applications:
1. Resistance welding is used in mass production for welding sheet metal, wire tubes.
2. It is used in welding bars, boxes, cans, rods, pipes and frames metals of medium
and high resistance materials such as steel, stainless steel, monel metal and silica
bronze which are easy to weld.
3. Is used in welding aircraft and automobile parts
4. It is used for making cutting tools.
5. It is used for making fuel tanks of cars, tractors etc.
6. It is used for making wire fabrics, grids, grills, mesh weld, containers etc
Spot welding

It is one type of electrical resistance welding processes. Spot welding is used for
making lap joints.
By using this method, the metal sheets ranging from 0.025 mm to 1.25 mm
thickness can be easily welded.
The metal pieces are assembled and placed between two copper electrodes and
then current is passed.
The parts are heated at their area of contact by electrical resistance as shown in

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Figure 2.2.
Then the electrodes are pressed against the metal pieces by mechanical or
hydraulic pressure as shown in Figure 2.3.

Principle

Spot welding is "the welding of overlapping pieces of metal at small points by application of
pressure and electric current."

Process

The electrodes must possess high electrical and thermal conductivity and they
retain the strength at high temperature.
So, they are made of pure copper for a limited amount of service and alloys of
copper or tungsten or molybdenum alloys for extended service life.
The electrode pressure can be in the range of up to 2 kN. Electrodes are cooled
by water during the operation to prevent overheating.
Electrodes seated in a weld head are brought to the surface of the parts to be
joined and force (pressure) is applied
Current is applied through the electrodes to the workpiece to melt the material
Current is removed but electrodes remain in place at force to allow the material to
cool and solidify
The method uses pointed copper electrodes providing passage of electric current.
The electrodes also transmit pressure required for formation of strong weld.
Diameter of the weld spot is in the range 1/8” - 1/2” (3 - 12 mm)

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Advantage s:
1. Spot welding is quick and easy.
2. There is no need to use any fluxes or filler metal to create a joint by spot
welding and there is no dangerous open flame.
3. Spot welding can be performed without any special skill.
4. Automated machines can spot weld in factories to speed up production.
5. The rate of production is high.
6. Spot welding can be used to join many different metals and it can join
different types to each other.
7. Sheets as thin as 1/4 inch can be spot welded and multiple sheets may be
joined together at the same time.
8. The procedure involves less amount maintenance cost.
9. Ability of the worker does not influence the quality of spot welds obtained by
this procedure
10. The process is usually free from burn and splash.
11. Spot welding is more economical.
12. No edge preparation is required.
13. Small heat affected zone is produced.
14. It eliminates warping and distortion of parts.
Limitations:
1. It can create only localized joins which may not be particularly strong.
2. The electrodes have to be able to reach both sides of the pieces of metal that
being joined together.
3. Warping and a loss of fatigue strength can occur around the point
where the metal has been spot welded.
4. It is suitable for thin sheets only
5. Equipment used in spot welding is costly.
Applications:
1. Is used in joining killed carbon steel, low alloy steel, high alloy steel,etc.
2. It is frequently used in the creation of auto body components with a rol
moving the spot welding device about the stationary auto frame. Typical car
body has about 10,000 spot welds.

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3. It is widely used in mass production of automobiles, appliances, metal
furniture and other products made of sheet metal.
4. It is used in manufacture of sheet metal goods.
5. It is used in assembling sheet metal to steel
structures 6, It is used in making cookware
and muffler.
7. Other applications include appliances and metal furniture i.e. virtually
anything involving the joining of sheet metal.

RESISTANCE BUTT WELDING

It is one kind of resistance welding. There are two types of resistance butt -
welding namely,

1. Upset butt welding

2. Flash butt welding

Upset Butt Welding

o For mating upset welding edges of the workplace should be

cleaned perfectly and flatten.
o The parts to be welded are clamped in copper jaws as shown in Figure
2.15.
o The jaws act as electrodes Both workpieces edges are prepared
and butted together.
o There may be some gap between parts but it should be such that no
arcing takes place.
o Then the jaws are brought together in a solid contract when the
current flows through the point of contact of jaws to form a locally
of high electrical resistance.
o At this point, the applied pressure upsets or forges the parts together.

