HOR 112 – Production Technology of Fruits and Plantation Crops (1+1)

SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF FRUIT CROPS CULTIVATION - AREA, PRODUCTION,

PRODUCTIVITY, CLASSIFICATION OF FRUIT CROPS AND EXPORT POTENTIAL OF FRUIT CROPS.

Introduction

Fruit has been a major food for man kind from time immemorial. Even to the primitive man, the

food habit was based mainly on fruits and tubers which were found wild in the forest. In India, fruit culture

has been practiced from ancient times.

From classical literature, it is seen that fruits have been the major item offered to deities in Vedic

periods. In Ramayana and Mahabharatha also, the cultivation and consumption of various fruits were

described. In the ancient Tamil literature the importance of fruits and that of three significant nutritious fruits

called ‘Mukkanikal’ maa (mango), pala (jack) and vazhai (banana) have been described.

The importance of anola the ‘nellikani’ in bestowing longevity was brought out by a reference to

king Adhiyamaan giving it to the Tamil poetess Avvayar who was a great scholar and should live long.

In recent history also, the establishment of many mango orchards and vineyards by Moghul kings

and Nawaabs all over the country was recorded. They had a specific choice of varieties of mango and

grapes and the varietal names often commemorated the variety and rule of these muslim princes as

Himayuddian (Imam Pasand) and Jehangir in mango and Gulabi and Sultanina in grapes.

Scope of Fruit Production

1. Need to Increase Production to Meet Dietary Requirements:

The per capita consumption of fruits in India is very low e.g. USA 202kg/capita / year, Pakistan 100

kg/ capital/ year and India 10 kg / capita year. The low consumption of fruits is only due to very small

fraction of the total cropped area under fruits. India needs to step up the production of fruits till the country

becomes self sufficient and process of fruit fall to the level at which both rich and poor can afford to buy.
 The prices of fruits are so high, as to keep fresh fruits out of reach of large population with more

efficient production and marketing, the price could be reduced as to increase consumption of fruits and still

provide good profits to the grower.

2. Increasing Irrigation Facilities:

Most of the commercial fruit tress requires perennial irrigation. The area receiving perennial

irrigation which was 6% in 1960 reached a level of 12.5 to 13% today. By exploiting all the resources the

maximum area that can be brought under irrigation would be 25% of the total cropped area.

Thus, there is still scope to increasing irrigated area in near future as government is giving priorities

to such to works. This would be definitely help to increase area under fruit crops.

3. Scope for Increasing Area Under Dry Land Fruits:

It is not entirely true that all the fruits enquire perennial irrigation. There are many fruit trees like

Ber, Custard apple, Cashew nut, Anola and etc., which are hardly in nature and can be grown purely under

rain fed condition.

In India 86 million ha land is available for development of sound technology of rain fed horticulture;

there is good scope to put these lands under dry land fruit crops. This would also be necessary to arrest

shrinkage of land available for cultivation on per capita basis due to population pressure.

4. Increasing Urbanization and Change in Food Habits:

Increasing urbanization due to industrial growth has increased demands for fruits. Change in food

habits is also being noticed due to education and assured income which has also helped in increasing

demands for fruits.

5. Increased Transport Facilities:

Most of the fruits are highly perishable, having less storage life and need quick disposal after

harvest. Lack of good transportation system was one of the major constraints in expansion of fruits.

However, now a days quick transport facilities by road rail and air are available enabling growers to
transport fruits, to long distance markets in good condition in a short period of time. Increasing in transport

facilities in provide scope for fruit farming.

6. Increasing in Cold Storage Facilities and Pre- Cooling Center:

Fruits have highly perishable and have less shelf- life. During the peak harvest periods, the market

gluts reduce prices of fruits. Cold storage facilities help to regulate market supply and stabiles the rates.

Similarly, to extend shelf life, pre cooling after harvest is necessary.

7. Scope for Agro- Based Industries:

Even after much industrial progress, country depends on agricultural sectors for employment is

going to come from agricultural sectors. Development of agro-based industries to generate employment is

a must to keep our economy on sound footing. Besides Mango fruit farming is the only area where is a

potential to develop agro-based industries like canning and preservation and hence, the scope in near

future.

