UNIT 13

BASICS OF EXPLORATION

Structure____________________________________________________
13.1 Introduction 13.4 Principle of Mineral Exploration
Expected Learning Outcomes Brownfield Exploration

13.2 Prospecting and Exploration Greenfield Exploration

13.3 Classification of Geological Guides 13.5 Stages of Mineral Exploration

Physiographic Guides 13.6 Activity
Mineralogical Guides 13.7 Summary
Stratigraphic and Lithological Guides 13.8 Terminal Questions
Structural Guides 13.9 References
Geobotanical and Biogeochemical Guides 13.10 Further/Suggested Readings
13.11 Answers

13.1 INTRODUCTION
The economic growth as well as security of any nation, depends upon the availability of continuous
flow of minerals, metals and fuels. Therefore, the discovery of new mineral deposit is very important
not only to compensate depletion of resources due to mining, but also to add new resources of the
nation. The scientific method for locating or finding new mineral deposit is called exploration. The
main aim of the geological exploration is to discover mineral deposits of appropriate size and grade
which can be profitably mined from the Earth. The exploration, however, is expensive with high risk
and often takes several years before an ore body can be defined and potentially mined.
Till now, you have understood that finding a new mineral and or fuel deposit as well as finding out
extension of the existing deposits are important to sustain industrial growth. You are already aware
that a mineral deposit is a natural concentration of one or more than one mineral or metal
assemblage within the host rock in a limited area and is too small in size in comparison to the Earth
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crust. The ore body in a deposit generally contains a definite shape with finite
quantity (tonnes) and average quality (grade) The shape varies according to the
complex nature of the deposit such as layered, disseminated, veins, pockets/
lenses and folded/deformed. The deposit may be exposed on the surface or can
be hidden below the overburden of sediments or barren rock cover, alluvium.
Most of the deposits which were exposed on the crust or which are close or
near to the surface of the crust have been already discovered and are either
mined or being mined. It has become increasingly more difficult to find out a
new mineral deposit as most of them are expected to be deep-seated and
concealed. Geological exploration is carried out in many steps with each step
followed by a sequence of different activities and geological concepts. The
purpose of geological exploration is to find out an economic mineral/fuel deposit
at minimum cost and minimum time-frame. Various geological features and
concepts provide clues that guide these efforts in locating a deposit are varied.
In this unit, we will try to understand the basics of geological exploration,
principles and the stages involved in the mineral exploration along with the
major methods of exploration in brief.

Expected Learning Outcomes_______________________

After reading this unit you would be able to:
❖ explain the prospecting guides which lead to the discovery of buried ore
deposits;
❖ discuss principle of mineral exploration; and
❖ identify various stages involved in the mineral exploration;

13.2 PROSPECTING AND EXPLORATION

Let us discuss the two terms prospecting and exploration which are very
frequently used for the process of discovering mineral deposits. In literature,
these two terms are almost used interchangeably or synonymously with each
other. In many of the text books and discussions, you will find that these two
terms are not really very distinctly differentiated.
Prospecting involves searching an area for mineral deposits, fossil fuels,
precious metals with the view to mine it profitably. A geologist prospecting an
area is looking for surface exposure of minerals by observing irregularities and
variations in colour, shape or rock composition. The success of any mineral
exploration depends on the experience of geologist/s involved. Exploration is
similar to prospecting. It is the term used for systematic examination of an ore
deposit. There are many aspects which overlap between the prospecting and
exploration. Former transgresses into the latter’s domain is very common. After
area of your interest is chosen, an application for exploration permit is made.
Approval by officials is needed before exploration activities commence.
Prospecting is very often followed immediately by exploration. Exploration can
be defined as the science of prospecting in which modern and sophisticated
instruments and equipment/tools are used in the search of mineral deposit
and qualitative assessment of the mineral/ ore deposit while prospecting a
known well-defined area.

