INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION

Dr. Prashanth B N
Assistant Professor (Selection Grade)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Amrita School of Engineering, Bengaluru
 PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
 A production system is a collection of people, equipment, and procedures organized to
perform the manufacturing operations of a company.
 In modern manufacturing operations, portions of the production system are automated
and/or computerized.
 In addition, production systems include people.
 People make production systems work.
 Production system consists of two major components:
 Facilities
 Manufacturing Support Systems

 In general, direct labor people are responsible for operating the facilities, and professional
staff people are responsible for the manufacturing support systems.
 FACILITIES
 Facilities consist of factory, production machines & tooling, material handling &
inspection equipments, and computer systems that control manufacturing operations.
 Facilities also include plant layout, which is the way the equipment is physically arranged
in the factory.
 The equipment is usually organized into manufacturing systems, which are the logical
groupings of equipment and workers that accomplish the processing and assembly
operations on parts and products made by the factory.
 Manufacturing systems can be individual work cells consisting of a single production
machine and a worker assigned to that machine.
 More complex manufacturing systems consist of collections of machines and workers, for
example, a production line.
 The manufacturing systems come in direct physical contact with the parts and/or
assemblies being made.
 FACILITIES
 Three basic categories of manufacturing systems in terms of human participation in the
processes are
 Manual Work Systems
 Worker-Machine Systems, and
 Automated Systems
 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
 A manual work system consists of one or more workers performing one or more tasks
without the aid of powered tools.
 Manual material handling tasks are common activities in manual work systems.
 Production tasks commonly require the use of hand tools,
such as screwdrivers and hammers.
 When using hand tools, a workholder is often employed to
grasp the work part and
position it securely for processing.
 Examples of production-related manual tasks involving the use of hand tools include
 A machinist using a file to round the edges of a rectangular part that has just been
milled
 A quality control inspector using a micrometer to measure the diameter of a shaft
 A material handling worker using a dolly to move cartons in a warehouse
 WORKER-MACHINE SYSTEMS
 In a worker-machine system, a human worker operates powered equipment, such as a
machine tool or other production machine.
 This is one of the most widely used manufacturing systems.
 Worker-machine systems include combinations of one or more workers and one or more
pieces of equipment.
 The workers and machines are combined to take advantage of their relative strengths and
attributes.
 WORKER-MACHINE SYSTEMS
 Examples of worker-machine systems include the following:
 A machinist operating an engine lathe to fabricate a part for a product
 A fitter and an industrial robot working together in an arc–welding work cell
 A crew of workers operating a rolling mill that converts hot steel slabs into flat
plates
 A production line in which the products are moved by mechanized conveyor and the
workers at some of the stations use power tools to accomplish their processing or
assembly tasks.
 AUTOMATED SYSTEMS
 An automated system is one in which a process is performed by a machine without the
direct participation of a human worker.
 Automation is implemented using a program of instructions combined with a control
system that executes the instructions.
 Power is required to drive the process and to operate the program and control system.
 There is not always a clear distinction between worker-machine systems and Automated
systems, because many worker-machine systems operate with some degree of
automation.
Two levels of automation are
 Semi-automated
 Fully Automated
 AUTOMATED SYSTEMS
Semi-automated Machine
A machine which performs a portion of the work cycle under some form of program
control, and a human worker tends to the machine for the remainder of the cycle, by loading
and unloading it, or by performing some other task each cycle.
Fully Automated Machine
A machine which is distinguished from its semiautomated counterpart by its capacity to
operate for an extended period of time with no human attention.
Extended period of time means longer than one work cycle; a worker is not required to be
present during each cycle.
The worker may need to tend the machine every tenth cycle, or every hundredth cycle.
An example of this type of operation is found in many injection molding plants, where the
molding machines run on automatic cycles, but periodically the molded parts at the machine
must be collected by a worker.
 AUTOMATED SYSTEMS
 In certain fully automated processes, one or more workers are required to be present to
continuously monitor the operation, and make sure that it performs according to the
intended specifications.
 Examples of these kinds of automated processes include complex chemical processes, oil
refineries, and nuclear power plants.
 The workers do not actively participate in the process except to make occasional
adjustments in the equipment settings, perform periodic maintenance, and spring into
action if something goes wrong.
 MANUFACTURING SUPPORT SYSTEMS
 A company must organize itself to design the processes and equipment, plan and control
the production orders, and satisfy product quality requirements to operate the production
facilities efficiently.