8. Development of New Techniques:

Use of growth regulators, inset grafting, drip irrigation for water economy, tissue culture, special

horticultural practices like ringing, girdling, notching, Bahar treatment, high density planting etc. have

helped to increase productivity and also bring more lands under cultivation.

9. Evaluation of New High Yielding Varieties and Introduction of New Crops:

Development of high yielding of fruit like pomegranate, viz., Ganash, P-23, P-26, G-137 , mango

viz.,Ratna, Arkavati, Malika, Sindhu, grapes viz., Thompson seedless, guava viz.,Sardar, L-49, cashew nut

viz., vengurla No. 1,2,3,4 and 5 have to bring more area under fruits. Similarly, introduction of commercial

cultivation of some of the new crops like ber,anola etc. would also indicate scope for area expansion.

10. Availability of Loan Facilities:

 Fruit crops being capital intensive, lack of capital availability was one of the major bundles in the

expansion. Now days there are several cooperative and commercial banks providing finance for fruit

farming which has increased the scope for it.

11. Government Incentive:

Realizing the need for area expansion of fruit crops, the governments of Maharashtra have started

a very ambitious programmed of fruit development under which it gives 100% subsidy to marginal farmers

and farmers from backward communities and 70% subsidy for others on establishment and Maintenance of

fruit orchard for a period of 3 years. This would increase the area under fruits.

12. Scope for Export of Fruits:

Market surveys in Europe and other markets have revealed that is a good scope or export of

grapes, mango, banana, pomegranate, citrus, ber, cashew to gulf and European markets. The availability

of these markets would be increase area under these fruits.

13. Availability of cheap labour.

14. Very high production of fruits.

15. Suitability of climate for fruits is some of the other factors indicating scope for fruits.

Importance of Fruit Growing

Fruit growing is one of the important and paying branches of horticulture. It has been practiced in

India since times. The art and science has now developed into one of the most skillful and intensive forms

of land utilization. The standard of living of the people of countries is judged by the production and per

capita conservation of fruits. Fruit growing has several economic advantages.

I. Economic Importance:

1. Per Unit Yields are High:

 Well-maintained and established orchards bring better returns than many of the field crops. From a

unit area of land more yield or income is realized than any of the agronomic crops. The average yields of

papaya and banana are 10 to 15 times more than of agronomical crops.

Out of the total area under cultivation grain crops account for 72% with a production of 210 million

tons. While due to very high productivity, fruit corps yields over 60 million tons from only 0.7 % of the total

cultivable area.

2. High Net Profits:

Though the initial cost off establishment of an orchard is high. It is compensated by higher

productivity or due to high value of produce. In cashew though the average per tree yields is less (4 to 5 kg

/ plant) due to its market value (Rs.200 to 250/kg) and it fetches higher economic returns (Rs.800 to 1000

/plant).

The yielding ability of Av. Yield kg/ha Harvest value Rs/ ha Production value
fruit crops with field Rs./ha
crops: Name of crop
Wheat 3000 to 4000 6.00 18000-24000

Groundnut 2500 8.0 20000

Grapes 20000 12.0 240000

Banana 35000 3.0 105000

Sweet orange 12000 5.0 60000

3. Source of Raw Material for the Agro Based Industries:

Fruit farming provides raw material for various agro-based industries like canning and preservation

(fresh fruits).
4. Efficient Utilization of Resources:

Agronomic crops are seasonal in nature and hence, farmers have to engage themselves in other

occupations during slack seasons, but fruit growing being perennial in nature, enables grower to remain

engaged throughout the year in farm operations and utilize full the resources and assets like machinery in

farm, land, water for production purpose through out the year.

5. Utilization of Waste and Barren Lands for Production:

Although most of the fruit crop requires perennial and good soils for production, there are many fruit

drops of hardy in nature like Mango, Ber, Cashew, Custard apple, Anola, Phalsa, Jamun and etc. which are

grown on poor, shallow, undulated soils considered unsuitable for growing grain/ agronomical crops.

Traditional farming proves uneconomic on waste lands.

6. Ability of Earning Foreign Exchange:

Many fresh fruits and processed products and spices are exported to several countries earning

good amount of foreign exchange. Out of the total exports of agricultural produce of Rs. 2900 million.

