NCERT Class 12 Political Science notes PART 1- Contemporary world

politics– ORACLE IAS

Chapter 1- The Cold War Era

Cuban Missile Crisis
 Cuba was an ally of the Soviet Union and received diplomatic and financial aid from it. In
April 1961, leaders of the USSR were worried that the United States of America would
invade communist-ruled Cuba and overthrow its President Fidel Castro.
 In 1962, the leader of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev, placed nuclear missiles in
Cuba for converting it into a Russian base.
 Three weeks later, Americans became aware of it. The US President John F. Kennedy
and his advisers tried to find a solution to avoid full-scale nuclear war. But they were
determined to get Khrushchev to remove the missiles and nuclear weapons from Cuba.
 Kennedy ordered American warships to intercept any Soviet ships heading to Cuba as a
way of warning the USSR. This clash between the USA and the USSR came to be known
as the Cuban Missile Crisis. It made the whole world nervous.
 The Cuban Missile Crisis was a high point which came to be known as the Cold War. It
refers to the competition, the tensions and a series of confrontations between the
United States and Soviet Union.
Cold War
 The Cold War was the war of ideologies. The US followed the ideology of liberal
democracy and capitalism while the USSR backed the ideology of socialism and
communism.
 The Second World War (1939-1945) came to an end with the defeat of the Axis powers
led by Germany, Italy and Japan by the Allied forces led by the US, Soviet Union, Britain
and France.
 It marked the beginning of the Cold War. The Second World War ended when the
United States dropped two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in August 1945, causing Japan to surrender.
 This decision of the US was both criticised and supported. But the consequence of the
end of the Second World War was the rise of two new powers on the global stage.

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 The United States and the Soviet Union became the greatest powers in the world with
the ability to influence events anywhere on Earth.
 But the Cold War inspite of being an intense form of rivalry between great powers,
remained a ‘cold’ and not hot or shooting war. It was due to the ‘logic of deterrence’.
 The ‘logic of deterrence’ means when both sides have the capacity to respond against
an attack and to cause so much destruction that neither can afford to initiate war.
 The two superpowers and their allies were expected to behave as rational and
responsible actors.
The Emergence of Two Power Blocs
 The two superpowers i.e. the US and USSR wanted to expand their spheres of influence
in different parts of the world. Hence, they decided to take help of the smaller
countries.
 These smaller states got the promise of protection, weapons and economic aid against
their local rivals, mostly regional neighbours.
 The first division took place in Europe. Most countries of Western Europe sided with the
US and thus, came to be known as ‘Western alliance.
 The countries of the Eastern Europe joined the Soviet camp and came to be known as
‘Eastern alliance.’
 The Western alliance formed itself into an organisation, the North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (NATO). It came into existence in April, 1949 with twelve states.
 The NATO declared that armed attack on any one of them in Europe or North America
would be regarded as an attack on all of them.
 The Eastern alliance, also known as the Warsaw Pact, was led by the Soviet Union. It was
established in 1955. Its principle function was to counter NATO’s forces in Europe.
 In East and South East Asia and in West Asia (Middle East), the United States built an
alliance system called the South-East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO) and the Central
Treaty Organisation (CENTO).

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 Many newly independent countries were worried of losing their freedom. Cracks and
splits within the alliances were quick to appear.
 Communist China quarrelled with the USSR towards the late 1950s. The other important
development was the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
 The smaller countries were of more help to the superpowers because they were the
means to gain
vital resources such as oil and minerals; locations to spy each other and to launch
weapons.
Arenas of the Cold War
 The arenas of the Cold War refer to areas where crisis and war occurred or threatened
to occur between the alliance systems but did not cross certain limits.
 The Cold War was also responsible for several shooting wars.
 The two superpowers were poised for direct encounter in Korea (1950-53), Berlin
(1958-62), the Congo (the early 1960s) and in several other places.
 Jawaharlal Nehru, one of the key leader of NAM played a key role in mediating between
the two Koreas. In the Congo crisis, the UN Secretary General played a key mediatory
role.
 The US and USSR decided to collaborate in limiting or eliminating certain kinds of
nuclear and non-nuclear weapons.
 The two sides signed three significant agreements within a decade. These were :
 Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT).
 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABMT)
Challenge to Bipolarity
 Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) offered the newly decolonised countries of Asia, Africa
and Latin America a third option i.e. not to join any of the alliances.

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 NAM was founded by three leaders-Yugoslavia’s Josip Broz Tito, India’s Jawaharlal
Nehru and Egypt’s leader Gamal Abdel Nasser. Indonesia’s Sukarno and Ghana’s Kwame
Nkrumah strongly supported them. The first NAM summit was held in 1961 at Belgrade.
 Non-Alignment neither means isolationism nor neutrality. It played a role in mediating
between the two rival alliances.
New International Economic Order
 The challenge for the newly decolonised countries was to become more developed
economically and to lift their people out of poverty. The idea
of a New International Economic Order (NIEO) originated with this realisation.
 The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) brought out a
report in 1972 entitled ‘Towards a New Trade Policy for Development’.
 The nature of Non-Alignment changed to give greater importance to economic issues.
As a result,
NAM became an economic pressure group.
India and the Cold War
 India followed a two way policy regarding the Cold War. It did not join any of the
alliances and raised
voice against the newly decolonised countries becoming part of these alliances.
 The policy of India was not ‘fleeing away’ but was in favour of actively intervening in
world affairs to soften Cold War rivalries.
 The Non-Alignment gave India the power to take international decisions and to balance
one superpower against the other.
 India’s policy of Non-Alignment was criticised on a number of counts. But still it has
become both as an international movement and a core of India’s foreign policy.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. Cuban Missile Crisis made whole world nervous by creating clashes between the two
superpowers, the US and Soviet Union namely Cold War.