 People and procedures by which a company manages its production operations are the
functions accomplished by manufacturing support systems.
 Most of these support systems do not directly contact the product, but they plan and
control its progress through the factory.
 Manufacturing support involves a sequence of activities.
 MANUFACTURING SUPPORT SYSTEMS
 The activities consist of four functions that include much information flow and data
processing:
 Business Functions
 Product Design
 Manufacturing Planning, and
 Manufacturing Control
 BUSINESS FUNCTIONS
 The business functions are the principal means by which the company communicates
with the customer.
 Business functions are the beginning and the end of the information-processing sequence.
 Business functions includes sales and marketing, sales
forecasting, order entry, and customer billing.
 The order to produce a product typically originates from the customer and proceeds into
the company through the sales department of the firm.
 The production order will be in one of the following forms:
 An order to manufacture an item to the customer’s specifications
 A customer order to buy one or more of the manufacturer’s proprietary products
 An internal company order based on a forecast of future demand for a proprietary
product
 PRODUCT DESIGN
 If the product is manufactured to customer design, the design has been provided by the
customer, and the manufacturer’s product design department is not involved.
 If the product is to be produced to customer specifications, the manufacturer’s product
design department may be contracted to do the design work for the product as well as to
manufacture it.
 If the product is proprietary, the manufacturing firm is responsible for its development
and design.
 The sequence of events that initiates a new product design often originates in the sales
department.
 The departments of the firm that are organized to accomplish product design might
include research and development, design engineering, and perhaps a prototype shop.
 MANUFACTURING PLANNING
 The information and documentation that constitute the product design flows into the
manufacturing planning function.
 The information-processing activities in manufacturing planning include
 Process Planning
 Master Scheduling
 Material Requirements Planning, and
 Capacity Planning
 MANUFACTURING PLANNING
Process Planning
Process planning consists of determining the sequence of
individual processing and assembly operations needed to produce the
part.
The manufacturing engineering department is responsible for planning the processes and
related technical details such as tooling.
Master Scheduling
The authorization to produce the product must be translated into the master production
schedule, which is a listing of the products to be made, the dates on which they are to be
delivered, and the quantities of each.
Based on the master schedule, the individual components and subassemblies that make up
each product must be scheduled.
Raw materials must be purchased or demanded from storage, parts must be ordered from
 MANUFACTURING PLANNING

Material Requirements Planning

The computations for the master schedule planning are made by material requirements
planning.
In addition, the master schedule must not list more quantities of products than the factory
is capable of producing each month with its given number of machines and manpower.
Capacity Planning
Capacity planning is concerned with determining the human and equipment resources of
the firm and checking to make sure that the production plan is feasible.
 MANUFACTURING CONTROL
 Manufacturing control is concerned with managing and controlling the physical
operations in the factory to implement the manufacturing plans.
 The flow of information is from planning to control.
 Information also flows back and forth between manufacturing control and the factory
operations.
 Functions included in manufacturing control are
 Shop Floor Control
 Inventory Control, and
 Quality Control
 MANUFACTURING CONTROL
Shop Floor Control
Shop floor control deals with the problem of monitoring the progress of the product as it is
being processed, assembled, moved, and inspected in the factory.
Shop floor control is concerned with inventory in the
sense that the materials being
processed in the factory are work-in-process inventory.
Shop floor control and inventory control overlap to some extent.
Inventory Control
Inventory control attempts to strike a proper balance between the risk of too little
inventory (with possible stock-outs of materials) and the carrying cost of too much
inventory.
Inventory control deals with such issues as deciding the right quantities of materials to
order and when to reorder a given item when stock is low.
 MANUFACTURING CONTROL
Quality Control
The function of quality control is to ensure that the
quality of the product and its components meet the standards
specified by the product designer.
To accomplish its mission, quality control depends on inspection activities performed in
the factory at various times during the manufacture of the product.
Also, raw materials and component parts from outside sources are sometimes inspected
when they are received, and final inspection and testing of the finished product is performed
to ensure functional quality and appearance.
Quality control also includes data collection and problem-solving approaches to address
process problems related to quality, such as Statistical Process Control (SPC) and Six
Sigma.