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13.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GEOLOGICAL GUIDES

The geologists engaged in the geological exploration (known as Exploration
Geologists) must have a good understanding of the basic geological concepts.
The geologist should also have understanding about the geological
mechanisms by which metals are transported from large regions of the Earth’s
crust to a smaller region of the crust where they get concentrated to form a
deposit. It helps the exploration geologists to know where to look for a mineral
deposit. Geological studies for mineral exploration form the base for
identification of a mineral deposit and rely on the identification of rock types,
structure, alteration pattern and delineation of mineralised zones on the
surface. A good geological map on large scale has a significant role in the
geological exploration.
Most of the mineral deposits present near the surface or deep inside the Earth
exhibit some signatures on the surface. These surface signatures range from
the weathering effects, remnants of ancient mining, stratigraphy, shear zone
and lineament and alteration zones etc. These features can be easily identified
during field surveys and may guide exploration and may lead to the discovery of
significant mineral deposits. In earlier blocks, we have already read that some
mineral deposits are hosted by some specific rock types, for examples chromite
deposit is typically associated with ultramafic or mafic igneous rocks, similarly
coal and lignite are associated with sedimentary sequences. Further, we have
also studied that many geological structures like shear zones and lineaments
are favourable locals for the deposition of mineral deposits. These initial clues
are helpful to the exploration geologists to understand where to look for a
specific mineral deposit. These clues which lead to the discovery of the mineral
deposits are known as geological guides.
Based on the nature of the geological features, the guides have been broadly
classified into five major categories (Mckinistry, 1962). They are:
• Physiographic guides
• Mineralogical guides
• Stratigraphic and Lithological guides
• Structural Guides
• Geobotanical and Biogeochemical guides
13.3.1 Physiographic Guides
Physiography of an area may be considered as a guide in the search of ore/s.
Although, many a times, it does not by itself indicate the presence of ore. Some
ore deposits are topographically related to structures/rock types or surficial
deposits that are exposed. Major topographic eminences and depressions
include ridges, mountain ranges, fault scarps, hogbacks, pots and sink-holes
etc. are sometimes useful in locating large ore bodies. We have studied in
earlier units that banded iron ore deposits, bauxite deposits etc. occur in large
masses in many parts of the world. For examples, iron ores of the Lake
Superior region, USA and Western Australia, iron ores of Madhya Pradesh,
Bihar, Karnataka states of India etc. They are present as hills, ridges, and
ranges and can be seen from distance.
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The surface expression of an ore body is direct indication of presence of

deposit, although there may be valuable indirect evidences. In many regions,
the ore outcrops are seen as a conspicuous feature. The presence of quartz
reefs in some regions stand out as ridges in otherwise weathered unsilicified
sequences. On the other hand, some ore deposits are associated with
alteration. The alteration may give rise to chemically unstable or soft, easily
weathered minerals and rocks. This result in a depression which may later filled
with gravel and lava flows and are usually densely vegetated. The shrinkage in
the volume of sulphide ore (Fig. 13.1) bodies during oxidation may also cause
subsidence. Further, the favourable areas for the deposition of placer minerals
(e.g., gold, platinum, diamond etc.) are determined by the stream velocity and
the stream gradient and are normally represented by rock bars, rock holes, ox-
bow lakes, terrace levels, etc. An analysis of physiography provides significant
information related to placer deposits. Direct and indirect evidences for
presence of ore bodies, therefore, can be found from the physiographic
features.

Fig. 13.1: Sulphide ore deposits. (Source: www.gsi.gov.in)

13.3.2 Mineralogical Guides

A mineral present near or in an ore body and is related to the processes of ore
deposition may serve as a very much practical guide in ore search. Such
mineralogical guides may constitute targets for ore search. These minerals may
indicate presence of a specific mineral deposit, alteration or rock lithology and
sometimes referred to indicator minerals. Their physical and chemical
characteristics allow them to be easily recovered from the geological samples
(e.g., rock, stream, alluvial, glacial or aeolian sediments or soils).

The presence of oxidised minerals on the surface gives clue as to what lies
beneath it. For example, the sulphide minerals, on coming in contact of water
get oxidised very easily and their metal content is carried away in solution or
else fixed as stable compounds in the form of oxides, carbonates, silicates
elsewhere, leaving behind iron rich rock on the surface. Limonite is the term
used for rock/ore containing several hydrous iron oxide minerals which often
predominate the weathered outcrop of the ore deposit. Under favourable