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2. Cold War referred to competitions, tensions and series of confrontations between the US
and USSR.
3. In 1945, with the end of Second World War, Cold War began when the US dropped bombs
on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in diplomatic manner to warn Soviet Union.
4. Both the powers became reluctant to initiate war to protect world from large scale
destruction as they were a.vare that it will not lead only political aim to them.
5. The greed of expansion of their spheres of influence divided the world into alliances. The
US built NATO, South East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO) and Central Treaty Organisation
(CENTO).
6. The Soviet UnrIri created Eastern alliance known as WARSAW PACT.
7. Smaller states „Maine either the alliance to get the promise of protection, weapons and
economic aid against their local rivals.
8. Superpower required them to gain on access to vital resources, territory to launch weapons
and troops, to spy on each other and economic support.
9. Despite of occurring crisis in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan, both the superpowers
behaved rationally and responsibly.
10. Both the superpowers maintained ‘arms control’ by signing various treaties as Limited Test
Ban Treaty, Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty and Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.
11. Countries outside the two blocs known as NAM (Non-Aligned Movement), joined by
decolonised countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, played a crucial role in reducing cold
war conflicts to maintain peace and stability all over the world.
12. Five founder members of NAM were Yugoslavia’s Josip Broz Tito, India’s JL Nehru, Egypt’s
leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, Indonesia’s Sukarno and Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah.
13. The majority of NAM members was categorised as Least Developed Countries (LDCs) which
initiated economic development under the head of New International Economic Order (NIEO).
14. The United Nations Conference of Trade and Development (UNCTAD) brought out a report
in 1972 to propose to give the LDCs control over their natural resources, to make western

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market available to them to reduce cost of technology and to provide greater role in
international economic institutions.
15. India responded to growth of Cold War into two fold. First, it stayed away from alliances
and secondary, it raised voice against newly decolonised countries becoming part of either the
alliance.
16. NAM served India’s interests also to participate in international decisions and maintained
balance between two superpowers.
17. India’s policy was criticised on grounds of possessing contradictory postures i.e. signed
treaty of friendship with the USSR in August 1971 for 20 years and developed good relations
with the US during Bangladesh crisis.
18. It is said that NAM has lost its relevance after disintegration of USSR and end of cold war in
1991.
19. NAM is based on a resolve to democratise international system to redress existing
inequities that poor and very small countries need not to follow any of the big powers instead
they can pursue an independent foreign policy also.
20. These core values make NAM relevant even in today’s scenario as it has stood of adverse
circumstances and served an important purpose of protecting the interests of third world
countries.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Cold War: Cold war referred to competitions, tensions and a series of confrontations
between the US and USSR.
2. Cuban Missile Crisis: It created tensions between the US and USSR when Soviet Union
(USSR) installed missiles in Cuba to make it a Russian base.
3. Allied Forces: Allied forces were one of the two camps during second world war
including the US, Soviet Union, Britain and France.
4. Axis Power: It was another camp against allied forces led by German” Italy and Japan.
5. Alliance System: Alliance system was created by the two superpowers to expand their
sphere of influence all over the world.

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6. Deterrence: It was a logic followed by both the superpowers to avoid large scale
destruction
i. e. not to take place hot war between them because both of them had the capacity to
retaliate.
7. Neutrality: Neutrality is a condition not to participate in world affairs or make oneself
aloof from world.
8. Decolonisation: To make colonised states free from the rule of mother country.
TIMELINE
 1947 American President Harry Truman’s Doctrine about containment of communism.
 1947-52 Marshall Plan: US aid for reconstruction of Western Europe.
 1948-49 Berlin blockade by the Soviet Union.
 1950-53 Korean War
 1954 Defeat of the French by Vietnamese at Dien Bien Phu; Signing of Geneva Accord;
Division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel formation of SEATO.
 1954-75 American intervention in Vietnam.
 1955 Signing of Baghdad Pact, later CENTO.
 1956 Soviet intervention in Hungary.
 1961 US-sponsored Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba construction of Berlin Wall.
 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
 1965 American Intervention in the Dominican Republic
 1968 Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia.
 1972 US President Richard Nixon’s visit to China
 1978-89 Vietnamese intervention in Cambodia
 1979-89 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan

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 1985 Gorbachev becomes the president of the USSR and begins reform process.
 1989 Fall of Berlin Wall
 1990 Unification of Germany
 1991 Disintegration of Soviet Union, End of the Cold War era.

Chapter 2 - The End of Bipolarity

Soviet System
 The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) came into being after the Socialist
Revolution in Russia in 1917. The revolution was inspired by the ideals of socialism and
the need for an egalitarian society as opposed to capitalism.
 After the Second World War, the East European countries that the Soviet army had
liberated from the fascist forces came under the control of the USSR.
 There was change in the economic and political system of the USSR. Then the Soviet
economy became more developed than the rest of the world except the US.
 However, the Soviet system became very bureaucratic and authoritarian. It made life
very difficult for its citizens.
 In the arms race, the Soviet Union managed to match the US from time to time, but at
great cost.
Gorbachev and the Disintegration of the USSR
 Mikhail Gorbachev, who had become General Secretary of the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union in 1985, sought to reform the system. He introduced economic and
political reform policies of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness). But later
his policies were criticised.
 A coup took place in 1991 that was encouraged by Communist Party hardliners. The
people did not want the old-style rule of the Communist Party and wanted freedom.

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 Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, the three major republics of the USSR, declared in
December 1991 that the Soviet Union was disintegrated.;
 Capitalism and democracy were adopted as the basis for the post Soviet republics.
Reasons for the Soviet Union Disintegration
There are several reasons which led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. These were
 Internal weaknesses of Soviet political and economic institutions failed to meet the
aspirations of the people.
 The economy of the Soviet Union became stagnant. The Soviet economy used much of
its resources in maintaining a nuclear and military arsenal.
The Soviet Union too became stagnant due to rampant corruption, the unwillingness to
allow more openness in government, and the centralisation of authority in a vast land.
 A section of the society was not happy with the reforms of Gorbachev. It was believed
that the reforms introduced by Gorbachev were at a very slow pace.
 Another reason for the collapse of USSR was the rise of nationalism and the desire for
sovereignty within various republics including Russia and the Baltic republics.
Consequences of Disintegration
There are many consequences of the disintegration of USSR. They are as follows:
 It led to the end of Cold War confrontations. There was no dispute of Socialist ideology
and Capitalist ideology.
 Power relations in world politics changed and thus it led to change in the relative
influence of ideas and institutions.
 The US became the sole superpower which also backed the capitalist economy making it
the dominant economic system internationally.
 The end of the Soviet bloc paved way for the emergence of many new countries. All
these countries had their own independent aspirations and choices.
 The international system saw many new players’ emerge, each with its own identity,
interests and economic and political difficulties.
Shock Therapy in Post-Communist Regimes
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 The model of transition in Russia, Central Asia and East Europe from an authoritarian
socialist system to a democratic capitalist system which was influenced by the World
Bank and the IMF came to be known as ‘Shock Therapy’.
 This process of transition was due to the Collapse of Communism.
 There was a need to make a total shift to a capitalist economy which meant rooting out
completely any structures evolved during the Soviet period.
 Shock therapy also involved a drastic change in the external orientation of these
economics.
 It also involved a break up of the existing .
trade alliances among the countries of the Soviet bloc.
Consequences of Shock Therapy
 The shock therapy brought ruin to the economies and disaster upon the people of the
entire region.
 The value of the Russian currency ‘Ruble’ declined dramatically. People lost all their
savings due to high rate of inflation.
 The government withdrew subsidies which pushed large sections of the people into
poverty. The middle classes were pushed to the periphery of society.
 The construction of democratic institutions was not given the same attention and
priority as the demands of economic transformation.
 Most of these economies, especially Russia, started reviving in 2000, 10 years after their
independence. The reason for the revival was the export of natural resources like oil,
natural gas and minerals.
Tensions and Conflicts in Former Soviet Republics
 There were tensions and conflicts in most of the former Soviet republics and many have
had civil wars and insurgencies.
 In Russia, two republics, Chechnya and Dagestan have had violent secessionist
movements.