 AUTOMATION IN PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
 The automated elements of the production system
can be separated into two categories:
 Automation of the manufacturing systems in
the factory
 Computerization of the manufacturing
support systems
 In modern production systems, the two categories
are closely related, because the automated
manufacturing systems on the factory floor are
themselves usually implemented by computer
systems that are integrated with the manufacturing
support systems and management information
system operating at the plant and enterprise levels.
 AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
 Automated manufacturing systems operate in the factory on the physical product.
 They perform operations such as processing, assembly, inspection, and material handling,
in many cases accomplishing more than one of these operations in the same system.
 They are called automated because they perform their operations with a reduced level of
human participation compared with the corresponding manual process.
 In some highly automated systems, there is virtually no human participation.
 Examples of automated manufacturing systems include:
 Automated machine tools that process parts
 Transfer lines that perform a series of machining operations
 Automated assembly systems
 Manufacturing systems that use industrial robots to perform processing or assembly
operations
 Automatic material handling and storage systems to integrate manufacturing
operations
 Automatic inspection systems for quality control
 AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
 Automated manufacturing systems can be classified into three basic types:
 Fixed Automation
 Programmable Automation
 Flexible automation
 They generally operate as fully automated systems although semi-automated systems are
common in programmable automation.
 FIXED AUTOMATION
 System in which the sequence of processing (or assembly) operations is fixed by the
equipment configuration.
 Each operation in the sequence is usually simple, involving perhaps a plain linear or
rotational motion or an uncomplicated combination of the two, such as feeding a rotating
spindle.
 It is the integration and coordination of many such operations in one piece of equipment
that makes the system complex.
 Typical features of fixed automation are
 High initial investment for custom-engineered equipment
 High production rates
 Inflexibility of the equipment to accommodate product variety.
 The economic justification for fixed automation is found in products that are made in
very large quantities and at high production rates.
 FIXED AUTOMATION
 The high initial cost of the equipment can be spread over a very large number of units,
thus minimizing the unit cost relative to alternative methods of production.
 Examples of fixed automation include machining transfer lines and automated assembly
machines.
 PROGRAMMABLE AUTOMATION
 In programmable automation, the production equipment is designed with the capability to
change the sequence of operations to accommodate different product configurations.
 The operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of instructions coded so
that they can be read and interpreted by the system.
 New programs can be prepared and entered into the equipment to produce new products.
 Some of the features that characterize programmable automation include
 High investment in general-purpose equipment
 Lower production rates than fixed automation
 Flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product configuration
 High suitability for batch production
 Programmable automated systems are used in low- and medium-volume production.
 The parts or products are typically made in batches.
 To produce each new batch of a different item, the system must be reprogrammed with
the set of machine instructions that correspond to the new item.
 PROGRAMMABLE AUTOMATION
 The physical setup of the machine must also be changed.
 Tools must be loaded, fixtures must be attached to the machine table, and any required
machine settings must be entered and takes changeover time.
 Consequently, the typical cycle for a given batch includes a period during which the setup
and reprogramming take place, followed by a period in which the parts are produced.
 Examples of programmable automation include numerically controlled
(NC) machine
tools, industrial robots, and programmable logic controllers.
 FLEXIBLE AUTOMATION
 Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation.
 A flexible automated system is capable of producing a variety of parts or products with
virtually no time lost for changeovers from one design to the next.
 There is no lost production time while reprogramming the
system and altering the
physical setup (tooling, fixtures, machine settings).
 Accordingly, the system can produce various mixes and schedules of parts or products
instead of requiring that they be made in batches.
 What makes flexible automation possible is that the differences between parts processed
by the system are not significant, so the amount of changeover between designs is
minimal.
 Examples of flexible automation are flexible manufacturing systems that perform
machining processes.
 FLEXIBLE AUTOMATION
 Features of flexible automation include:
 High investment for a custom-engineered system
 Continuous production of variable mixtures of parts or products
 Medium production rates
 Flexibility to deal with product design variations
 REASONS FOR AUTOMATING
 Increase labor productivity
 Reduce labor cost
 Lessen the effects of labor shortages
 Reduce or eliminate routine manual and clerical tasks
 Improve worker safety
 Improve product quality
 Reduce manufacturing lead time
 Accomplish processes that cannot be done manually
 Avoid the high cost of not automating
 INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION
 Automation can be defined as the technology by which a process or procedure is
accomplished without human assistance.
 It is implemented using a program of instructions combined with a control system that
executes the instructions.
 To automate a process, power is required, both to drive the process itself and to operate
the program and control system.