Horticultural crops which mostly include fruits and its produce contribute Rs.15460 million (52% of total

export of argil. Produce). India earns a foreign exchanges of Rs. 277.4 cores by exporting spices.

7. One Time Capital Investment:

Most of the fruit crops are perennial in nature and hence, there is no recurring expenditure zero planting

and layout of a fruit orchard.

8. Continuous Flow of Money:

Harvesting of most of the fruit is of continuous in nature and being highly perishable, need to be marketed

immediately after harvest. This provides a source of continuous flow of inputs and for other expenses of

immediate nature as against agronomic crops which are harvested at home time.

1. Fruit growing in kitchen garden helps to reduce family budget on purchase of fruits.
2. Planting of trees helps to maintain ecological balance and to increase precipitations of the locality. Fruit

trees for such planting programmers also generate economy.

3. Fruit tree farming also reduce soil erosion, silting tanks and air pollution.

4. Generate employment: Fruit tree faming being highly intensive and skilful enterprise.

5. Generate employment even for trained persons.

Global and national scenario of fruits

The global fruit production during 2004 was production of fruits in China has gone up by 246 per cent,

which helped China to become the largest producer of fruits (83.24 million tonnes) in the world from its third

largest producer position.

It contributes 16 per cent share in production. India is the second largest producer of fruits by

producing 49 million tonnes and contributes 10 per cent share in global fruit production. Brazil occupies the

third position, with 36 million tonnes and contributes 7 per cent in global production. The other countries

among top ten producers are USA (5 per cent), Italy (4 per cent), Spain (3 per cent), Mexico (3 per cent),

Indonesia (3 per cent), Iran (2 per cent) and Philippines (2 per cent).

Fruit production in major countries of the world

The annual growth in custard apple is quite high (23%) during 2016-17(2nd Adv Est). As indicated in

the later part, in 2015-16 (2nd Adv. Est.), the total fruit production was highest in case of Andhra Pradesh

(120.98 Lakh Tonnes) followed by Maharashtra (103.78 Lakh Tonnes).

In fruit production, India ranks second next to China in the world.

❖ Nearly 10% of the world fruit production is from India

❖ India leads the world in production of Mango, Banana, Litchi, Papaya, Pomegranate, Aonla, Acid lime

and Sapota.

❖ Second place in limes and lemons and fifth place in pineapple production of the world. The

productivity of grape is highest in the world. India has higher national average productivity in banana and

sapota compared to world average productivity, while in citrus, mango, apple, guava, pineapple, papaya,

India has substantial by low productivity in comparison to the world average.

 India with its wide diversity in climate and soil has given rise to the formation of a variety of

ecosystems. It produces a large range of fruits commercially in various agro climatic zones. Among these,

mango, banana, citrus, pineapple, papaya, guava, sapota, jackfruit, litchi and grape, among the tropical and

sub-tropical fruits; apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, almond and walnut among the temperate fruits and

aonla, ber, pomegranate, annona, fig, phalsa among the arid zone fruits are important. India accounts for

10 percent of Global total production of fruit crops. Increase in the production and productivity is largely due

to the adoption of improved technologies, which include quality planting material, balanced nutrients and

timely protection against major insect-pests and diseases.

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS

 Based on climatic requirements

 Based on photoperiod responses

 Based on drought tolerance

 Based on salt tolerance

 Based on fruit morphology

 Based on stem morphology

 Based on soil reaction

 Based on soil texture

BASED ON CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS

 Temperate fruits – These plants requires specific chilling temperature for certain period for flower

induction. Eg: Apple, Plum, Peach, Pear.

 Tropical fruits - They do well under lesser fluctuations of diurnal temperature and light and dark

periods. Eg: Mango, Banana, Papaya, Sapota, Guava

  Sub Tropical fruits - Fruit plants grown between temperate and tropical climate condition. Eg. Hill

banana, Mandarin Orange , Grapes

BASED ON PHOTOPERIOD RESPONSES

 Long day plants - Longer day length is a must for changing to the flowering phase. Eg: Passion

fruit.

 Short day plants - Long dark period favours the accumulation of starch and other metabolites and

induces reproductive phase. Eg: Pineapple, Strawberry.