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 Tajikistan witnessed a civil war for almost 10 years till 2001. The region had many
sectarian conflicts.
 Central Asia too become a zone of competition between outside powers and oil
companies.
 Czechoslovakia was divided into two, the Czechs and the Slovaks thus forming
independent countries.
 Yugoslavia broke apart with several provinces like Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia and
Herzegovina declaring independence.
India and Post-Communist Countries
 India maintained a cordial relationship with all the post-communist countries. The
strongest relation of India is still with Russia.
 Indo-Russian relation is an important aspect of India’s foreign policy. Both the countries
share a vision of a multipolar world order.
 India got benefits from Russia over issues like Kashmir, energy supplies, access to
Central Asia, balancing its relations with China.
 Russia stands to benefit from this relationship because India is the second largest arms
market for Russia. Both the countries have collaborated over many scientific projects.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. The Socialist Revolution in Russia in 1917 gave birth to USSR with inspiration of socialism,
ensure a minimum standard of living for all its citizens and also the government subsidised
basic necessities and productive assets were owned and controlled by the state.
2. Russia was the only republic among fifteen republics who dominates everything and people
in the region.
3. Soviet Union lagged behind the west in technology, infrastructure and could not fulfil
political aspirations of people. Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 also weakened the
system furthermore.

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4. Mikhail Gorbachev, General Secretary of Communist Party of Soviet Union in 1985 initiated
the policies of economic and political reforms to democratise the system which were opposed
by leaders within communist party and contradictory view of people.
5. The people of republic had been fed up with old style rule of Soviet bloc and in Dec 1991,
under the leadership of Boris Yeltsin (an elected leader), Russia, Ukraine and Baltics declared
themselves independent.
6. The formation of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) came as a surprise and the
exclusion of these states was resolved by making them founder members of the CIS.
7. Russia was accepted as successor state of Soviet Union by inheriting a Soviet seat in UN
Security Council, who accepted all international treaties and commitments of Soviet Union and
carried out some nuclear disarmament measures with the US.
8. Now Soviet Union had been disintegrated on the grounds to maintain nuclear and military
arsenals, awareness of people of their backwardness than western capitalism as well as
alienation of ordinary people who were exempted from any kind of privileges.
9. The rise of nationalism and the desire for sovereignty within republics like Russia, the Baltic
Republics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Ukraine, Georgia and others proved to be the most
immediate cause for disintegration of USSR.
10. Disintegration of USSR resulted into the end of Cold War confrontations, created dominant
capitalist system, emerged many new states and the advantage was taken by Central Asian
countries of their geographical locations by maintaining relations with Russia, the West, the
US, China and others.
11. The process of transition from an authoritarian socialist system to a democratic capitalist
system in Russia, Central Asia and East Europe was influenced by World Bank and IMF came to
be known as Shock Therapy.
12. Shock Therapy involved privatisation of property, private firms emergence, complete
switch over to free trade and Foreign Direct Investment, Financial opening up, Currency
convertibility as well as break up of existing trade alliances among the countries of Soviet Bloc
to maintain relations directly with the West.
13. Shock Therapy resulted in the largest garage sale in history, declined value of Russian
Currency ‘Ruble’, due to inflation, food was imported, destroyed Old Social Welfare System,
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Migration of educated and intellectual manpower and disparities due to privatisation between
rich and poor regions of Russia.
14. The constitution of newly democratic institutions was drafted in a hurry where strong
executives appointed themselves as presidents due to weak Parliament and lack of
independent judiciary as in Russia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
15. Russia revived in 2000 due to export of natural resources like oil, natural gas and minerals
which were available in abundance in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan. And from where these pipelines crossed, were paid on rent.
16. Most of the former Soviet Republics had civil wars and insurgencies as in Russia, two
republics Chechnya and Dagestan had violent secessionist movements, in Central Asia. Civil
War took place in Azerbaijan and Georgia. Czechoslovakia was also split into two. Even
countries and provinces like Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, and Georgia are fighting over river water
leading to instability and making life difficult for ordinary people.
17. The Central Asian Republics were rich in hydrocarbon resources for economic benefit as Oil
Companies and outside powers had a competition to exploit these natural resources. Also, the
US approached them to hire bases and territories during wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.
18. Russia and India share a vision of multipolar world order, collective security, greater
regionalism, negotiated settlements of international conflicts, on independent foreign policy
and decision making through UN.
19. India is benefitted from Russia on issues of Kashmir, energy supplies, sharing information
on international terrorism, access to Central Asia and balancing its relations with China. In
return, Russia has also been benefitted from India on the ground of second largest arms
market for Russia.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Soviet System: Soviet system was introduced after Russian Revolution in 1917 based on
the principles of egalitarian society and planned economy controlled by the state.
2. Socialist Bloc: The east European countries were known as Socialist Bloc because these
countries were liberated from the fascist forces and their political and economic
systems were based on this bloc only.

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3. Capitalist Economy: In this economy, land and productive assets are owned and
controlled by the Capitalists.
4. Unipolar System: Affairs at international level are dominated by only one superpower.
5. Multipolar System: Affairs at international level can not be dominated by one
superpower only, instead group of countries play an important role.
6. Egalitarian Society: It believes that all people are equally important and should have the
same rights and opportunities in life.
7. Largest Garage Sale: It was resulted due to Shock Therapy to undervalue the valuable
industries of USSR to sell them at throwaway prices.
8. Shock Therapy: The model of transition from authoritarian socialist system to a
democratic capitalist system in Russia, Central Asia and East Europe under the influence
of the World Bank and IMF.
TIMELINE
 March 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev electced as the General Secretary of the Communist
Party of the Soviet Union; appoints Boris Yeltsin as the head of the Communist Party in
Moscow; initiates a series of reforms in the Soviet Union.
 1988 Independence movement begins in Lithuania; later spreads to Estonia and Latvia.
 October 1989 Soviet Union declares that the Warsaw Pact members are free to decide
their own future; Berlin Wall falls in November.
 February 1990 Gorbachev strips the Soviet Communist Party of its 72-year long
monopoly on power by calling on the Soviet Parliament (Duma) to permit multiparty
politics.
 March 1990 Lithuania becomes the first of the 15 Soviet republics to declare its
independence.
 June 1990 Russian parliament declares its dependence from the Soviet Union.
 June 1991 Yeltsin, no longer in the Communist Party, becomes the President of Russia.