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conditions, colour, texture and structure of the limonite can furnish valuable
clues about the nature of unweathered mineralisation lying beneath it.
Gossan: The extreme oxidation and leaching of the sulphide body produces
exceedingly ferruginous rock, the product is known as gossan (Figs.13.2a and
13.2b). The gossans are characterised by different honeycomb patterns called
as boxwork structure/texture (Fig. 13.3) and colours. The boxwork texture vary
from brecciated, banded, diamond mesh, triangular, cellular, contour, sponge,
and colloform textures (Fig. 13.4). The colours of a gossan significantly varies
from red, yellow, brown to black. This colour is due to the iron hydroxide and
oxide mineral phases. The depth of gossan may extend up to hundreds of
meters. The interpretation of gossans and leached capping of rocks is one of
the earliest recognised guides to the sulphide ore deposit and has led to the
discovery of many of the important deposits. The Zn–Pb deposit of Rajpura-
Dariba (Rajasthan) was discovered through gossan. Some of the diagnostic
features of gossans are listed in Table -13.1.

Fig.13.2: a) Illustration of a simplified gossan structure; and b) Field photograph

of thick gossan, Rajpura-Dariba, Rajasthan. [Source: for (a) adapted from
Harris et.al. (2015) and (b) Ganga Prasad Bhartiya]

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Fig. 13.3: Field Photograph showing box work structure. (Source: www.gsi.gov.in)

Fig. 13.4: Boxwork structures developed after leaching/weathering of primary ore

minerals: (a-c) galena; (d and e) sphalerite; f) chalcopyrite; (g and h)
bornite; (i and j) and tetrahedrite. (Source: modified after Blanchard and
Boswell,1934)
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Table 13.1: Nature of gossan developed by different ore minerals.

Sulphide Gossan Colours Boxwork Textures/Structures

Deposits

Chalcopyrite Deep brown/brick Coarse, cellular with blebs,

red, yellowish masses with angular walls

Bornite Chocolate Triangular, crusted, curved

Bornite- Yellow, brick red Fine, cellular, thin, small, friable

chalcopyrite walls, blebs

Chalcocite Deep maroon Porous/ Pitchlike limonite, no

cells

Sphalerite Tan to brown Cellular, siliceous, thin, rigid

angular walls

Galena Orange Diamond mesh/

Pyramidal/cleavage

Molybdenite Black or gray Foliated

Wall Rock Alteration: There are two main divisions of wall rock alteration:
hypogene and supergene.
• Hypogene alteration is caused by ascending hydrothermal solutions.
• Supergene alteration is caused by descending meteoric water reacting with
previously mineralised ground.
Noticeable mineralogical changes might take place laterally within hydrothermal
(epithermal and mesothermal) deposits. In case of a primary mineralisation at a
depth, one may find a zone of enrichment which may serve as a guide. In case
of a deposit resulting wall rock alteration involving introduction of certain
chemical elements and at the same time removal of others may exhibit
mineralogical changes in the pre-existing rocks. These mineral assemblages
may form alteration haloes starting from ore body to outwardly which are
characteristic of the deposit. The appearance of an altered rock may be the first
sign of approaching ore body. Wall rock alteration is widely used effectively as
a guide to hydrothermal ores and porphyry copper deposit. Such alteration
zones associated with the porphyry copper deposit are shown in Figure 13.5.
13.3.3 Stratigraphic and Lithological Guides
Some mineral deposits are hosted exclusively by specific rock types. Such
litho-units/rocks constitute an ideal stratigraphic guide and lithological guide. If
the stratigraphic unit/ sedimentary beds host ore body, it is called as
stratigraphic guide. If the igneous rock hosts the ore body, the term
lithological guide is used instead of stratigraphic guide.
The syngenetic mineral deposits are formed by the same process and at the
same time of the geological time frame as the enclosing rocks. Such sequences
act as the stratigraphic/lithological guides. This includes many sedimentary
mineral deposits of coal, petroleum, bauxite, phosphorite (Fig.13.6), iron and
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manganese ores. Deposits of chromite and vanadium associated with the

mafic/ ultramafic igneous rocks also belong to this category. The width and
thickness of these deposits range from a few meters to a few hundred meters
and strike length running to several kilometers in length.

Fig. 13.5: Hydrothermal alteration zones associated with the porphyry copper
deposits. Chl- chlorite, Epi- epidote, Carb- carbonate, Q- quartz, Kaol-
kaolinite, Alun- alunite, Ser- sericite, py- Pyrite, K-feld- potassium
feldspar, Bi- biotite, mag- magnetite, anh- anhydrite.