 Day neutral plants- A set of crop plants put forth flowers irrespective of day length. Eg: Guava,

Banana and Sapota.

BASED ON DROUGHT TOLERANCE

Highly tolerant Karonda, Custard Apple, Ber, Wood Apple, Aonla,

Date palm, Bael

Moderately tolerant Mango, Lemon, Jackfruit, Sapota

Sensitive Orange, Papaya, Apple, Banana

BASED ON SALT TOLERANCE

Highly tolerant plants Ber, Amla, Bael, Date Palm

Moderately tolerant plants Fig, Pomegranate, Jamun, Phalsa, Passion fruit.

Highly sensitive plants Apple, Pear, Citrus, Strawberry, Avocado

BASED ON FRUIT MORPHOLOGY

 BASED ON FRUIT MORPHOLOGY
Fruit

Simple Aggregate Multiple

Fleshy Dry
Syngonus Sorosis

Dehiscent Indehiscent

 Simple fruits: each single flower - 1 fruit. [Gynoecium 1 to n carpels, syncarpous, produce 1

fruit]

 Aggregate fruits: each single flower - 1 fruit. [Gynoecium 2 to n carpels, apocarpous, produce 2 to

n “fruitlets” aggregated in a single fruit.]

Multiple fruits: All flowers of an inflorescence - 1 fruit

SIMPLE FRUITS

Fleshy

Wall of the fruit (pericarp) is fleshy

Dry

Wall of the fruit (pericarp) at maturity is dry

Simple Fleshy Fruits – BERRY

BERRY: Fruit wall is completely fleshy at maturity. The seeds are embedded in the fleshy tissue. Eg:

Banana, Papaya, Grape, Sapota, Avacado.

PEPO

Like the berry, but the pepo is covered by a rind that is hard and thick. Below the rind, the rest of the ovary

wall is soft and fleshy. This is the fruit of Cucurbitaceae - watermelon, etc..

DRUPE

Like the berry, but the inner part of the fruit wall becomes a hard and stony pit containing ONE seed. Eg:

Mango, Peach, Plum, Ber, Cherry.

POME

“special” fruit formed mainly from the receptacle of the flower; carpels produce only the cartilaginous

core that encloses the seeds.

HESPERIDIUM

Hesperidium is covered with a leathery rind and the partitions separating their carpels are tough and

fibrous. E.g. Citrus spp.(orange, lemon and grapefruit, etc.).

Simple Dry Indehiscent Fruits

NUT: is an achene (monocarpellate i.e., formed from one carpel and indehiscent (they do not open at

maturity)., but bigger. E.g. Chestnut, Walnut, Pecanut.

Aggregate fruits: each single flower - 1 fruit

Eg: Custard apple, Raspberry, Strawberry.

 Multiple fruits: Sorosis

ALL flowers of an inflorescence - 1 fruit

A sorosis develops from spike or spaidx or catkin, where the fleshy and juicy part is formed from the

axis, the bract and the perianth.

Jackfruit develops from spadix inflorescence. The female flowers have styles which are spines on the

surface. The perianth, fleshy peduncle are edible and enclose a bladder like fruit with a single large seed.

Multiple fruits

Synconium of Fig (Ficus carica)

A collective fleshy fruit, in which the ovaries are hidden within a hollow receptacle, as in the fig

BASED ON SOIL REACTION

Slightly tolerant to acidic soil (pH-6- 6.8) Apple, Peach, Citrus, Mango, Guava, Papaya,

Banana

Moderately tolerant to acidic soil (pH-5.5- 6.8) Orange, Pineapple

Highly tolerant to acidic soil (pH-6.5- 5.0 and less) Strawberry, Bael, Fig

Tolerant to alkaline soil (pH 7.2 – 8.0 and above) Sapota, Guava, Aonla, Custard apple

BASED ON SOIL TEXTURE

Sandy soil Date palm, Ber, Wood apple

Loamy soil Apple, Plum, Citrus, Grapes, Mango, Banana,

 Papaya, Sapota

Clayey soil Jamun, Fig

BASED ON STEM MORPHOLOGY

 Highly developed stems: Eg: Mango, Jackfruit.

 Moderately developed stem: Eg: Apple, Litchi, Sapota, Guava.