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 August 1991 The Communist Party hardliners stage an abortive coup against
Gorbachev.
 September 1991 Three Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania becomes UN
members (Later join NATO in March 2004).
 December 991 Russia, Belarus and Ukraine decided to annul the 1992 Treaty on the
creation of the USSR and establish the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS);
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan joined the CIS (Georgia joined later in 1993); Russia took ones the USSR seat
in the United Nations.
 25 December 1991 Gorbachev resigns as the President of the Soviet Union; the end of
the Soviet Union.

Chapter 3 - US Hegemony in World Politics

Beginning of the ‘New World Order’ by the US
 The disintegration of USSR led to the beginning of the US hegemony in 1991. It
remained with all its powers enhanced and intact.
 Kuwait was invaded by Iraq in August 1990 and was subsequently annexed. After a
series of diplomatic attempts failed at convincing Iraq to quit its aggression, the United
Nations mandated the liberation of Kuwait by force. This decision of UN was hailed by
the US President George HW Bush as the emergence of a ‘New World Order.’
 The First Gulf War took place in which Iraq was defeated by a coalition force of 6,60,000
troops from 34 countries. It was known as ‘Operation Desert Storm’ or ‘First Gulf War’.
 The war was overwhelmingly American. It revealed the vast technological gap that had
opened up between the US military capability and other countries.
The Clinton Years
 George HW Bush lost the US Presidential elections of 1992 to William Jefferson (Bill)
Clinton of the Democratic party.
 During this era, it was believed that the US had withdrawn into its internal affairs and
was not fully engaged in world politics.
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 The government led by Clinton focused on ‘soft issues’ like democracy promotion,
climate change and world trade rather than ‘hard politics’.
 Still, the US showed its military powers. Firstly, in 1999 in response to Yugoslavian
actions against the pre-dominantly Albanian population in the province of Kosovo.
Secondly, in response to the bombing of the US embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Dar-es-
Salaam.
 ‘Operation Infinite Reach’, launched by the US, was a series of cruise missile strikes on
Al-Qaeda terrorist targets in Sudan and Afghanistan.
9/11 and the ‘Global War on Terror
 On 11th September 2001, four American commercial aircrafts were hijacked and flew
into important buildings in the US.
 The first and second airline crashed into the North and South Towers of the World Trade
Centre (New York), the third crashed into the Pentagon building (Arlington, Virginia) and
the fourth aircraft came down in a field in Pennsylvania. These attacks came to be
known as ‘9/11’.
 The US response to 9/11 was swift and ferocious. George W Bush had succeeded Clinton
in the US Presidency.
 The US launched ‘Operation Enduring Freedom’ as a part of its ‘Global War on Terror’.
 The operation was against all those suspected to be behind the 9/11 attack, mainly Al-
Qaeda and the Taliban regime in Afghanistan.
 Arrests were made all over the world by the US forces often without the knowledge of
the government of the persons being arrested.
 These persons were transported across countries and detained in secret prisons.
The Iraq Invasion
 Operation Iraqi Freedom’ was launched by the US on 19th March, 2003 and was joined
by more than forty other countries.
 The purpose of the invasion was to prevent Iraq from developing Weapons of Mass
Destruction (WMD).
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 As there was no evidence of WMD, it is speculated that the invasion was motivated by
other objectives such as controlling Iraqi oilfields, etc.
 The US invasion of Iraq was both a military and political failure as around 3000 US
military personnel were lost and Iraqi casualities were much higher.
Constraints on American Power
 There are three constraints on American power. The institutional architecture of the
America is the first constraint.
 The second constraint is domestic in nature and stems from the open nature of
American society. There is a deep scepticism regarding the purposes and methods of
government in American political culture.
 The third constraint on American power is the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
(NATO) which is only organisation in the international system that could possibly
moderate the exercise of American power.
India’s Relationship with the US
 During the Cold War, India closest friendship was with the Soviet Union.
 Over the years, India decided to liberalise its economy and integrate it with the global
economy. This made India an attractive economic partner for a number of countries
including the US.
 Two new factors emerged in Indo-US relations in recent years. They include :
 Technological dimension
 The role of the Indian-American diaspora.
 There are three different strategies to decide what kind of relationship India should
have with USA. They are as follows :
 Those Indian analysts who see international politics in terms of military power,
prefer that India should maintain its distance from US and should focus upon
increasing its own national power.

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 Other analysts see the growing convergence of interests between US and India as
a historic opportunity for India.
 A third group of analysts advocate that India should take the lead in establishing
the coalition of countries from developing world.
 Indo-US relations are too difficult to manage by a sole strategy. There should be mixing
of foreign policy strategies of deal with the US.
Meaning of Hegemony
 The word ‘hegemony’ means the leadership or predominance of one state over others
by virtue of its military, economic, political power and cultural superiority.
 Politics is all about gaining power. In world politics, countries and groups of countries
are engaged in constantly trying to gain and retain power.
 It is important to understand the distribution of power among the countries of the
world in order to understand world politics.
 During the Cold War Era, there were two superpowers, the US and the USSR. But after
the disintegration of USSR, only a single power was left i.e. the US.
 The international system dominated by a sole superpower or hyper-power is sometimes
called a ‘unipolar system’.
Hegemony as Hard Power
 Hegemony relates to the relations, patterns and balances of military capability between
states.
 The base of US power lies in the overwhelming superiority of its military power. It is
both absolute and relative.
 The military dominance of the US is not just based on higher military spending but on a
qualitative gap.
 But still, the US invasion of Iraq reveals weakness of American power as it was not able
to force the Iraqi people into submitting to the occupation forces of the US-led coalition.
Hegemony as Structural Power
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 The idea behind this type of hegemony is that an open world economy requires a
hegemon or dominant power to support its creation and existence.
 In this sense, hegemony is reflected in the role played by the US in providing global
public goods. The best examples of global public goods are Sea-Lanes of Communication
(SLOCs), Internet, roads, etc.
 The economic preponderance of the US is inseparable from its structural power, which
is the power to shape the global economy in a particular way.
 Another example of the structural power of the US is the academic degree called the
Masters in Business Administration (MBA). The idea of teaching skills for business is
uniquely American.
Hegemony as Soft Power
 In this type of hegemony, it implies class ascendancy in the social, political and
particularly ideological spheres.
 It suggests that a dominant power not only possess military power but also ideological
resources to shape the behaviour of competing and lesser powers.
 The US predominance in the world is based not only on its military power and economic
powers but on its cultural presence.
 During the Cold War, the US scored notable victories in the area of structural power and
soft power rather than hard power.
Overcoming the Hegemony
 It is important to understand that there is no single power to balance the US military.
There are various strategies which can be helpful to overcome the hegemony.
 According to the Bandwagon Strategy, it is suggested that instead of engaging in
activities opposed to the hegemonic power, it is advisable to extract benefits by
operating within the hegemonic system.
 Hide Strategy implies staying as far removed from the dominant power as possible.
China, Russia and the European Union are many examples of this behaviour.