Fig.13.6: Phosphorite deposit of Jhamarkotra, Udaipur, Rajasthan.

13.3.4 Structural Guides

Many structures like shear zones, faults, joints and folds act as channel ways
for the movement of the ore bearing solutions and provide suitable site for the
deposition of ore. Hence, they can act as guides for searching a mineral
deposit. Intersection points of a lineament is one of the favourable loci for ore
deposition. For example, the Olympic Dam IOCG type deposit in Australia,
Rampura - Agucha giant Pb-Zn deposit and Khetri Cu deposit in India are
located at the intersection of faults. Formation of vein type deposits is

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predominantly due to fractures present in ore which have noteworthy influence

on the form of the ore bodies. Generally, the shapes of the fractures and
fracture systems are reflected in the structure of many ore deposits.
“Enechelon” veins, “ladder veins”, “braided vein system,” etc. are some of the
examples for the of the structurally controlled hydrothermal vein type deposit.
Many replacement type deposits are localized by faults, fractures, or breccia
zones. Contact between two litho-units is another most favourable place for ore
deposition. Hence are important guides for regional/ local scale of
mineralisation. Similarly crusts, troughs and intervening limbs also act as the
site of ore deposition as the folds influence the flow of ore bearing fluid.
13.3.5 Geobotanical and Biogeochemical Guides
Specific plants or toxic element effects in different parts of the plants may
sometimes act as guide to the mineralisation. Such guides are classified as
geobotanical guides. Such plants are called as “indicator plants”. The
presence of indicator plants provides signals for the existence of a particular
element in the soil in which they grow. Those plants that point to the presence
of specific element are called “universal indicators”. The Ocimum
centraliafricanum or Becium homblei is one such indicator plant for copper. It
is also called as copper plant or copper flower and is the only copper (and
nickel) rich soils in Africa.
Learners, you have learnt the fundamental concept of exploration and
classification of geological guides. Before discussing about the principles and
stages of mineral exploration, spend a few minutes to perform an exercise to
check your progress.

SAQ 1
a) What is prospecting?
b) What do you mean by geological guides?
c) What do you mean by gossan?
d) Give examples of indicator plants.

13.4 PRINCIPLE OF MINERAL EXPLORATION

By now, you must have understood that the main objective of the mineral
exploration is to discover and acquire new mineral deposits at a minimum cost
and within a minimum time. This may lead to mining operation immediately after
its discovery or in future for a major new source of mineral supply. The
discovery of a mineral occurrence or a deposit is characterised by a
measurable quantity and grade. This indicates an estimated amount of
contained minerals/metals and accordingly classified as resources/ reserves.
Gandhi and Sarkar (2016) defined as “all the activities and evaluation
necessary before an intelligent decision can be made about establishing size,
initial flow sheet, and annual output of new extractive operation.” The process
of mineral discovery and its exploitation from inception of exploration through
the investment in mine facilities takes a long period of gestation is of about 10-
15 or more years. Mineral exploration, is of high risk and high-cost venture.
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You have already studied that the mineral exploration is the process to find out
economic mineral/fuel deposit hosted in the surrounding rocks at a minimum
cost and a minimum time-frame. The general principle of mineral exploration is
to collect various geological data from several places, and extrapolating
this data-set over a larger area to develop a conceptual model for the mineral
deposit. Exploration is progressed in various stages with each stage having
increased sophisticated and advanced techniques. However, it is very rare to
find out sufficiently enriched ore bodies, and so most exploration programmes
stop after the first/couple of stages. The exploration pyramid shows that with
every increasing step from the initial desk study research chances of getting
economic deposit becomes less and less likely (Fig. 13.7).

Fig. 13.7: Exploration pyramid.