 Shrub like tree: Eg: Peach, Pomegranate, Pummelo, Rose Apple.

 Shrub: Eg: Lime, Lemon, Cherry, Karonda.

 Vine: Eg: Grapes, Passion fruits.

 Herbaceous perennials: Eg: Strawberry, Pineapple, Banana, Papaya.

Horticulture classification

 Based on bearing habit

 Based on longevity

 Ripening behaviour

 Based on nutritional aspects

Bearing habit

 Relative position of fruit bud with respect to vegetative growth.

 Fruit crops vary - type and position of fruit bud.

 It also varies with the varieties within the crop.

 Bearing habit - standard for designing various packages and practices- pruning and training

 Bearing habit- determines - type, time and severity of the pruning and system of training to be

adapted in a crop.
Based on bearing habit, trees are classified as

Shoot bearing: Bearing on shoot may be terminal, lateral or both terminal and lateral.

Stem or branch bearing (cauliflorous) : Bearing directly from the main stem or branch.

Spur Bearing: Spur is a modified shoot of more than one year - bears fruit bud and remain productive for a

few years depending on the cultivar and species

Fruit bud

 Simple or mixed.

 Simple bud give rise to flowering or vegetative shoot only depending upon the nature of the bud.

e.g. Cherry, Citrus, Coconut, Peach, Almond, Plum, Mango

 Mixed bud gives rise to both flowering and vegetative shoot.

eg. Apple, Pear, Cashew nut, Grape, Guava, Pomegranate and Olive.

 Terminal fruit buds – no enormous spreading habit - compact trees

 Flower buds on spurs are more compact

Types of bearing shoots in fruit crops

1. Fruit buds borne terminally and unfold to produce inflorescence without leaves eg. MANGO

2. Fruit buds borne terminally and unfold to produce leafy shoots that terminate in flower clusters eg.

APPLES, PEARS

3. Fruit buds borne terminally unfolding to produce leafy shoots with flowers or flower clusters in the

leaf axils eg. GUAVA

4. Fruit buds borne laterally unfolding to produce flower parts only without leaves eg. CITRUS,

COCONUT,PAPAYA, COFFEE
 5. Fruit buds borne laterally unfolding to produce leafy shoots terminating in flower clusters eg.

GRAPES

6. Fruit buds borne laterally unfolding to produce leafy shoots with flower clusters in the leaf axils e.g..

FIG, AVOCADO.

7. Fruit buds borne both terminally and laterally but unfolding to produce inflorescence terminally e.g..

WALNUT

8. Fruit buds always borne adventitiously in old trunk or shoots e.g.. JACK, COCOA,

BASED ON LONGEVITY

1 - 2 years life span Banana, pineapple

4 - 5 years life span Papaya, strawberry

15 - 30 years life span Passionfruit, annona, phalsa

20 - 40 years life span Aonla, guava, ber, orange, plum, peach

30 -70 years life span Sapota, fig, apple, apricot

50 - 100 years life span Jackfruit, jamun, mango, avocado, rambutan, pear, litchi, persimmon

100 - 300 years life span Walnut, pecan nut

>300 years life span Sweet chest nut

Ripening behavior

Non-climacteric fruit

 Does not ripen after harvest

  Once harvested, never ripen further.

 Give little or no ethylene gas.

 Eg. Citrus, grapes, cherries, raspberries, strawberries and cashew.

Climacteric fruits

 Will ripen, i.e. get softer and sweeter after harvest.

 Large amounts of ethylene gas is given off

 Eg. Apples, apricots, avocados, bananas, blackberries, kiwi, plums, peaches, pears, tomatoes

NUTRITIVE VALUE

Vitamins Crops

Vitamin A Beta-carotene which is a precursor of vitamin A is

found in different fruits e.g. Mango, Papaya, Jack

fruit, dates, banana.

Vitamin B Cashew nut, almond, banana, apple, bael, litchi,

papaya and pomegranate.

Vitamin C Aonla, guava, citrus fruits, ber, strawberry,

pineapple, etc.

Minerals Crops

Calcium, Iron, Phosphorus Almond, cashew nut, guava, jamun, fig, koronda,

mango.