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 Another belief is that resistance to American hegemony may come from non-state
actors rather than other states. It is believed that challenges to US hegemony will come
from a combination of Non-Government Organisations (NGOs), social movements and
public opinion.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. America refers to the United States of America. It covers two continents—the North and the
South America, the US is only one of the countries of the continent which is a symbol of US
hegemony.
2. After the disintegration of USSR in 1991, the first instance of US hegemony came into
observation through Operation Desert Storm by the UN during first Gulf War to retreat Iraqi
forces from Kuwait. This operation was dominated and won by the US due to vast
technological gap between the US military capability and other states.
3. William Jefferson (Bill) Clinton, the newly elected President of the US in 1992 and again
in 1996, focused on soft issues like democracy promotions, climate change and world trade
rather than of military power and security. .
4. The above mentioned policies of the US were contradicted in response to Yugoslavian
action against predominant Albanian population in Kosovo by targeting bombards through
Operation Infinite against Al-Qaeda in response to the bombings of US embassies in Nairobi,
Kenya, Dar-es-Salaam and Tanzania in 1998.
5. On 11 September 2001, nineteen hijackers hailing from a number of Arab countries took
control of four commercial aircrafts shortly after take off and crushed into World Trade Centre
in New York, Pentagon building in Arlington. Virginia (US Defence Department) and the capital
building of the US Congress in Pennysylvania, came to be known as event of 9/11 in the US.
6. In response to 9/11, George W. Bush won the elections in the US succeeding Bill Clinton.
The US launched Operation Enduring Freedom against all those suspected behind attack in
9/11 mainly Al-Qaeda and Taliban regime.
7. The US forces made arrests all over the world, transported and detained the persons in
secret prisons like Guantanamo Bay, a US navy base in Cuba where the prisoners did not enjoy
the protection of international law or the law of their own country or that of the US. Even the
UN representatives were not allowed to meet these persons.

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8. On 19 March 2003, the US launched Operation Iraqi Freedom to prevent Iraq from
developing Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) in the ostensible purpose to control oil fields
and installing a regime in Iraq friendly to US.
9. Hegemony is an international system with only one centre of power to be gained and
retained in the form of military domination, economic political chart and central superiority
which was enjoyed only by the US after disintegration of Soviet Union.
10. Hegemony as hard power is based on military capabilities of a country and the US has
proved it. The US today spends more on its military than the next 12 powers and even
technologically no other power can match with the US.
11. Hegemony as structural power must sustain global structure in economic sense. The US
has provided global public goods as sea lanes of communications (SLOCs) as well as accounts
for 15 percent of world trade if EU is included and 20 per cent in world economy. The US has
contributed basic economic structure in the form of Bretton Woods System and Degree in
MBA.
12. Hegemony as soft power implies class ascendency in social, political and ideological
spheres which is more effective than coercion to more hand in hand and the US was proved
ultimately triumphant in this.
13. Though the US has been a hegemonic power, still it experiences some constraints in itself
as institutional architecture (division of power). Open nature of American Society and the
presence of only one organisation in international system to moderate the exercise of
American Power i.e. NATO.
14. After the collapse of Soviet Union, India decided to liberalise its economy and integrate it
with global economy. Hence the US also found India an attractive economic partner due to
technological dimension and the role of Indian-American diaspora.
15. India needs an appropriate mix of foreign policy strategies to deal with the US. Either India
should maintain aloofness from Washington and comprehend its military power or to establish
mutual convergences or to lead a coalition in weaning the hegemony assay from its
dominance.
16. To deal with the hegemony, all the states bear the different strategies either to extract
benefits by operating within hegemonic system or to stay away as far as possible from

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dominant power i.e. Russia, China and European Union have opted this policy. Both the
policies are known as Bandwagon Strategy and to hide respectively.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. America: It covers two continents of North and South America and the US is only one of
the countries of American continent that symbolises US hegemony.
2. 9/11: To denote a series of attacks on the US by hijackers from Arab countries on 11
Sep, 2001. It was the most disastrous attack on the US.
3. Guantanamo Bay: A naval base in Cuba set up by the US where prisoners are forbidden
of the protection of international law or law of their own country or that of the US.
4. Hegemony: An international system to dominate world by only one superpower.
5. Qualitative Gap: It signifies US superiority in technology and no other power could dare
to challenge the US.
6. Bandwagon Strategy: To extract benefits by operating within hegemonic system in
place of opposing it.
7. Global Village: It refers to the US as the village headman and all the nations as its
members are neighbours.
8. Manufacturing Consent: It refers to win the consent of countries to the dominating
power in a manner favourable to ascendancy of the dominant class.
9. Bretton Woods System: A basic economic structure of world set up by the US after
Second World War.
10. Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCs): It is the naval power of hegemony that
underwrites the law of the sea and ensures freedom of navigation in international
waters. These sea routes commonly waded by merchant ships.

Chapter 4 - Alternative Centres of Power

European Union

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 After the end of the Second World War, there was a dilemma among many European
leaders over the status of Europe. The Second World War shattered the structure on
which the European states had based their relations.
 The Cold War aided the integration of Europe after 1945. The European economy was
revived by the extensive financial support by USA under the ‘Marshall Plan’.
 The Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was established in 1948 to
channel aid to the West European states. Another step forward in political cooperation
was the establishment of the council of Europe in 1949.
 The disintegration of USSR led to the formation of European Union in 1992 which laid
the foundation for a common foreign and security policy, cooperation on justice and
creation of a single currency.
 The European Union has evolved over time from an economic union to an increasingly
political one.
 The European Union has economic, political, diplomatic and military influence.
 Economically, the European Union is the world’s biggest economy. It had a GDP of more
than $12 trillion in 2005. Its currency Euro, can pose a threat to the dominance of the US
dollar.
 On the political and diplomatic ground, Britain and France, the two members of EU are
permanent members of the UN Security Council.
 In the defence field, the European Union’s combined armed forces are the second
largest in the world.
Association of South East Asian Nations [ASEAN]
 Before and during the Second World War, the South East Asia suffered a lot from
repeated colonialism i.e. both European and Japanese.
 There were problems of nation-building, ravages of poverty and economic
backwardness and a pressure to align with any of the two super blocs.
 The South East Asian Countries established the Association of South East Asian Nations
(ASEAN) in 1967 as an alternative to Bandung conference and the Non-Aligned