 Although automation is applied in a wide variety of areas, it is most closely associated
with the manufacturing industries.
 It was in the context of manufacturing that the term was originally coined by an
engineering manager at Ford Motor Company in 1946 to describe the variety of
automatic transfer devices and feed mechanisms that had been installed in Ford’s
production plants.
 It is ironic that nearly all modern applications of automation are controlled by computer
technologies that were not available in 1946.
 INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION
 The terms automation and mechanization are often compared and sometimes confused.
 Mechanization refers to the use of machinery (usually
powered) to assist or replace
human workers in performing physical tasks, but human workers are still required to
accomplish the sensory and logic elements of the tasks.
 By contrast, automation refers to the use of mechanized equipment that performs the
physical tasks without the need for oversight by a human worker.
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF AN AUTOMATED SYSTEM
 An automated system consists of three basic elements:
 Power to accomplish the process and operate the system
 A program of instructions to direct the process, and
 A control system to actuate the instructions
POWER TO ACCOMPLISH THE AUTOMATED PROCESS
 An automated system is used to operate some process, and power is required to drive the
process as well as the controls.
 The principal source of power in automated systems is electricity.
 Electric power has many advantages in automated as well as non-automated processes:
 Electric power is widely available at moderate cost. It is an important part of the
industrial infrastructure.
 Electric power can be readily converted to alternative energy
forms: mechanical, thermal, light, acoustic, hydraulic, and pneumatic.
 Electric power at low levels can be used to accomplish
functions such as signal
transmission, information processing, and data storage and communication.
 Electric energy can be stored in long-life batteries for use in
locations where an external source of electrical power is not conveniently
POWER TO ACCOMPLISH THE AUTOMATED PROCESS
 Alternative power sources include fossil fuels, atomic, solar, water, and wind.
 However, their exclusive use is rare in automated systems.
 In many cases when alternative power sources are used to
drive the process itself, electrical power is used for the controls that automate
the operation.
 For example, in casting or heat treatment, the furnace may be heated by fossil fuels, but
the control system to regulate temperature and time cycle is electrical.
 In other cases, the energy from these alternative sources is converted to electric power to
operate both the process and its automation.
 When solar energy is used as a power source for an automated system, it is generally
converted in this way.
POWER TO ACCOMPLISH THE AUTOMATED PROCESS
POWER TO ACCOMPLISH THE AUTOMATED PROCESS
Power for the Process
In production, the term process refers to the manufacturing operation that is performed on
a work unit.
In addition to driving the manufacturing process itself, power is also required for the
following material handling functions:
 Loading and unloading the work unit: The parts must be moved into the proper
position and orientation for the process to be performed, and power is required for
this transport and placement function. At the conclusion of the process, the work
unit must be removed. If the process is completely automated, then some form of
mechanized power is used. If the process is manually operated or semi-automated,
then human power may be used to position and locate the work unit.
 Material transport between operations: In addition to loading and unloading at a
given operation, the work units must be moved between operations.
POWER TO ACCOMPLISH THE AUTOMATED PROCESS
Power for Automation
Above and beyond the basic power requirements for the
manufacturing operation, additional power is required for automation.
The additional power is used for the following functions:
 Controller unit: Modern industrial controllers are based on digital computers, which
require electrical power to read the program of instructions, perform the control
calculations, and execute the instructions by transmitting the proper commands to
actuating devices.
 Data acquisition and information processing: In most control systems, data must
be collected from the process and used as input to the control algorithms. In
addition, for some processes, it is a legal requirement that records be kept of process
performance and/or product quality. These data acquisition and record-keeping
functions require power, although in modest amounts.
POWER TO ACCOMPLISH THE AUTOMATED PROCESS
 Power to actuate the control signals: The commands sent by the controller unit are
carried out by means of electromechanical devices, such as switches and motors,
called actuators. The commands are generally transmitted by means of low-voltage
control signals. To accomplish the commands, the actuators require more power, and
so the control signals must be amplified to provide the proper power level for the
actuating device.
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
 The actions performed by an automated process are defined by a program of instructions.
 Whether the manufacturing operation involves low, medium, or high production, each
part or product requires one or more processing steps that are unique to that part or product.
 These processing steps are performed during a work cycle.
 A new part is completed at the end of each work cycle (in some manufacturing
operations, more than one part is produced during the work cycle: for example, a plastic
injection molding operation may produce multiple parts each cycle using a multiple
cavity mold).