Energy Crops

Carbohydrate Banana, grapes, custard apple, apples, ber,

cashewnut.
 Fat Avacado

Medicinal Value Aonla, pomegranate, jamun etc.

FRUITS

VIT A MANGO(4800 IU/100G)>PAPAYA(2020IU/100g)

VIT B1 CASHEWNUT(630 mg/100G)> WALNUT(450 MG/100g)

VIT B2 BAEL(1191 mg/100g)>PAPAYA(250 mg/100g)

VIT C BARBADOS CHERRY(1000-4000mg/100g)>AONLA(600mg/100g)

CARBOHYDRATES RAISINS(77.3%)

PROTEIN CASHEWNUT(21.2%)>ALMOND(20.88%)

FAT WALNUT(64.54)>

FIBRE FIG>GUAVA(6.9%)

CALCIUM LITCHI(0.21%)

PHOSPHOROUS ALMOND(0.49)

IRON DRY KARONDA(39.1%)> DATES (10.6%)

 MANGO

Botanical name:Mangifera indica L.,

Family: Anacardiaceae

Chromosome no.: 2n = 40

Origin: Indo - Burma region (India and SouthEast Asia)

Mango is one of the most important among the tropical fruit crop of India and world and having

socio-economic significance. Mango undoubtedly deserver to the “National fruit of India”.It is the leading

fruit crop of India, very popular and considered to be the choicest of all fruits grown in India. It is the favorite

fruit of all parts of India and has been repeatedly acclaimed as “King of Fruits”, “King Tropical of Fruits” and

“Ambassador of fruits”, owing to delicious quality of fruit (Because of its rich, luscious, aromatic flavor and a

delicious taste in which sweetness and acidity are delightfully blended),richness in vitamins and minerals

and liking to Indian palate. The ripe fruit is fattening, diuretic and laxative. It is also called as ‘bathroom fruit’

because of it laxative property. Kernel is effective against diarrhoea and asthma. In Tamil Nadu, the mango

is considered, along with banana and jackfruit, as one of the three royal fruits (Mukkani: Ma-pala-vazhai)

occupying first place in terms of sweetness and flavor.

Nutritive value

Mangoes are full packed with vitamins, minerals and anti-oxidants and contain like all fruits very

few proteins, fats and calories. Mango fruit is rich in pre-biotic dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, and poly-

phenolic flavonoid antioxidant compounds. polyphenolic anti-oxidant compounds in mango are known to

offer protection against breast and colon cancers. Mango fruit is an excellent source of Vitamin-A and

flavonoids like beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin. 100 g of fresh fruit provides 4800 IU

recommended daily levels of vitamin-A.

Climate and Soil

 Mango can grow from sea level to an altitude of about 1500 MSL, However it cannot be grown on a

commercial scale in areas 600 m. The temperature between 24 and 27 0C is ideal for its cultivation. High

temperature during fruit development and maturity gives better quality fruits. Rainfall range between 25cm

and 250cm. For normal flowering, mango requires dry but cool winter during flowering. Dry cool winter

during flowering followed by hot summer and good rainfall after harvest is highly ideal for better mango

cultivation. Low temperatures (130 C – 190C) are good for flower bud differentiation. After flowering rainfall

is require for fruit development. Moderate humidity coupled with water stress or rest for 2-3 months before

flowering improves flower bud formation. High rainfall prior to flowering induces excessive vegetative

growth and arrest the flowering. Temperature, also governs the flowering and ripening of fruits.

Soil

The mango can be grown on a wide range of soils except clay, extremely sand, rocky calcareous,

alkaline and water logged. It cannot tolerate saline conditions. It is a large tree with deep tap-root system.

It can be grown from alluvial to lateritic soils except in black cotton soil having poor drainage. Mango

prefers slightly acidic soils with a pH range of 5.5 to 7.0. Soils having good drainage are ideal for mango.

Varieties

In India, about 20 - 30 cultivars are being grown commercially. However, only a few varieties are

commercially cultivated throughout India. There are 2 types of mango varieties.1. Monoembryonic 2.

Polyembryonic varieties

1. Monoembryonic varieties

Presence of one embryo in a seed is called as monoembryony. Mono-embryonic mangoes consist

of a single embryo which gives rise to a single hybrid plant not true to the type (i.e. do not have the

characteristics of parents) therefore, they are raised by asexual propagation. Almost all the varieties of

India are mono-embryonic.