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Advantage s:

Upset butt-welding is more suitable for welding many alloys which are
1.
difficult to welding fusion welding.
2. The metal retains base metal characteristics because the base metal does not
melt during welding.
3. The welded joint: is stronger because the hot working structure is maintained
4. The introduction of composite materials and inclusion of secondary
materials on the base metal are almost minimal.
5. Upset welding is mainly adapted to fabricate very large structures
compared to conventional resistance welding.
Applications:
1. This process is mainly used for welding nonferrous materials of smaller
cross section such as bars, rods, wires, tubes etc.
2. Upset welding is used to make closure of capsules, small vessels and
containers.
3. Is applied in welding steel rails.

Flash Butt Welding

The welding process in which the ends of rods are heated and fused by
an are struck between them and forged to produce a weld is called flash
butt welding.

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In this process, the parts to be welded is clamped in copper jaws of welding

machine.
One of these jaws is stationary and the other one is made as movable.
They acts as electrodes.
The jaws are water-cooled ha they are connected to the heavy current
electric power supply.
The workpieces are brought together in a set contact.
When the rest flows through the workpieces, an electric arc or flash is
produced.
The ends reach fusing temperature and power is switched off.
Now, the ends are forced together by applying mechanical force to complete
the weld.
In this welding, a small projection is produced around the weld.
That projection is finished by grinding. Welded parts are often called
to improve the toughness of the weld.
This process is used for the part having larger cross section This process
is suitable for welding steel and ferrous alloy other than cast iron
Advantage s:
1. Many dissimilar metals with different melting temperature can be flash
welded.
2. Flash butt welding allows fast joining of large and complex parts.
3. Power consumption is less.
4. Clean welds can be made.
Applications:
1. Butt welding is used in automobile construction of the body, axle wheels
frames etc. Non- ferrous alloy such as lead, tin, zinc, antimony, bismuth
and their alloys cannot be welded by this method.
2. It is also used in welding motor frames, transformers tanks and many types of
sheet steel containers such as barrels and floats.

PERCUSSION WELDING
It is one type of resistance butt-welding process.
The parts to be welded are clamped in copper jaws of the welding
machine in which one clamp is fixed and other one is movable.
The movable clamp is backed up against the pressure from a heavy spring.

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The jaws act as electrodes. Heavy electric current is connected to the
workpieces.
Now, the movable clamp is released rapidly and it moves forward at high
velocity .
When the two parts are approximately 1.6 mm apart, a sudden
discharge of electrical energy is released thereby causing an intense arc
between two surfaces.
The arc is extinguished by the percussion blow of the two parts coming
together with sufficient force to complete in 0.1 second.
No upset or flash occurs at the weld.
This method is primarily employed to join dissimilar metals.
This method is limited to small areas of about 150 to 300 mm.
Welding energy, E = .5 CV2
Where E= energy in watt-seconds (Joules), C=Capacitance in farads, V =
voltage.

Amount of energy required to make joints depends on the following factors

• Cross sectional area of the joint
• Properties of work metal
• Depth to which metal is melted.
Advantage s:
1. The time cycle involved is very short
2. Shortness of are limits melting and heating
3. Heat-treated and cold worked materials can be welded without annealing.
4. No filler metal is required.
5. No cast structure is produced at interface.
6. Charging rate is low and controlled.
7. It can tolerate some contamination on faying surface.
8. Welding of dissimilar metal and copper to steel is possible.
9. These welders have a long wear life for welding jaws due to very
short relatively low current welding pulse.
10. Welding of metals with high melting point such as tungsten, molybdenum
etc. are possible by this method.
Limitations:
1. The welding process is limited to butt joints.
2. Total area is limited
3. Similar metals can usually be joined more economically by other processes.

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The process is usually confined for joining of dissimilar metals not
4.
normally considered wieldable.
5. Welding is typically dirtier and less smooth than resistance welding.
6. With nib start percussive arc welding, a starting nib must be cut onto
workpieces.
7. The workpieces must be free of oil or dirt.
Applications:
1. It is used for fine wire leads to filaments such as in lamps and electric
components.
2. The method is also used to weld pins, studs, bolts and so on.

FORGE WELDING

Forge welding is a solid state welding process in which components to be joined a

heated to red hot working temperature and then hammered them together.
It may also consist of heating and forcing the metals together with presses or
other means by creating enough pressure to cause plastic deformation at the weld
surfaces.
The process is one of the simples methods of joining metals and it has been
used since ancient times.
The temperature required to forge weld is typically 50 to 90% of the melting
temperature.
Low carbon steel parts are heated to about 1000°C.
Before forge welding is done, the parts are cleaned to prevent entrapment of
oxides in the joint.
Forge welding is adaptable for being able to join a host of similar and dissimilar
metals Forge welding between similar materials is caused by a solid-state diffusion.
It results in weld that consists of only the welded materials without any filler or
bridging materials. Forge welding between dissimilar materials is caused by the
formation of a lower melting temperature eutectic between materials.
Due to this, the weld is often stronger than the individual metals
Forge welding is used in general blacksmith shops and for manufacturing metal art
pieces and welded tubes.
Mainly, automated forge-welding is a common manufacturing process in industries.