 The particular processing steps for the work cycle are specified in a work cycle program,
called part programs in numerical control.
 Other process control applications use different names for this type of program.
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
Work Cycle Programs
In the simplest automated processes, the work cycle consists of essentially one step,
which is to maintain a single process parameter at a defined level, for example, maintain the
temperature of a furnace at a designated value for the duration of a heat-treatment cycle.
In this case, programming simply involves setting the temperature dial on the furnace.
This type of program is set-point control, in which the set point is the value of the process
parameter or desired value of the controlled variable in the process (furnace temperature in
this example).
A process parameter is an input to the process, such as the temperature dial setting,
whereas a process variable is the corresponding output of the process, which is the actual
temperature of the furnace.
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
Work Cycle Programs
To change the program, the operator simply changes the dial setting.
In an extension of this simple case, the one-step process is defined by more than one
process parameter, for example, a furnace in which both temperature and atmosphere are
controlled.
Because of dynamics in the way the process operates, the process variable is not always
equal to the process parameter.
For example, if the temperature setting suddenly were to be increased or decreased, it
would take time for the furnace temperature to reach the new set-point value.
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
 Work Cycle Programs are five categories, arranged in approximate order of increasing
complexity and allowing for more than one process parameter in the program:
 Set-point control: The process parameter value is constant during the work cycle (as
in the furnace example).
 Logic control: The process parameter value depends on the values of other variables
in the process.
 Sequence control: The value of the process parameter changes as a function of time.
The process parameter values can be either discrete (a sequence of step values) or
continuously variable. Sequence control, also called sequencing
 Interactive program: Interaction occurs between a human operator and the control
system during the work cycle.
 Intelligent program: The control system exhibits aspects of human intelligence
(e.g., logic, decision making,cognition, learning) as a
result of the work cycle
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
Work Cycle Programs
Most processes involve a work cycle consisting of multiple steps that are repeated with no
deviation from one cycle to the next.
Most discrete part manufacturing operations are in this category.
A typical sequence of steps is the following:
 Load the part into the production machine
 Perform the process
 Unload the part
During each step, there are one or more activities that involve changes in one or more
process parameters.
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
 Many production operations consist of multiple steps, sometimes more complicated than
in the turning example.
 Examples of these operations include automatic screw machine
cycles, sheet metal stamping, plastic injection molding, and die casting.
 Each of these manufacturing processes has been used for many decades.
 In earlier versions of these operations, work cycles were
controlled by hardware
components, such as limit switches, timers, cams, and electromechanical relays.
 In effect, the assemblage of hardware components served as the program of instructions
that directed the sequence of steps in the processing cycle.
 These devices were quite adequate in performing their logic and sequencing functions.
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
 The hardware components suffered from the following disadvantages:
 They often required considerable time to design and
fabricate, forcing the production equipment to be used for batch
production only
 Making even minor changes in the program was difficult and time consuming
 The program was in a physical form that was not readily compatible with computer
data processing and communication.
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
 Modern controllers used in automated systems are based on digital computers.
 Instead of cams, timers, relays, and other hardware
components, the programs for
computer- controlled equipment are contained in compact disks (CD-ROMs), computer
memory, and other modern storage technologies.
 Virtually all modern production equipment is designed
with some form of computer
controller to execute its respective processing cycles.
 The use of digital computers as the process controller allows improvements and upgrades
to be made in the control programs, such as the addition of control functions not foreseen
during initial equipment design.
 These kinds of control changes are often difficult to make with the hardware components
mentioned earlier.
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
 A work cycle may include manual steps, in which the operator performs certain activities
during the work cycle, and the automated system performs the rest.
 These are referred to as semi-automated work cycles.
 A common example is the loading and unloading of parts by an operator into and from a
numerical control machine between machining cycles, while the machine performs the
cutting operation under part program control.
 Initiation of the cutting operation in each cycle is triggered by the operator activating a
“start” button after the part has been loaded.
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
Decision Making in the Programmed Work Cycle
In an example of an automated turning operation, the only two features of the work cycle
are
 The number and sequence of processing steps
 The process parameter changes in each step
Each work cycle consisted of the same steps and associated process parameter changes
with no variation from one cycle to the next.
The program of instructions is repeated each work cycle without deviation.