2. Polyembryonic varieties
 Presence of more than one embryo in a seed is called as polyembryony. The phenomenon of

polyembryony is known to occur in a number of mango varieties. Seedlings arising from the adventitious

embryo of nucellar origin are highly uniform.Poly-embryonic varieties are Bappakai, Bellary, Chandrakaran,

Dwarf, Goa, Kurukkan, Olour, Kasargod, Mazagoan, Mylepalium, Nakari, Nileshwar dwarf, Pahutan,

Peach, Prior, Salem, Starch and Vellaikulumban.

Alphonso: (Syn: Gundu, Khader, Badami, Hafus)

One of the most popular variety of India and exported to other countries. It is mainly grown in

Ratnagiri area of Maharashtra and to a small extent in parts of south Gujarat and Karnataka. Pulp is firm,

fibreless with excellent orange colour. It has good sugar:acid blend. Keeping quality is good. It is

susceptible to spongy tissue.

Banganapalli: (Syn: Baneshan, rajapalayam sappattai, Safeda)

A widely cultivated,early-maturing mango of south India. It is the main commercial variety of

Andhra Pradesh. Its fruits are large-sized. The pulp is fibreless, firm and yellow with sweet taste. Fruits

have good keeping quality.

Dashehari

One of the most popular variety of north India, it is a mid-season mango. Fruits are medium-sized,

with pleasant flavour, sweet, firm, and fibreless pulp. Stone is thin and keeping quality good.

Langra

An important commercial mango variety of north India, it is biennial-bearer and a mid-season

variety, with good quality fruits. Flesh is firm, lemon-yellow in colour and scarcely fibrous. It has

characteristic turpentine flavour. Keeping quality is medium.

Neelum

A heavy-yielding, late-season mango in south India, it has regular-bearing habit. Fruits are

medium-sized with good flavour. Flesh is soft, yellow and fibreless. Keeping quality is good.
Bangalora (Syn: Kallamai, Kilimookku, Totapuri)

Widely grown in south India, it is a regular and heavy-bearing mango. Fruits are medium to large

with prominent sinus. Fruit quality is medium. Flesh is cadmium-yellow and fibreless.

Paiyur 1

This variety is a selection from Neelum trees grown in Karukkanchavadi of Dharmapuri District

developed at Regional Research Station, Paiyur of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Tamil Nadu. Trees

are dwarf in stature and suited for high density planting with 400 plants per hectare.

Bombay Green (Syn: Malda)

It is commonly grown in north India due to its early fruiting quality. It is also called Malda in Utter

Pradesh and northern India and Sehroli in Delhi. It is a pollinating variety andalso has highest content of

vitamin C. Fruits have strong and pleasant flavour. Pulp is soft and sweet. Fruit quality is good and keeping

quality is medium. It is a biennial bearer and highly susceptible tomalformation. It is a very early season

variety. Chausa (Syn: Khajri, Samar Bahisht)

It is a late variety maturing towards the end of July or beginning of August. It is one of the sweetest

variety of mangoes lacking acidity. Biennial bearing, susceptibility to mango malformation and very

vigorous growth habit are its major drawbacks.

Fazli

A mango variety originated in Bihar and West Bengal. Flavour is pleasant and pulp is sweet and

fibre less. Keeping quality is good. The tree is very vigorous and medium to heavy cropper with biennial

bearing habit. It has moderately good keeping quality.

Gulabkhas
 It is the foremost commercial variety of Bihar and has spread recently in West Bengal and U.P. It is

favoured for its characteristic rose flavour and very sweet taste. The flesh is firm and fibreless. This is a

heavy yielder but biennial bearing. Both fruit quality as well as keeping quality is very good.

Himayuddin (Syn. Himam pasand or Imampasand)

It is a choice variety and an irregular bearer. Fruits are large in size with oblique shoulders. Flesh is

firm, fibreless and lemon chrome in colour. Fruits have good taste, flavor and keeping quality.

Himsagar

This variety is most popular and indigenous to Bengal. This is one of the choicest varieties of

Bengal and has gained extensive popularity. Fruit is sweet in taste; quality and keeping quality are good. It

is an early season variety.