Materials Welded by Forge Welding Process

Many metals can be forge-welded such as high and low-carbon steels.
Iron and hypoeutectic cast-irons can be forge-welded.
Some aluminium alloys and copper-based alloys can also be forge-welded.
Titanium alloys are commonly forge-welded.

Forge Welding Process

The oldest forge-welding process is the manual-hammering method. Manual
hammering is done by heating the metal to the proper temperature, overlapping the
weld surfaces and then striking the joint repeatedly with a hand-held hammer.

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The weld surfaces will be formed for the proper joint and their struck with a
hammer to join them.
The joint is often formed to allow space for the flux to flow out by bevelling or
routing the surfaces slightly and hammered in a successively backward fashion to
squeeze the flux out.
The hammer blows are used not as hard as for shaping and preventing the flux
from being flaming out of the joint at the first blow.
After developing mechanical hammers, forge welding could be accomplished by
heating the metal and then placing it between mechanized hammer and anvil.
Mechanical-hammers are operated by compressed air, electricity, steam, gas
engines and many other means.
Another method of forge welding is done with a die in which the pieces of metal
are heated and then forced into a de which provide both the pressure for the weld
and keep the Joint at the finished shape.
Roll welding is another forge welding process where the heated metals are
overlapped and passed through rollers at high pressures to create the weld.

Modern forge-welding is automated using computers, machines and sophisticated

hydraulic presses to produce a variety of products of various alloys.
For example, the seam of a steel pipe is forge-welded during forming process.
Diffusion bonding is a common method for forge welding titanium alloys in the
aerospace industry.
Advantages:
1. Good quality weld may be obtained.
2 Parts of intricate shape may be welded.
3. No filler material is required.
Disadvantages
1. Only low carbon steel may be welded.
2. High level of operator's skill is required.

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3. Welding process is slow.
4. Weld may be contaminated by the coke used in a heating furnace.

Applications:
1. It is used in the production of pattern-welded blades.
2. It is used in the manufacture of shotgun barrels.
3. In some cases, the forge-welded objects are acid-etched to expose the
underlying pattern of metal which is unique to each item and it provides aesthetic
appeal.

WELD JOINTS
• Welded joints are classified according to the relative position of two
components tobe jointed.
• There are five basic types of welded joints.
Butt joint
• It is used to join the ends or edges of two plates as shown in figure.
• The surface of plates is located in the same plane.
• The edges of the plates are bevelled depending on their thickness.
• Table indicates the thickness of plates for which different types of butt joints are
used.

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Types of butt welded joints

Lab
joints:
• In a lap joints, the two plates are overlapped each other for a certain distance.
• Then the edge plate is welded to the surface of the other surface as shown in
figure.such a weld is also called fillet weld.
• A fillet weld consists of approximately triangular cross section joining two
surfaces atright angle to each other.
• Sometimes, it may also be reinforced to increase the load capacity of the weld per
unitlength as shown in figure.

Tee joint

• The two plates are arranged in “T” shape . located at right angle to each other and
theoverlapping edges are welded by fillet weld as shown in figure.

Corner joint:
• In this type of joint, two plates are arranged at right angle in such a manner
that itforms an angle. L Shape as shown in figure.
• The adjacent edges are joined by a fillet weld.

Edge joint
• For a plate of thickness less than 6mm, the ends of the overlapping plates
can be directly welded at the edges as in figure. Such joints are called edge

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joint.