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Movement.
On the ASEAN logo, the ten stalks of paddy (Rice) represent the ten South East Asian
countries bound together in friendship and solidarity. The circle symbolises the unity of
ASEAN.
 There were five founding countries-Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and
Thailand.
 The objectives of ASEAN was to accelerate economic growth, social progress, promote
regional peace, stability and cultural development.
 The members of the association promoted ASEAN way, a form of interaction that is
informal, non-confrontationist and cooperative.
 In 2003, an ASEAN community was established comprising three pillars, namely, the
ASEAN security community, the ASEAN economic community and the ASEAN socio-
cultural community.
 The member states promised to uphold peace, neutrality, cooperation, non-interference
and respect for national differences and sovereign rights.
 The ASEAN economic community aims for a common market and to aid social and
economic development in the region.
 ASEAN has a vision 2020 which has defined an outward looking role for ASEAN in the
international community.
Rise of the Chinese Economy
 China has been growing as an economic power since 1978. It is projected to overtake
the US as the world’s largest economy by 2040. In 1949, the economy of the China was
based on the Soviet model. It now relied on its own resources.
 During 1970’s, China established relations with the USA ending its political and
economic isolation.
 An ‘Open Door Policy’ was announced by Deng Xiaoping in 1978, which aimed at
generating high productivity by investments in capital and technology from abroad.

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 Special economic zones were set up. State had a centralised role in setting up of China’s
economy.
 Still the Chinese economy did not benefit everyone in China. The rate of unemployment
has risen, working conditions and female employment is bad.
 However, regionally and globally, China has been in limelight economic power.
India-China Relations
 India and China had a cordial relations since time immemorial. Both have political,
economic and cultural relations.
 After India gained independence, both the countries shared a peaceful relation. During
this period the slogan of ‘Hindi-Chini-Bhai Bhai’ was popular.
 Very soon both the countries involved in border dispute. The difference aroused from
the Chinese takeover of Tibet in 1950.
 India suffered military reverses in the conflict of 1962. Diplomatic relations between the
two countries were downgraded until 1976.
 It was during the visit paid by Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi to China in 1988
December, the relation between the two countries started improving.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. After the Second World War, Europe shattered the assumptions and structures on which
the European states had based their relations.
2. To revive European economy, the US introduced ‘Marshall Plan’ to establish organisation for
European Economic Cooperation in 1948. Through OEEL, Western European States began to
cooperate on trade and economic issues.
3. European Union established in 1992, was a group of European Capitalist countries with a
common foreign and security policy, cooperation on justice and home affairs and creation of
single currency and also has its own flag, anthem and founding date.
4. The European Union has economic, political, diplomatic and military influence as the EU is
the world’s biggest economy which gives it influence over its closest neighbours and in Asia

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and Africa. And it functions as an important bloc in international world economic organisation
as the World Trade Organisation.
5. In political and diplomatic influence, two members of EU, Britain and France hold
permanent seat in the UN Security Council as well as non-permanent members in UNSC which
enabled to influence the US policies i.e. current position on Iran’s nuclear programme, use of
diplomacy, economic investment and in case of a dialogue with China on human rights and
environmental degradation.
6. Militarily, the EU’s combined armed forces are the second largest in the world by spending
second after the US and Britain and France also have nuclear arsenal. And it is the most
important source of space and communications technology also.
7. Though EU bears common interests. Still, its member states have their own foreign relations
and defence policies that are often at odds with each other i.e. Britain favoured the US’s Iraq
invasion which other members of EU Germany and France opposed America’s this policy. All
these limit the ability of the EU to act in matters of foreign relations and defence.
8. Before and during the Second World War South East regions of Asia suffered economic
political consequences of repeated colonialism as well as at the end of war it confronted with
the problems of nation building which gave birth to Association of South East Asian Nations
popularly known as ASEAN for uniform cooperation and interaction.
9. ASEAN was established in 1967 by five countries of this region-Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines, Singapore and Thailand by signing the Bangkok Declaration. Over the years Brunei,
Darussalam, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Cambodia made its strength to ten.
10. ASEAN countries celebrated the ASEAN WAY’, a form of informal interaction, non-
confrontation and cooperation standing on three pillars in 2003 i.e. ASEAN Security
Committee, ASEAN Economic Committee and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Committee.
11. ASEAN VISION 2020 encourages negotiations over the conflicts in the region by mediating
the end of Cambodian conflict, East Umar Crisis and meets annually to discuss East Asian
Cooperation.
12. In recent years, India has also tried to make agreements with ASEAN by signing Free Trade
Areas with two ASEAN members—Singapore and Thailand as well as signed on FTA with
ASEAN itself.

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13. China emerged as the fastest growing economy since economic reforms of 1978 to be
projected to overtake the US as the world’s largest economy by 2040 with the economic
strength of population, land mass, resources, regional location and political influence.
14. After independence of People’s Republic of China in 1949, Soviet model of economy was
adopted under the leadership of Mao by assuring employment, social welfare, education to all
and better health as China began to use its own resources and grow Chinese economy at the
rate of 5-6 percent.
15. China ended its political and economic isolation with major policy decisions taken in 1970s.
These included China-US relations establishment in 1972, four areas of modernisation
(Agriculture, Industry, Science and Technology) in 1973, open door policy in 1978, privatisation
of agriculture and industries in 1982 and 1990 and setting up of special Economic Zones.
16. Regionally and globally China is going to be recognised as an economic power due to
contributory factors i.e. integration and interdependency have tempered its issues with Japan,
the US, ASEAN, Russia, Taiwan. Even China’s outward-looking investment and aid policies in
Latin America and Africa are projecting it as a global player.
17. Indo-China relations experienced friendly gestures at the moments, but 1950 onwards
both the nations were involved in the differences on the issues of Tibet problem, border issues
in Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin area of Ladakh, Chinese attack in 1962 and Chinese
contribution to Pakistan’s nuclear programme.
18. Relations between India and China began to improve slowly from the mid-1970, by a series
of talks to resolve border issues in 1981 and now these relations have strategic and economic
dimensions.
19. Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China in 1980, Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s visit in 2003 have
accommodated both the countries to maintain peace and tranquillity on the border.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. European Union: A group of European Capitalist countries established in 1992 founded
for common goals of foreign and security policy, cooperation and home affairs.
2. OEEC: Organisation for European Economic Cooperation established in 1948 to channel
aid to West European states to cooperate on trade and economic issues.