In fact, many automated manufacturing operations require decisions to be made during
the programmed work cycle to cope with variations in the cycle.
In many cases, the variations are routine elements of the cycle, and the corresponding
instructions for dealing with them are incorporated into the regular part program.
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
The instruction cases include:
Operator interaction: Although the program of instructions is intended to be carried out
without human interaction, the controller unit may require input data from a human operator
in order to function. For example, in an automated engraving operation, the operator may
have to enter the alphanumeric characters that are to be engraved on the work unit (e.g.,
plaque, trophy, belt buckle). After the characters are entered, the system accomplishes the
engraving automatically.
Variations in the starting work units: In some manufacturing operations, the starting
work units are not consistent. A good example is a sand casting as the starting work unit in a
machining operation. The dimensional variations in the raw castings sometimes necessitate
an extra machining pass to bring the machined dimension to the specified value. The part
program must be coded to allow for the additional pass when necessary.
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
 Different part or product styles processed by the system: In this instance, the
automated system is programmed to perform different work cycles on different part or
product styles. An example is an industrial robot that performs a series of spot welding
operations on car bodies in a final assembly plant. These plants are often designed to
build different body styles on the same automated assembly line, such as two-door and
four-door sedans. As each car body enters a given welding station on the line, sensors
identify which style it is, and the robot performs the correct series of welds for that style.
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
 The routine variations can be accommodated in the regular work cycle program.
 The program can be designed to respond to sensor or operator inputs by executing the
appropriate subroutine corresponding to the input.
 In other cases, the variations in the work cycle are not routine at all.
 They are infrequent and unexpected, such as the failure of an equipment component.
 In these instances, the program must include contingency procedures or modifications in
the sequence to cope with conditions that lie outside the normal routine.
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
The following summarizes the features of work cycle programs (part programs) used to
direct the operations of an automated system:
Process parameters. How many process parameters must be controlled during each step?
Are the process parameters continuous or discrete? Do they change during the step, for
example, a positioning system whose axis values change during the processing step?
Number of steps in work cycle. How many distinct steps or work elements are included
in the work cycle? A general sequence in discrete production operations is (1) load, (2),
process, (3) unload, but the process may include multiple steps.
Manual participation in the work cycle. Is a human worker required to perform certain
steps in the work cycle, such as loading and unloading a production machine, or is the work
cycle fully automated?
Operator interaction. For example, is the operator required to enter processing data for
each work cycle?
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONS
 Variations in part or product styles. Are the work units identical each cycle, as in mass
production (fixed automation) or batch production (programmable automation), or are
different part or product styles processed each cycle (flexible automation)?
 Variations in starting work units. Variations can occur in starting dimensions or
materials. If the variations are significant, some adjustments may be required during the
work cycle.
 CONTROL SYSTEM
 The control element of the automated system executes the program of instructions.
 The control system causes the process to accomplish its defined function, which is to
perform some manufacturing operation.
 The controls in an automated system can be either closed loop or open loop.
 A closed loop control system, also known as a feedback control system, is one in which
the output variable is compared with an input parameter, and any difference between the
two is used to drive the output into agreement with the input.
 A closed-loop control system consists of six basic elements:
 Input parameter
 Process
 Output variable
 Feedback sensor
 Controller
 Actuator
 CONTROL SYSTEM
 The input parameter (i.e., set point) represents the desired value of the output.
 In a home temperature control system, the set point is the desired thermostat setting. The
process is the operation or function being controlled and in particular, it is the output
variable that is being controlled in the loop.
 In an example, the process of interest is usually a manufacturing operation, and the output
variable is some process variable, perhaps a critical performance measure in the process,
such as temperature or force or flow rate.
 A sensor is used to measure the output variable & close the loop between input & output.
 Sensors perform the feedback function in a closed-loop control system.
 The controller compares the output with the input and makes the required adjustment in
the process to reduce the difference between them.
 The adjustment is accomplished using one or more actuators, which are the hardware
devices that physically carry-out the control actions, such as electric motors.
 Most industrial processes require multiple loops, one for each process variable that must
be controlled.
 CONTROL SYSTEM
 In contrast to a closed-loop control system, an open-loop control system operates without
the feedback loop.
 In this case, the controls operate without measuring the output variable, so no comparison
is made between the actual value of the output and the desired input parameter.
 The controller relies on an accurate model of the effect of its actuator on the process
variable.