Basic Weld symbols

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WELDABILITY OF STAINLESS STEELS

• The most popular welding process used on stainless steels is Gas Tungsten
ArcWelding (GTAW or TIG).
• It is the most widely used process due to its versatility, high quality and
aestheticappearance of the finished weld.
• Pure argon is the most popular shielding gas but argon rich mixtures with the
additionof hydrogen, helium or nitrogen are also employed for specific purposes.
• Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) is also used to weld stainless steel.
• It is mainly used in a mechanised system where high speeds and high productivity
autogenous welding of square edged butt joints are needed.
• PAW root weld is followed by multi-pass joint filling.
• Argon backing gas protection is necessary to maintain the corrosion resistance of
theunder bead.
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW or MMA) is the oldest of the arc processes.
• The most widely used, acid retile coated electrodes produce a spray arc type
metaltransfer, self releasing slag and a finely ripple aesthetic weld profile.
• They are primarily used in the down hand position when producing fillet and butt
welds.
• Electrodes with this coating type can be used in position but they are limited
inapplication and size.
• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW or MIG) is the semi-automatic welding process
which can be used manually or automated.
• It is employed for its high productivity features when welding thin material using
short-circuit metal transfer mode or spray are transfer with thicker material.
• Gas mixtures with the addition of oxygen, helium, carbon dioxide etc. are to
improvethe arc stability and weld bead 'wetting characteristics.
• Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW or FCW) produces higher rates of weld
depositionand weld metal overlaying are possible.
• Significant reduction in post weld cleaning and dressing is possible.
• Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is a fully mechanised wire and flux powder
shielded arc process capable of high deposition rate, fast travel speed and weld
quality.
• It is used in continuous down hand fillet and butt welds in thicker section plate,
pipe and vessels and also stainless steel cladding of mild steel components,
particularly where long seams or extended runs are involved.
• Electric Resistance Welding (ERW) method of resistance spot and seam welding
is used in mass production welding of thinner stainless steel material where the
overlap joint type of weld configuration is required.
• Laser welding is very intense and it is capable of producing deep penetration weld

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in thick section stainless steel with minimal component distortion.
• The process employs high capital cost equipment and its use is reserved for mass
production manufacturing.

General Guidelines to Weld Stainless Steel Parts

1. Excessive heat input and high weld inter-pass temperature should be avoided to
reduce high coefficient of thermal expansion and low conductivity. Otherwise,
high heat input will result excessive distortion and residual stress
2. Design criteria and metallurgical transformation due to welding may necessitate
the selection of a non- matching welding consumable to achieve toughness levels
at cryogenic temperatures or increased weld metal corrosion resistance.
3. It is important to reserve a fabrication facility exclusively for stainless steels
wherever possible. In addition, protective handling equipment and tools should be
used which are dedicated to stainless steel fabrication to avoid contamination from
contact with carbon steels.
4. The consultation of the parent material or welding consumable supplier
manufacturer is recommended.
5. When shielding gas is required for updated information on recommended gas
compositions, the supplier should be consulted by the person who takes welding.
6. When new grades of materials are to be welded, especially ferrite, martensitic and
duplex alloys, for weld procedure information and filler material
recommendations, manufacturer should be consulted.
7. Post weld dressing is done by using pickling pastes or other corrosive substances.

DEFECTS IN WELDING
• A welding defect is any now that compromises the usefulness of a weldment.
• The improper welding parameters, base metal and selection method introduce
defectsm the weld metal.
• So, the defective weld causes failure in hive conditions and damages to the
properties the defects in weld depending on thickness, load, environment and size
of the weld.
• The major defects which are causing in the weld are:
1. Lack of fusion
2. Lack of root penetration
3. Cracks
4. Cavity
5. Porosity
6. Undercut
7. Distortion
8. Slag inclusion
9. Lamellar tearing

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10. Overlapping
11. Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour
12. Miscellaneous defects.
1. Lack of fusion:
• Lack of fusion is the poor adhesion of the weld bead to the base metal.
• The parameter mainly affects the welding current.
• If the current is very low, it is not sufficient to heat the metal all over the place.
• The wrong design of the weld also causes defects.

2. Lack of root penetration:

• Lack of fusion is a weld bead in which fusion has not occurred throughout the
crosssection of joint due to improper penetration of the joint.
• Incomplete penetration forms channels and crevices in the root of the weld which
can cause serious issues in pipes because corrosive substances can settle in these
areas.
• This defect occurs due to too small root gap, too large size electrode, high
travelspeed and incorrect use of electrode.