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3. Marshall Plan: It was introduced by America to provide financial help for revival of
European economy.
4. ASEAN: Association of South East Asian Nations to accelerate economic growth through
social progress and cultural development.
5. ASEAN WAY: An interaction that is informal, non-confrontationists and cooperative to
promote supernational structures.
6. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF): An organisation established in 1994 to promote
coordination of security and foreign policy.
7. Special Economic Zones (SEZs): Foreign investors could set up their own enterprises in
these zones.
8. Open Door Policy: To invite investment of capital and technology from abroad.
9. Three Pillars of ASEAN Community: ASEAN Security Community, ASEAN Economic
Community, ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community.
TIMELINE
1. April 1951: Six West European Countries, France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the
Netherlands and Luxembourg sign the Treaty of Paris establishing the European Coal
and Steel Community (ECSC).
2. March 25, 1957: These six countries sign the treaties of Rome establishing the European
Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM).
3. January 1973: Denmark, Ireland and United Kingdom join the European Community.
4. June 1979: First direct elections to the European Parliament.
5. January 1981: Greece joins the EC.
6. June 1985: The Schengen Agreement abolishes border controls among the EC numbers.
7. January 1986: Spain and Portugal join the EC.
8. October 1990: Unification of Germany.
9. February 7, 1992: Treaty of Maastricht was signed establishing the European Union.
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10. January 1993: The single market was created.

11. January 1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU.
12. January 2002: Euro, the new currency, was introduced in the 12 EU members.
13. May 2004: Ten new members Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,
Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia join the EU.
14. January 2007: Bulgaria and Romania join the EU. Slovenia adopts the EURO.

Chapter 5 - Contemporary South Asia

Pakistan
 The first military rule in Pakistan took place under General Yahya Khan. The reason for
this was the popular dissatisfaction against the rule of General Ayub Khan.
 After this, a government was formed under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto from
1971 to 1977.
 Bhutto Government was removed by General Zia-ul-Haq but had to face pro-democracy
movement from 1982 onwards.
 Again in 1988 an elected democratic government was established under Benazir Bhutto
but had to face competition from the Pakistan People’s Party and the Muslim League.
 Army stepped in again and General Pervez Musharraf removed Prime Minister Nawaz
Sharif. General Musharraf got himself elected as the President in 2001.
 There were several factors which led to the failure of Pakistan in building a stable
democracy.
 At present, again a democratic form of government is ruling the country under Prime
Minister Nawaz Sharif.
India-Pakistan Conflicts
 After independence, both India and Pakistan got involved in issue related to Kashmir. It
led to wars in 1947-48 and 1965 which failed to settle the matter.
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 Both the countries face conflict over strategic issues like the control of the Siachen
glacier and over acquisition of arms.
 Both the countries continue to be suspicious of each other over security issue.
 Another issue of conflict among the two countries is over the sharing of river waters of
Indus river system.
 The two countries are not in agreement over the demarcationjine in Sir Creek in the
Rann ofKutch.
Bangladesh
 Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan from 1947 to 1971. But it started protesting against
the domination of Western Pakistan and the imposition of Urdu Language.
 A popular struggle against West Pakistani dominance was led by Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman.
 In 1970 election, the Awani league under Sheikh Mujibur Rahman won all seats but the
government dominated by the West Pakistani leadership refused to convene the
assembly.
 The Pakistani army tried to suppress the movement which led to a large number of
migration to India.
 The Indian Government supported the demands of people of East Pakistan and helped
them. This led to a war with Pakistan in 1971. Bangladesh was formed as an
independent country after the end of war.
 A Constitution was adopted by Bangladesh declaring faith in secularism, democracy and
socialism. But government under Sheikh Mujibur amended the Constitution and formed
Presidential form of government.
 Sheikh Mujibur was assassinated and a military rule was established under Ziaur
Rahman. He was also assassinated and the rule of Lt Gen H.M. Ershad started this
continuing the military rule.

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 A pro-democratic movement was again started which led to election in 1991. Since then
representative democracy based on multi-party elections has been working in
Bangladesh.
Nepal
 Nepal was a Hindu Kingdom in the past but later changed into a constitutional monarchy
for many years.
 In the wake of a strong pro-democracy movement the king accepted the demand for a
new democratic Constitution in 1990.
 There was a conflict among the democrats, maoists and monarchist forces which led to
the abolition of parliament and dismissal of government in 2002 by the king.
 Again in 2006, after a pro-democratic movement, the king was forced to restore the
House of Representatives.
Sri Lanka
 The democratic set up of Sri Lanka was disturbed by the Ethnic conflict among the
Sinhalese and Tamil origin people.
 According to the Sinhalese, the region of Ceylon belonged to Sinhala people only and
not to the Tamils who migrated from India.
 This led to the formation of Liberation Tiger of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a militant
organisation, who demanded a separate country.
 The Government of India was pressurised by the Tamil people in India for the protection
of the Tamils in Sri Lanka.
 India signed an accord with Sri Lanka and sent troops to stabilise relations between the
Sri Lankan Government and the Tamils.
 Eventually, the Indian Army got into a fight with the LTTE. Later on the Indian Peace
Keeping Force (IPKF) was pulled out of Sri Lanka in 1989 without achieving its aims.
 Presently, the LTTE has been destroyed by the Sri Lankan Government and the area
under LTTE has been recovered.

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 Inspite of the Ethnic conflict, the economy of Sri Lanka has always been high.
India and its Other Neighbours
 Neighbouring countries of India are Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Maldives and
Pakistan.
 There are certain issues of conflicts between India and Bangladesh. These include
sharing of Ganga and Brahmaputra river waters, illegal immigration to India etc.
 Still, both India and Bangladesh share a cordial relation with each other. Economic
relations between the two have improved considerably.
 Nepal and India shares a friendly relation with each other but certain issues like warm
relation of Nepal with China, Maoist movement in Nepal etc have disturbed the relation.
 Despite differences, trade, scientific co-operation, electricity generation and inter
locking water management grids hold the two countries together.
 India enjoys a very special relationship with Bhutan too and does not have any major
conflict with the Bhutanese government.
Peace and Cooperation
 Even though there are certain issues of conflicts among the South Asian countries, they
recognise the importance of cooperation and friendly relationship among themselves.
 The South Asian countries initiated the establishment of the South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1985 to evolve cooperation among each other.
 The SAFTA was signed in 2004 by the South Asian countries to allow free trade across
the borders.
 SAFTA aims at lowering trade tariffs by 20 percent by 2007.
 Although there has been issues between India and Pakistan, measures were being taken
to bring cordial changes between the countries.
 There is also an outside power which influence the region. China and the United States
remain key players in South Asian politics.