There are two types of resource exploration activities generally known as

“brownfields” and “greenfields”. These terms are widely used and loosely
defined, hence are used with variable meaning in small or global companies.
These terms come from the building industry, where undeveloped land is
described as greenfield and previously developed land is described as
brownfield. Based on these terms the exploration programme is known as
brownfield exploration and greenfield exploration. Let us discuss them in
details.
13.4.1 Brownfield Exploration
Brownfield exploration is done in a geological terrain where a mineral deposit is
already known and exploration is done near or adjacent to an already
operating mine for further possible extension of the ore body. For example,
the Dharwar Craton in-houses deposits from a wide spectrum of metals like
gold and iron and so on which are produced from different localities. The mining
company would like to continue its exploration efforts with the objective to find
out several such deposits in that particular area. As already we have some idea
about broad mineralisation aspects of the area, this is known as brownfield.
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The exploration geologist uses existing geological data from the known ore
body by enhancing the reserve in strike and dip continuity of a known ore-body
or in the vicinity of an existing mine. The risk in brownfield exploration is
considerably lower than in the greenfield exploration. The Indian example of
the brownfield type is the rediscovery of world-class largest and richest zinc-
lead ore body at Rampura-Agucha during 1977. The other successful examples
of this exploration type are the discovery of the Ridgeway porphyry Cu-Au
deposit below 450 m of overlying sediment in Australia and Merlin Cu-Mo-Au
prospect in Australia in 2009.
13.4.1 Greenfield Exploration
Greenfield exploration essentially comprises of a terrain where the existence of
any ore deposit is not known. These areas are also called virgin areas as they
have never been subjected to any exploration activities before. Greenfield
exploration is carried out in the virgin geological terrain where no pre-existing
mines or prospects (in contrast with the brownfield exploration), is conducted in
the vicinity of existing mines. In other words, this type of exploration is a result
of a broad based grassroot conceptual model-based exploration programme
well away from the known ore-bodies or known mineralised belts. The world’s
largest and richest Pb-Zn deposit in the Broken Hill (Australia) was discovered
through greenfield exploration in 1883. Another example is the discovery of
knowledge-based basin model for the Kanpur-Maton-Jhamarkotra rock
phosphate deposit in the Lower Aravalli Formation in Rajasthan during 1968.

13.5 STAGES OF MINERAL EXPLORATION

In the above section you have learnt about principles of mineral exploration.
Now, let us discuss about the stages involved in the mineral exploration.
Once a prospect has been identified, and the right to explore is attained,
assessing and evaluating it involves a progressive series of definable
exploration stages. Exploration activity is undertaken in a series of steps. Each
step is followed by a sequence of different activities which involves increasing
expenditure and decreasing risk (Fig. 13.8). Each stage of exploration is
designed with a combined specific objective to generate resource data with a
well-defined degree of geological assurance. It also encompasses to achieve
within a limited time schedule and minimum cost. The terminology used to
describe these stages is highly varied. The widely accepted terms used in the
early stages of exploration are planning and reconnaissance phases. These
phases cover stages leading to the selection of an area for detailed ground
work. The success of each stage depends upon the inputs for the next
successive stage an escalation of the exploration effort. Negative results mean
that the prospect will be discarded.
An exploration programme is classified that typically includes some or all of the
following four stages:
• Reconnaissance Stage
• Prospecting Stage
• General Exploration Stage
• Detailed Exploration Stage

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Fig.13.8: Stages of an exploration project. (Source: Redrawn from Charles et.al.

2006)

1. Reconnaissance Stage
Reconnaissance is the preliminary step in any of the mineral exploration
programme for virgin area. It is a regional stage study of already identified
areas to study enhanced mineral potential or targets on a regional scale.
Various activities in the reconnaissance survey include:
• regional geological mapping on 1:50,000 or 1:25000 scale;
• remote sensing and airborne geophysical survey;
• preliminary geochemical survey by chip/grab sampling of rocks: and
• weathered profile and pitting/trenching to expose mineralised zone/s an at
ideal location.
The petrographic and ore mineralogical studies help to determine rock types
and ore mineral assemblages. The regional scale favourable features and
magnetic anomalies/ gravity anomalies etc. can be delineated with the help of
remote sensing and airborne geophysical methods.
The main objective of this reconnaissance survey is to explore the entire larger
area within stipulated time frame and to reduce it by identifying the target area
(probable mineralised area) for further exploration in the next stage. The targets
are ranked on the basis of its geological evidences worth for further
investigation towards identification of deposits. Normally, the reserve
calculation is not required at this stage.
2. Prospecting Stage
Next stage after reconnaissance survey is the prospecting stage and is
generally conducted for smaller areas (up to few tens of sq. kms.). The
prospecting is the systematic searching process carried out for a mineral
deposit by narrowing down areas of promising enhanced mineral potential
identified during reconnaissance stage. Different activities at this stage include:
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• outcrop identification;
• detailed geological mapping on 1:25,000 or 1:12,500 scale;
• ground geophysical; and
• geochemical orientation survey/studies.
The sampling of rock/soil/stream sediments/debris is carried out at closer
intervals (Fig. 13.9). The pitting and trenching, and limited drilling may also be
done at this stage to expose the ore- body. The diamond drilling on wide
spaced section lines (at 100-1000 m depending upon mineral types),
petrographic, and ore mineralogical studies and borehole geophysical logging
may also be part of this stage.
The main objective is to be more definitive exploration to identify a deposit as
the target for further definite exploration. Based on interpretation of geological,
geophysical and geochemical results, reserve calculation is done to assess the
ore deposits.