3.Cracks:
• Fracture-type interruptions are cither in weld or base metal adjacent to weld. It
is a serious defect because it is a discontinuity in the metal that significantly
reduces strength.
• It is due to embrittlement or low ductility of weld and base metal combined
with high restraint during contraction. In general, this defect must be repaired.
• The cracks are mainly classified into the following two types:
1. Hot cracking
2. Cold cracking

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• Figure shows different types of cracks in the weldment. Hot cracking also
known as solidification cracking can occur with all metals and happens in the
fusion zone of a weld.
• To diminish the probability of this type of cracking, excess material restraint
should be avoided and a proper filler material should be utilized.
• A heat-affected zone (HAZ) is a crack that forms a short distance away from
the fusion line.
• It occurs in low alloy and high alloy steel.
• The exact causes of this type of crack are not completely understood but the
dissolved hydrogen must be present.
• Crater cracks occur in the crater when the welding arc is terminated prematurely.
• Crater cracks are normally shallow, hot cracks usually forming single or star
cracks.
• These cracks usually start at a crater pipe and extend longitudinal in the crater.

• Hot cracking occurs at high temperature and cold cracking occurs at room
temperature.
• The main causes of crack formation are:

1. Are
speed 2
Ductilit
y
3. Solidification rate
4. Temperature.
• Residual stresses can reduce the strength of the base material and it can
lead tocatastrophic failure through cold cracking.
• Cold cracking is limited to steels and it is associated with the formation of
martensite as the weld cools.
• The cracking occurs in the heat-affected zone of the base material.

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4. Cavity:
• There are two cavity type defects that may present in the weldment.
(i) Porosity
(ii) Shrinkage
voldsPorosity:
• It is small voids in weld metal formed by gases entrapped during
solidification asshown in Figure.
• It is caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases, sulphur it weld metal or surface
contaminants.
• It is due to the presence of gases in the solidifying metal which are producing
porosity.
• The gases are: oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen.
• The parameters which are causing porosity are
1. Arc speed
2. Coating of the electrode
3. Incorrect welding technique
4. Base metal composition

• The sources of hydrogen formed on the weld pool are electrode coatings.
Then oxygen becomes as oxide form in the pool. Nitrogen enters in the
form of atmospheric nitrogen.
(ii) Shrinkage voids:
• Cavities are formed by shrinkage during solidification.
5. Undercut:
• Undercut is a groove gets formed in the parent metal along the sides of the
weld as shown in Figure. The main causes of the undercut are:
1. High current
2. Arc length
3. Electrode diameter
4. Inclination of electrode.

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6. Distortion:
• Distortion is defined as the change in shape and difference between
positions of two plates during the welding.
• The base metal under the arc melts and already welded base metal starts
cooling It will create a temperature difference in the weld and will cause
distortion.

The factors which are causing distortion are:

1. Arc speed
2. No of passes
3. Stresses in plates
4. Joint type
5. Order of welding.

7. Slag inclusion:

• During solidification of weld, any foreign materials present in the molten metal
will not flout.
• It will be trapped inside the metal. So, it will lower the strength of the joint.
• Most common form is slag inclusions generated during arc welding processes that
use Linux instead of floating to top of weld pool and globules of slag become
encased during solidification.
• Other forms are metallic oxides that form during welding of certain metals suc h as
aluminium which normally has a surface coating of Al2O3.

8. Lamellaar Tearing

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It is mainly a problem with low quality steels. It occurs in plate that has a low ductility in
the through thickness direction which is caused by non- metallic inclusions such as
sulphides and oxides that have been elongated during rolling process. These inclusions
mean that the plate cannot tolerate the contraction stresses in the short transverse
direction. It is seen in large structures. Lamellar tearing can occur in both fillet and butt
welds but the most vulnerable joints are T and comer joints where the fusion boundary is
parallel to the rolling plane.

9. Overlap:

Overlap is the protrusion of the weld metal beyond the weld toe or weld root. It may
occur because of fusion problem.

The parameters which are causing overlap are:

1. Arc length
2. Arc speed
3. Joint type
4. Current.

10. Spatter:

• Spatter is small droplets of electrode material which have been ejected from the
arc which may or may not have fused to the parent plate.
• The main causes of spatter are high welding current, excessive arc length, damp
electrodes, are blow, incorrect electrode angle, incorrect polarity and poor gas
shielding.