 CONTROL SYSTEM
 With an open-loop system, there is always the risk that the actuator will not have the
intended effect on the process, and that is the disadvantage of an open-loop system.
 Its advantage is that it is generally simpler and less expensive than a closed-loop system.
 Open-loop systems are usually appropriate when the following conditions apply:
 The actions performed by the control system are simple
 The actuating function is very reliable
 Any reaction forces opposing the actuator are small enough to have no effect on the
actuation.
 If the above characteristics are not applicable, then a closed-loop control system may be
more appropriate.
 CONTROL SYSTEM
 Consider the difference between a closed-loop and open-loop system for the case of a
positioning system.
 Positioning systems are common in manufacturing to locate a work part relative to a tool
or work head.
 In operation, the system is directed to move the worktable to a specified location as
defined by a coordinate value in a Cartesian (or other) coordinate system.
 CONTROL SYSTEM
 Most positioning systems have at least two axes (e.g., an x–y positioning table) with a
control system for each axis, but the diagram only illustrates one of these axes.
 A dc servomotor connected to a leadscrew is a common actuator for each axis.
 A signal indicating the coordinate value (e.g., x-value) is sent from the controller to the
motor that drives the leadscrew, whose rotation is converted into linear motion of the
positioning table.
 The actual x-position is measured by a feedback sensor (e.g., an optical encoder).
 As the table moves closer to the desired x-coordinate value, the difference between the
actual x-position and the input x-value decreases.
 The controller continues to drive the motor until the actual table position corresponds to
the input position value.
 CONTROL SYSTEM
 For the open-loop case, the diagram for the positioning system would be similar to the
preceding, except that no feedback loop is present and a stepper motor would be used in
place of the dc servomotor.
 A stepper motor is designed to rotate a precise fraction of a turn for each pulse received
from the controller.
 Since the motor shaft is connected to the leadscrew, and the leadscrew drives the
worktable, each pulse converts into a small constant linear movement of the table.
 To move the table a desired distance, the number of pulses corresponding to that distance
is sent to the motor.
 Given the proper application, whose characteristics match the preceding list of operating
conditions, an open-loop positioning system works with high reliability.
 ADVANCED AUTOMATION FUNCTIONS
 In addition to executing work cycle programs, an automated system may be capable of
executing advanced functions that are not specific to a particular work unit.
 In general, the functions are concerned with enhancing the safety and performance of the
equipment.
 Advanced automation functions include the following:
 Safety monitoring
 Maintenance and repair diagnostics
 Error detection and recovery
 Advanced automation functions are made possible by special subroutines included in the
program of instructions.
 In some cases, the functions provide information only and do not involve any physical
actions by the control system, for example, reporting a list of preventive maintenance
tasks that should be accomplished.
 ADVANCED AUTOMATION FUNCTIONS
 Any actions taken on the basis of this report are decided by the human operators and
managers of the system and not by the system itself.
 In other cases, the program of instructions must be physically executed by the control
system using available actuators.
 A simple example of this case is a safety monitoring system that sounds an alarm when a
human worker gets dangerously close to the automated equipment.
 SAFETY MONITORING
 Two reasons for providing an automated system with a safety monitoring capability:
 To protect human workers in the vicinity of the system
 To protect the equipment comprising the system
 Possible responses to various hazards include one or more of the following:
 Completely stopping the automated system
 Sounding an alarm
 Reducing the operating speed of the process
 Taking corrective actions to recover from the safety violation
 Taking corrective actions to recover from the safety violation is a kind of response
applicable to a variety of possible mishaps, not necessarily confined to safety issues, and
is called error detection and recovery.
 Sensors for safety monitoring range from very simple devices to highly sophisticated
systems.
 SAFETY MONITORING
The following list suggests some of the possible sensors and their applications for safety
monitoring:
Limit switches to detect proper positioning of a part in a work-holding device so that the
processing cycle can begin.
Photoelectric sensors triggered by the interruption of a light beam; this could be used to
indicate that a part is in the proper position or to detect the presence of a human intruder in
the work cell.
Temperature sensors to indicate that a metal work part is hot enough to proceed with a
hot forging operation. If the work part is not sufficiently heated, then the metal’s ductility
might be too low, and the forging dies might be damaged during the operation.
Heat or smoke detectors to sense fire hazards.
Pressure-sensitive floor pads to detect human intruders in the work cell.
Machine vision systems to performsurveillance of the
automated system and its
surroundings.