Fig.13.9: Field photograph of soil survey. (Photo credit: Nilanjan Konwar)

3. Preliminary Exploration
Preliminary exploration is the initial delineation of an identified deposit over a
comparatively very small area (less than a sq.km to a few sq.kms). At this
stage, the large-scale geological mapping on 1:5000 to 1:1000 scale is
executed. This is done by linking of prepared maps with topo-grid and
assessment of lithology, structure, mineralisation. Detailed litho-geochemical
survey, pitting, trenching and fresh bed rock and channel sampling on all
outcrop sections is done. Drilling on systematic pattern up to 50 to 120 m depth
and at an interval of 50 m – 500 m strike length (e.g., 50 m for gold, 200 m for
base- metals and 400 m – 500 m for limestone) and borehole geophysical
survey is also done. Geophysical survey may also be done, if needed. The
detailed chemical analysis of samples for important trace elements with high
precision, bulk sampling for laboratory and bench scale beneficiation tests are
some of the important aspects of this stage.

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The main objective of this stage is to establish the major geological features of
the mineral deposit like economically viable zones, their strike length, width and
depth. These are identified on the basis of surface studies and drilling data.
These studies provide a reasonable indication of continuity of an ore-body. It
also provides useful information about shape, size, structure and grade of an
ore body.

4. Detailed Exploration

Detailed exploration is conducted before the start of mining or mine

development. Boreholes are drilled at closer intervals along the strike and
depth-wise for core samples and borehole logging. Exploratory openings e.g.,
trial pit in case of surface mining and sub-surface entry with mine development
at one or more levels in case of underground mining is also done. This helps to
delineate three-dimensional outline/ contacts of the ore-body. They also
accurately determine the shape, size, disposition and grade of the ore body.
Beneficiation test is carried out and processing of databases are done. The ore
reserves are estimated and are categorised as Developed, Measured, Indicated
and Inferred with degree of accuracy.

The main objective of the detailed exploration stage is to delineate a detailed

three-dimensional ore body through closely spaced sampling from outcrops,
trenches, boreholes, shafts and tunnels. Assessment of reserves & average
grades of ores up to the measured categories is also done.

We have learnt in the stages of exploration that the exploration generally starts
with low impact activity, including desktop research and field inspections, to
determine whether signs of minerals/ fuel deposits are present. This is followed
by more intense and costly techniques like geochemical sampling, drilling and
geophysical surveys. Every deposit has its own special features which control
the choice of exploration methods.

Various important methods of exploration can be broadly categorised as:

Geological, Geophysical and Geochemical methods depending on what
properties of the rocks/ ore bodies are measured. Remote sensing and
imagery interpretation are also necessary for the reconnaissance survey. The
choice of exploration methods for any particular area depends upon the natural
factors, specific needs, cost, time and objectivity. In concealed areas, reliable
results are obtained by combining geophysical measurements with drilling, but
not by geological methods. On the other hand, in uncovered fold mountain
areas, geological prospecting methods can be used successfully. Geochemical
prospecting provides the most reliable results in folded, slightly dissected areas,
covered with eluvium and colluvium.

You will study about types of exploration methods in details in Unit 14.

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Learners, you have learnt about the principles and stages of mineral
exploration. Now, spend a few minutes to perform an exercise to check your
progress.

SAQ 2
a) What is the difference between Brownfield and Greenfield
explorations?
b) Write different stages of mineral exploration.
c) List out various activities that are carried out in reconnaissance survey.