Radiographic Inspection

• Radiography (X-ray) is an NDT method used to inspect material and components

using the concept of differential adsorption of penetrating radiation.
• Each specimen under evaluation will have differences in density, thickness,

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shapes, sizes or absorption characteristics.
• Thus, the different amount of radiation is absorbed. The unabsorbed radiation that
passes through the part is recorded on film, fluorescent screens or other radiation
monitors.
• Indications of internal and external conditions will appear as variants of
black/white/gray contrasts on exposed film or variants bf colour on fluorescent
screens.
• This technique is suitable for the detection of internal defects in ferrous and
nonferrous metals, and other materials.
• Radiography has an advantage over some of the other processes in that the
radiography provides a permanent reference for the internal soundness of the
object that is radiographed.
• X-rays and gamma rays are used in the radiographic test.
• The x-ray emitted from a source has an ability to penetrate metals as a function of
theaccelerating voltage in the X-ray emitting tube.
• If a void present in the object being radiographed, more X-rays will pass in that
areaand film under the part in turn will have mere exposure than non- void areas.
• Hence, the voids show as darkened areas on a car background as shown in Figure.
• This test is used to detect the internal defects such as cracks, porosity, blow
holes,inclusions.
• In this test, a film or a photographic plate is placed behind and in contact with
weldsurface.
• The portion is exposed to a beam of X-rays. X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube.
• During exposure, X-rays penetrate through the weldment and then affect the
X-rayfilm.
• After developing the film, a radiograph is obtained. This radiograph shows the
natureof defect.
• Blow holes, cracks, cavities and porosity appear higher than the surrounding area.
• This is a quicker method but the cost of test is high.
• The radiograph is used as a permanent record.
• The radiation may affect human beings.

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Advantages:
1. It can be used to inspect virtually all materials.
2. Detects both surface and subsurface defects can be identified.
3. It has the ability to inspect complex shapes and multi- layered structures
withoutdisassembly.
4. Minimum part preparation is required.
5. Information is presented pictorially.
6. A permanent record is provided which may be viewed at a time and place
distantfrom the test.
7. It can be used for inspecting hidden areas (direct access to surface is not

required).Limitations:

1. Extensive operator training and skill are required.

2. Access to both sides of the structure is usually required
3. Orientation of the radiation beam to non-volumetric defects is critical
4. Field inspection of thick section can be time-consuming.
5. Relatively expensive equipment investment is required.
6. Possible radiation hazard for personnel occurs.
7. Depth of discontinuity is not indicated.
8. Film processing and viewing facilities are necessary as is an exposure compound.
9. It is not suitable for automation unless the system incorporates fluoroscopy
with animage intensifier or other electronic aids.

Ultrasonic Inspection

• This method is used to find internal defects by using ultrasonic sound waves.

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• Very minute defects such as cracks, porosity, blowholes etc. can be

accuratelydetected in castings.
• Sound waves can pass through solids without any absorption.
• It can also be reflected from a surface.
• Hence, ultrasonic waves are used in this test.
• These ultrasonic waves are produced by a transducer.
• The transducer can change the high frequency electrical energy into
ultrasonic sound waves. It is called transmitter which can also change the
ultrasonic sound waves into electrical energy.
Principle:
• High frequency sound waves are sent into a material by the use of a
transducer.
• The sound waves travel through the material and they are received by
thesame transducer or a second transducer.
• The amount of energy transmitted or received and time to receive the
energy isanalyzed to determine the presence of flaws.
• Changes in material thickness and properties can also be measured.

• If the work is defect free, the wave will strike the bottom of the work
andreturn to the receiver.
• The striking of waves at the bottom surface and top surface are indicated in
theform of pip (echo) in CRT as I and 3 as shown in Figure.
• If there is any defect in between top and bottom surfaces, the wave is
reflectedback from that spot and it is indicated as a pip in CRT as 2.

Ultrasonic inspection techniques:

• Two basic ultrasonic inspection techniques are employed such as pulse-

cchoand through-transmission
a. Pulse-Echo inspection:

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• This process uses a transducer to both transmit and receive the ultrasonic
pulseas shown in Figure (a).

• The received ultrasonic pulses are separated by the time. It takes the
sound toteach the different surfaces from which it is reflected.
• The size (amplitude) of a reflection is related to the size of the
reflectingsurface.
• The pulse-echo ultrasonic response pattern is analyzed on the basis of
signalamplitude and separation.
b. Through-transmission inspection:
• This inspection employs two transducers.
• Among them, one is to generate and the second one is to receive
theultrasound as shown in Figure (b).
• A defect in the sound path between two transducers will interrupt the
sound transmission. The magnitude (the change in the sound pulse
amplitude) of theinterruption is used to evaluate test results.
• Through transmission inspection is less sensitive to small defects than
pulse-echo inspection.
• Ultrasonic inspection is used to detect surface and subsurface
discontinuities such as cracks, shrinkage cavities, bursts, flakes, pores,
delaminations and porosity.