 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR DIAGNOSTICS
 Maintenance and repair diagnostics refers to the capabilities of an automated system to
assist in identifying the source of potential or actual malfunctions and failures of the
system.
 Three modes of operation of a modern maintenance and repair diagnostics subsystem:
 Status Monitoring: The diagnostic subsystem monitors and records the status of
key sensors and parameters of the system during normal operation, perhaps warning
of an imminent failure.
 Failure Diagnostics: The failure diagnostics mode is invoked when a malfunction
or failure occurs so that its cause can be identified.
 Recommendation of Repair Procedure: The subsystem recommends to the repair
crew the steps that should be taken to effect repairs and incorporated into a computer
program that uses artificial intelligence techniques.
 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR DIAGNOSTICS
 Status monitoring serves two important functions in machine diagnostics:
 Providing information for diagnosing a current failure
 Providing data to predict a future malfunction or failure
 ERROR DETECTION AND RECOVERY
 The term error detection and recovery is used when the control computer not only
diagnose the malfunctions but also automatically take the necessary corrective action to
restore the system to normal operation.
 In analyzing a given production operation, the possible errors can be classified into one
of three general categories:
 Random Errors, occur as a result of the normal stochastic nature of the process.
 Systematic errors, are those that result from some assignable
cause such as a change in raw material or drift in an equipment
setting.
 Aberrations, results from either an equipment failure or a human mistake.
 The two main design problems in error detection are
 Anticipating all of the possible errors that can occur in a given process
 Specifying the appropriate sensor systems and associated interpretive software so
 ERROR DETECTION AND RECOVERY
 Error recovery is concerned with applying the necessary corrective action to overcome
the error and bring the system back to normal operation.
 The types of strategies can be classified as follows:
 Make adjustments at the end of the current work cycle: Action reflects a low
level of urgency and is most commonly associated with random errors in the
process.
 Make adjustments during the current cycle: Generally indicates a higher level of
urgency than the preceding type.
 Stop the process to invoke corrective action: Assumed that the system is capable
of automatically recovering from the error without human assistance.
 Stop the process and call for help: Human assistance is required to correct the
problem and restore the system to fully automated operation.
ERROR DETECTION AND RECOVERY
LEVELS OF AUTOMATION
 LEVELS OF AUTOMATION
 Device Level: The devices are combined into the individual control loops of the machine,
for example, the feedback control loop for one axis of a CNC machine or one joint of an
industrial robot.
 Machine Level: Control functions at this level include performing the sequence of steps
in the program of instructions in the correct order and making sure that each step is
properly executed.
 Cell or System Level: Functions include part dispatching and machine loading,
coordination among machines and material handling system, and collecting and
evaluating inspection data.
 Plant Level: Functions include order processing, process planning, inventory control,
purchasing, material requirements planning, shop floor control, and quality control.
 Enterprise Level: Functions necessary to manage the company: marketing and sales,
accounting, design, research, aggregate planning, and master production scheduling.
 INDUSTRIAL CONTROL
 Industrial control is defined as the automatic regulation of unit operations and their
associated equipment, as well as the integration and coordination of the unit operations in
the larger production system.
 Industries and their production operations were divided into two basic categories:
 Process Industries
 Discrete Manufacturing Industries
 Process industries perform their production operations on amounts of materials, because
the materials tend to be liquids, gases, powders, and similar materials.
 Discrete manufacturing industries perform their operations on quantities of materials,
because the materials tend to be discrete parts and products.
 The kinds of unit operations performed on the materials are different in the two industry
categories.
TYPICAL UNIT OPERATIONS
LEVELS OF AUTOMATION
 VARIABLES AND PARAMETERS
In the process industries, the variables and parameters of interest tend to be continuous,
whereas in discrete manufacturing, they tend to be discrete.
Continuous Variable
 A parameter that is uninterrupted as time proceeds, at least during the manufacturing
operation.
 Generally considered to be analog, which means it can take on any value within a
certain range.
 Examples include force, temperature, flow rate, pressure, and velocity.
Discrete Variable
 A parameter that can take on only certain values within a given range.
 The most common type is binary, meaning it can take on either of two possible
values, ON or OFF, open or closed, and so on.
 Examples of parameters in manufacturing include limit switch open or closed, motor
on or off, and work part present or not present in a fixture.
CONTINUOUS CONTROL AND DISCRETE CONTROL