13.6 ACTIVITY
• Make a poster, showing various activities carried out in physiographic and
structural guides.

13.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed various aspects of mineral exploration. Let us
summarise it now.
• The scientific method for locating or finding new mineral deposit is called
exploration. The major aim of the geological exploration is to discover
mineral deposits of appropriate size and grade which can be profitably mined
out from the Earth.
• The clues which lead to possible discovery of the mineral deposits are called
as geological guides. There are different types of guides like physiographic,
lithological and stratigraphic guides, mineralogical guides, structural and
geobotanical guides etc.
• Gossan is extremely oxidised weathered ferruginous rock, formed due to
oxidation and leaching of the sulphide body. It is characterised by different
boxwork textures as well as colours.
• Exploration activity is broadly undertaken in four stages, however with each
stage following a sequence of different activities.
• A reconnaissance survey is to explore the entire larger area within the
stipulated time frame and to reduce it by identifying the target area (probable
mineralised area) for further exploration in the next stage.
• Prospecting stage is more definitive exploration to identify a deposit as the
target for further definite exploration.
• Preliminary exploration stage is to establish the major geological features of
the mineral deposit such as economically viable zones, their strike length,
width and depth.
• Detailed exploration stage is to delineate a detailed three-dimensional ore
body through closely spaced sampling from outcrops, trenches, boreholes,
shafts and tunnels.

13.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by prospecting and exploration?
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2. Describe different types of geological guides used in the prospecting.

3. Discuss the principle of mineral exploration.
4. Describe in detail the stages of mineral exploration.
13.9 REFERENCES
• Blanchard, R and Boswell, P.F. (1934) Additional limonite types of galena
and sphalerite derivation: Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society
of Economic Geologists, 29(7), 671–690p.
• Charles J., Whatley Michael K.G. and Evans K.M. (2006) Introduction to
mineral exploration, Blackwell publishing, 499p.
• Gandhi, S.M and Sarkar, B.C. (2016) Essentials of Mineral Exploration and
Evaluation, 1st edition, Elsevier Cambridge, 410p.
• Harris, J.R., Williamson, M.C., Percival, J.B., Behnia, P., Macleod, R. (2015)
Detecting and Mapping Gossans Using Remotely-Sensed Data. In
Environmental and Economic Significance of Gossans; Geological Survey of
Canada: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 7718p.
• McKinstry, H.E. (1962) Mining Geology, second ed, Asia Publishing House,
680p.
• Roonwal, G.S. (2018) Mineral Exploration: Practical Application Springer
Geology Singapore, 298p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5604-8
• https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.29.7.671 (accessed between 10th May
and 20th July 2021)

13.10 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Gandhi, S.M and Sarkar, B.C. (2016) Essentials of Mineral Exploration and
Evaluation, 1st edition, Elsevier Cambridge, 410p.
• Roonwal, G.S. (2018) Mineral Exploration: Practical Application Springer
Geology Singapore, 298p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5604-8

13.11 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
a) Prospecting involves searching an area for mineral deposits especially by
drilling and excavation with the view to mine it at a profit. A geologist
prospecting an area is looking for surface exposure of minerals by
observing irregularities in colour, shape or rock composition. Prospecting is
very often followed immediately by exploration.
b) Many geological structures such as shear zones and lineaments are
favourable locales for the deposition of mineral deposits. These are the
initial clues which help the exploration geologists to understand where to
look for a specific mineral deposit. These clues which lead to the possible
discovery of the mineral deposits are called as guides.
c) When the extreme oxidation and leaching of the sulphide body produce
exceedingly ferruginous rock, the product is known as gossan. The gossans
are characterised by different honeycomb patterns called as box work
texture and colours.
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d) Ocimum centraliafricanum or Becium homblei is indicator plant for copper.

SAQ 2
a) Greenfield exploration is done in virgin geological terrain, where there is no
pre-existing mines or prospects, whereas the brownfield exploration is
conducted in vicinity of existing mines.
b) Different stages of mineral exploration include: reconnaissance,
prospecting, general exploration and detailed exploration stages.
c) Various activities in the reconnaissance survey include: regional geological
mapping on 1:50,000 or 1:25000 scale, remote sensing and airborne
geophysical survey, preliminary geochemical survey, weathered profile
study and pitting/trenching to expose mineralised zone at ideal locations.
Terminal Answers
1. Please refer to section 13.2.
2. Please refer to section 13.3.
3. Please refer to section 13.4.
4. Please refer to section 13.5.

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