Steps used in the testing:

The following steps should be applied during the inspection:

(a) The couplant should be applied on the inspected area.
(b) For the circular test specimen, the prop will be placed in the corresponding
space in the supporting fitting tool. Enough couplant should be used between
probe and tool.

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(c) For the flat specimen, no tool is needed and couplant is only applied
betweeninspected surface and probe.
(d) Special attention should be paid on the location where the possible cracks exist.
(e) A discontinuity like a crack produces a peak on the screen.
(f) Attention should also be given to the movement of the possible peak caused by
thecracks on the specimen.

Advantages:

1. It is a fast and reliable process.

2, Minimum part preparation is required.
3. This method can be used for much more than just flaw detection.
4. It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities
5. The depth of penetration for flaw detection of measurement is superior to
otherNDT methods.

Limitations:

1. Surface must be accessible to transducer and couplant so that ultrasound

can betransmitted.
2. Surface finish and roughness can interfere with inspection.
3. Thin parts may be difficult to inspect.
4: Skill and training are more extensive than with some other methods.
5. It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound
energyinto the test specimen.
6. Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or
nothomogeneous are difficult to inspect.
7. Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
8. Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the
characterization of flaws.

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UNIT 2 GAS AND ARC
WELDING PROCESSES

Fundamental principles of GAS Welding

• Gas welding is the process in which a gas flame is used to raise the temperature of
the metals to be joined.
• The metals are heated up to melting. The metal flows and on cooling it solidifies.
• A filler metal may be added to the flowing molten metal to fill up cavity made during

the end preparation.

• Many combinations of gases are used in gas welding. But the most common
of these is oxygen and acetylene.
Oxy-acetylene Welding

• The process of oxy-acetylene welding can be used for almost all metals and
alloys for engineering purposes.
• A high temperature flame (3200°C) can be produced by this method. There are
two systems of oxygen-acetylene welding.
• High Pressure System: In this process the oxygen and acetylene are taken for
use from high pressure cylinders.
• Low Pressure System: In this system oxygen is taken from high pressure
cylinder and the acetylene is produced by the action of Calcium carbide and
water.
CaC2 + 2H2O = Ca (OH)2 + C2H2

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(a) Principle of Oxy-acetylene Welding
• A very hot flame is produced by burning of the gases coming through the torch tip.
• The edges to be welded are heated up to melting.
• A filler metal is also added to complete the welding. This molten metal
mixture when solidifies on cooling forms a welded joint.
• Oxygen cylinder and acetylene cylinder are filled with gases.
• Both the cylinders are attached with pressure gauges, regulators and cylinder
valves.
• The cylinder containing oxygen is painted black whereas the acetylene
cylinder is painted maroon.
• Hose pipes, are provided with eachcylinder.
• These pipes are connected to welding torch
(b) Welding Process
• To start welding, the acetylene control valve is turned first. When acetylene
comes out of the nozzle, it should be ignited with spark lighter.
• It will give a yellow-colored smoke flame. After it, oxygen cylinder valve is
opened and supply is increased until a most suitable flame is obtained.
• Then the flame is focused on the edges to be welded.
• Flux and filler metal are also added with the heat of flame.
• The edges and filler metal melt and a joint are formed after cooling of the
molten metal. The joint maybe formed with or without using filler metal.
(c) Applications
• Oxy-acetylene welding is particularly used for sheet metal work.
• All the metals can be welded with proper filler metals. Same equipment
may be used for cutting purposes.
(d) Advantages of Oxy-acetylene Welding
The main advantages of oxy-acetylene welding are given be low:
1. Equipment is cheap as compared to other welding process.
2. It can be used for welding of all types of metals.
3. Maintenance of equipment is very less.
4. It is a portable process.
5. It can be used for cutting of metals of small thickness.
6. It is specially used for sheet metal work.
(e) Disadvantages
1. It takes long time for heating the job as compared to the arc welding.
2. The heat affected area is more.
3. This is prone to corrosion and brittleness.
4. Gases are expensive and difficult to store.

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TYPES OF GAS FLAMES
There are three types of gas flames:
Oxidizing Flame 2. Carburising Flame 3.Neutral Flame
a. Oxidizing Flame: When the volume of oxygen gas is more than the volume of
acetylene mixed into the torch. This flame is used for welding brass and is also
used for cutting the metals.
b. Carburising Flame: Whenthe volume of acetylene mixed is more than
oxygen, carburising flame is formed. This flame is used for welding nickel,
monel etc.
c. Neutral Flame: It is known as balanced flame. Oxygen and acetylene gases are
mixed in equal volumes. Neutral flame is used for normal welding of steel, cast
iron etc.