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FACTS THAT MATTER

1. South Asia is referred to as a group of seven countries namely Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka which stand for diversity in every sense and
constitutes geopolitical space.
2. Despite the mixed record of democratic experience, the people in these countries share an
aspiration for democracy which can be drawn from the examples of Bangladesh, Nepal,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Maldives.
3. Pakistan began Post Cold War period with successive democratic governments but suffered
a military coup in 1999. In Nepal successful uprising led to restoration of democracy in 2006.
India and Sri Lanka have also operated a democratic system, despite many limitations and
even Maldives have strengthened democracy.
4. In Pakistan, military rule and democracy are two sides of the coin because, during
implementation of first constitution, General Ayub Khan took the command by-elections, but
thrown away by military due to dissatisfaction of his rule. After 1971, an elected government
was formed under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, removed by General Zia-Ul-Haq in
1977.
5. Again in 1982, in Pakistan, by a pro-democracy protest, democratic government was
established in 1988 under the leadership of Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif. Later on, the
history repeated and General Pervez Musharraf took the command in 1999 and got elected in
2005 to be continued till date.
6. Bangladesh was formed by migrants from West Pakistan and refused to form government
by East Pakistan despite winning all the seats. India intervened and supported the demand of
creation of East Pakistan financially and militarily. Consequently, in December 1971, Pakistan
surrendered with the formation of an independent country named Bangladesh.
7. Bangladesh drafted its own constitution declaring faith in secularism, democracy and
socialism. In 1975, Sheikh Mujibur Rehman formed presidential setup, but was assassinated in
a military uprising. The new military ruler Ziaur Rahman formed his own Bangladesh National
Party and won elections in 1979. He was assassinated and another military take over followed
under the leadership of Gen. H.M. Ershad. Since 1991, representative democracy has been
working in Bangladesh.

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8. Nepal was a Hindu Kingdom and became constitutional monarchy in modern period. The
struggle for restoration of democracy began in 1990 and 2007 when king restored house of
representatives. Even today Nepal is demanding the formation of constituent assembly.
9. Ceylon, presently known as Sri Lanka experienced an ethnic conflict between Sinhalese and
Tamils for power sharing. LTTE demanded a separate state for Tamil 1983 onwards with the
support of Indian government who sent Indian Peace Keeping Forces there which was not
liked by Sri Lankans.
10. Sri Lanka has maintained a democratic political system with a considerable economic
growth i.e. one of the first developing countries to control population growth rate, liberalized
economy, and bears highest per capita gross Domestic Product despite the ongoing conflicts.
11. India-Pakistan conflicts in South Asian region is most important to be sorted out. The wars
between these countries took place in 1947-48,1965 and 1971 on the issues of Pak Occupied
Kashmir (POK) and Line of Control (LOC). Except, other issues of conflicts are control of Siachin
glacier, acquisition of arms and sharing of river water.
12. Both the governments are suspicious to each other on the ground of Pakistani strategy to
help Kashmiri militants and ISI to be involved in Anti-India campaign. Pakistan blames India for
making trouble in Sindh and Baluchistan.
13. India and Bangladesh experienced differences over the issues of sharing of Ganga and
Brahmaputra river water, illegal immigration to India, support for anti Indian-Islamic
fundamentalists, refusal to allow Indian troops and not to export natural gas to India. It is the
main link of India’s ‘Look East’ Policy.
14. India and Nepal also bear differences on the issues of Nepal’s relations with China and
inaction against anti-Indian elements i.e. Maoists. But still both the countries signed the treaty
of trade and commerce in 2005 and friendship in 2006 to provide financial and technical
assistance and to allow citizens to move without visas and passport.
15. India and Bhutan do not share any major conflict, but attached on the issues to need out
the guerrillas and militants from North-eastern India and involvement of India also in big
hydroelectric projects in Bhutan is the biggest source of development aid.
16. India is supportive to Maldives in their economy, tourism and fisheries. In November 1988,
India reacted quickly against an attack from Tamil Mercenaries on Maldives.

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17. In spite of the above-mentioned conflicts and differences, states of South Asia recognise
cooperation and friendly relations among themselves. Hence, a major regional initiative has
been taken in the form of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1982.
SAARC members signed South Asian Free Trade Agreements (SAFTA) to form free trade zone
for the whole South Asia.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Geo-Politics: Geo-politics refers to the Association of countries who are bound with
each
other geographically and their interests are also interlinked with each other politically
and economically.
2. Bilateral Talks: Talks involving the two countries without any other mediation.
3. Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF): It was sent by India in Sri Lanka to support the
demand of Tamils to be recognised.
4. Seven Party Alliance (SPA): An alliance of seven parties in Nepal which also demanded
an end to monarch.
5. SAARC: It stands for South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation having seven
members and aims at mutual trust and understanding.
6. SAFTA: It is South Asia Free Trade Area Agreement to trade free from custom
restrictions and duties by its member states.
7. LTTE: The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam in Sri Lanka which demanded a separate state
for Tamils.
TIMELINE
1. 1947: India and Pakistan emerge as an independent nation after the end of British rule.
2. 1948: Sri Lanka gains independence. Indo-Pak conflict over Kashmir.
3. 1954-55: Pakistan joins the Cold War military blocs, SEATO and CENTO.
4. September 1960: India and Pakistan sign Indus Waters Treaty.
5. 1962: Border conflicts between India and China.
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6. 1965: Indo-Pak War, UN India-Pakistan Observation Mission.

7. 1966: India and Pakistan sign the Tashkent Agreement: Six-Point proposal of Sheikh
Mujib- ur-Rahman for greater autonomy to East Pakistan.
8. March 1971: Proclamation of independence by leaders of Bangladesh.
9. August 1971: Indo-Soviet Treaty of friendship signed for 20 years.
10. December 1971: Indo-Pak war, Liberation of Bangladesh.
11. July 1972: India and Pakistan sign the Shimla Agreement.
12. May 1974: India conducts nuclear test.
13. 1976: Pakistan and Bangladesh establish diplomatic relations.
14. December 1985: South Asian leaders sign the SAARC Charter at the first summit in
Dhaka.
15. 1987: Indo-Sri Lanka Accord: Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) operation in Sri Lanka
(1987-90).
16. 1988: India sends troops to the Maldives to foil a coup attempt by mercenaries.
India and Pakistan sign the agreement not to attack nuclear installations and facilities of
each other.
17. 1988-91: Democracy restoration in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal.
18. December 1996: India and Bangladesh sign the Farakka Treaty for sharing of the Ganga
waters.
19. May 1998: India and Pakistan conduct nuclear tests.
20. December: India and Sri Lanka sign the Free Trade Agreement (FTA)
21. February 1999: Indian PM Vajpayee undertakes bus journey to Lahore to sign a Peace
Declaration.
22. June-July 1999: Kargil conflict between India and Pakistan.
23. July 2001: Vajpayee-Musharraf Agra Summit unsuccessful.

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24. January 2004: SAFTA signed at the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad.

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