Fig. 3: Types of Flames

Gas Welding Techniques

There are two types of gas welding techniques:
1. Left ward welding
Left Ward Welding: In this welding the tip of the torch is held at 60 to 70°C to the plates.
And the filler rod is inclined at 30 to 40°C in opposite direction. In this method, the plate
edges are heated immediately after the molten metal. The torch tip and filler rod are

moved slowly in the direction towards left. The technique is illustrated in the Fig.4.
Fig. 4: Leftward Welding
2. Right ward welding
Right Ward Welding: In right ward welding the torch is kept at 40 to 50°C to the job to be
welded. Torch is moved towards right as shown in the Fig. 5. Right ward welding is done

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 Welding and Fabrication notes Welding and Fabrication notes
for heavy sections only.
Fig. 5: Rightward Welding
Flux
The chemicals which deoxidize the metal surface and provide inert atmosphere around
the molten metal areknown as fluxes.
The main function of flux is given below:
• To prevent oxides on the hot surfaces.
• To reduce the viscosity of molten metal.
• It maintains a steady arc in case of arc welding. Fluxes are available as liquid,
powder, paste and gas.
• Powder flux is sprinkled on the surfaces to be welded or the filler rod is dipped
into the powder. Liquid & paste fluxes are sprayed on the surfaces to be welded.
• Gas fluxes are used to form inert atmosphere around the joint to be welded
Filler
The rod which provides additional metal in completing the welding is known as filler.
The composition of filler metal should be the same as that of the metals to be welded.
Gas Welding Equipment
Details of Gas welding equipment are as under:
Oxygen Cylinder: As shown in Fig 6. Cylinder is made up of steel in capacity range
2.25 to 6.3 m3. The cylinders are filled with oxygen at about 150 kg/cm2 at 21°C. A
safety valve is also provided on it. The cylinder can be opened or closed by a wheel
which operates a valve. A protector cap is provided on the top of a cylinder to safeguard

the valve.
Fig. 6: Oxygen Cylinder
Acetylene Cylinder: As shown in Fig. 7. Acetylene cylinders are also made up of steel.
Gas is filled at a pressure of 18-20 kg/cm2. The capacity of the cylinder is about 10m3.
Regulator valve and safety valve are mounted on cylinder. Safety plugs are also

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 Welding and Fabrication notes Welding and Fabrication notes
provided on the bottom of the cylinder. When filled into the cylinder, the acetylene is
dissolved in acetone.
Fig. 7: Acetylene Cylinder

Regulator: Regulator is used to control the flow of gases from high pressure
cylinder.A simple type of regulator is shown in the Fig. 8.

Fig 8: Regulator
Torch: Torch is a device used to mix acetylene and oxygen in the correct proportion and
the mixtureflows to the tip of the torch. Refer Fig. 9. There are two types of torches:
Low pressure or injector torches
Medium pressure or equal pressure torches

Fig.9: Welding Torch

Low Pressure or Injector Torch: These torches are designed to use acetylene at low
pressure. The pressure is kept very low up to 0.7 kg/cm2. But the oxygen pressure is
very high.
Medium Pressure or Equal Pressure Torch: In this type of torch the acetylene is taken
at a pressure equal to 1 kg/cm2, the oxygen is always supplied at high pressure. Both
types of torches are provided with two needle valves. One regulates the flow of oxygen
and the second valve controls the flow of acetylene. A mixing chamber is provided to
mix the gases.
Torch Tips : For different types of jobs, different tips are used. The size of the tip is
specified by the outlet hole diameter. More than one hole is also provided in tips. The tip
is screwed or fitted on the front end of the torch. Various types of tips are shown in the

Fig.10.
Fig. 10: Torch Tips
Goggles: Gas flames produce high intensity light & heat rays, which are harmful to
naked eye. To protect the eyes from these rays, goggles are used. Goggles also protect
the eyes from flying sparks.

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Fig. 11: Goggles

Lighter: For starting the flame, the spark should be given by a lighter. Match sticks
should not beused, as there is risk of burning hand.
Fire Extinguishers : Fire extinguishers are used to prevent the fire that may break out
by chance. Sand filled buckets and closed cylinders are kept ready to meet such accidents.
Difference between High Pressure and Low Pressure Gas Welding

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