Jehangir

It is also a choice variety. Fruits are large with high quality and ovate in shape. it is a shy and

irregular bearer.

Kalepad (Karu Neelum)

It is also a commercial variety. Fruits resemble Neelum in all respects except in the skin colour

which is dark green turning to light green after complete ripening.

Kesar

This is a leading variety of Gujarat with a red blush on the shoulders. It has good processing

quality. Keeping quality is good. It is an early season variety.

Mulgoa

This is a commercial variety of south India. It is quite popular among the lovers of mango owing to

high quality of its fruit. It is a late season variety with a biennial bearing habit. This variety is mono

embryonic in India and poly embryonic in Florida. It is a late season variety with a biennial bearing habit.

Nadusalai (Syn: Peter, Peter-Prasad, Raspuri, Piari, Grape and Yerra Goa)
 It is one of the commercial varieties of Western India. The bearing is heavy and fruit quality is good. It

is a heavy bearer with biennial bearing habit. It is an early variety maturing around mid-May and June.

Rumani

Fruits are medium round and apple shaped. This variety has lowest number of perfect flowers

(0.74 %). It has good keeping quality. It is a heavy yielder. The fruit quality is moderately good. The fruits

have a good keeping quality.

Sendhuram (Syn: Swarnarekha, Chinna swarnarekha, Sindhuri, Sundari (in the Delhi market) and

Lal Sundari)

Fruits have attractive pinkish red blush on the shoulders. Fruit quality is medium and keeping

quality is good. It is an early season variety and a biennial bearer. It is a very early variety found in Andhra

Pradesh. The bearing is heavy but biennial in habit.

Vanraj

It is a highly prized variety of Vadodra district of Gujarat and fetches good returns. Fruit quality and

keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety.

Niranjan

A clonal selection developed at Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, Maharashtra and

released in the year 1984. A regular and off-season bearingvariety, it flowers during June-Julyand matures

in October.

Mango hybrids and their characters

Hybrid Parentage Important characters

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi

Mallika Neelum x Regular-bearers, high TSS, good colour, uniform fruits, moderate

Dashehari keeping quality

Amrapali Dashehari x Dwarf, regular-bearers, cluster-bearing, small-sized fruits, good

Neelum keeping quality and suitable for high density planting

Regional Fruit Research Station, Vengurla

Ratna Neelum x Semi-dwarf, regular in bearing, good keeping quality. Fruits are

Alphonso free from spongy tissue.

Sindhu Back cross Stone is extremely thin( seedless mango), regular in bearing, free

progeny of from spongy tissue & fibreless

Ratna (Ratna x

Alphonso)

Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore

Arka Aruna Banganapalli x Regular bearer, dwarf, HDP(9400 plants/ha),400g-attractive

Alphonso reddish tinge-skin, Pulp-fibreless, TSS 22°brix,Dwarf, regular,

prolific & medium bearer. Free from fibre and spongy tissue.

Arka Puneet Alphonso x Regular-bearer, attractive skin colour, medium-sized, free from

Banganapalli spongy tissue. Good keeping quality, good sugar, acid blend

Arka Anmol Alphonso x Regular yellow colour, medium-sized(200-300 g), free from

Janardhan spongy tissue. Good keeping quality, suitable for export.

Pasand

Arka Neelkiran Alphonso x Semi vigorous (7 x7m)-204, HDP, Medium size-260g,

Neelum redblush,pulp deep yellow, spongy tissue free-export, keeping

quality good

Fruit Research Station,Anantharajupet-Kadapa District, Andhra Pradesh

Neeleshan Neelum x Late maturing and Good quality.

 Baneshan

Neelgoa Neelum x Yerra Regular bearing,high yielding‘ good keeping quality and late

Mulgoa maturing

Swarna Chinna Medium yielder, fruits are attractive in colour,good transporting

Jahangir suvarnarekha x quality and late maturing

Jahangir

AU Rumani Mulgoa x Heavy and regular bearer with good keeping quality & late

Rumani season

Fruit Research Satation,Sangareddy,Medak District, Andhra Pradesh

Manjeera Rumani x Precocious, regular bearer and heavy yielder

Neelum

Horticultural College and Research Institute, Periyakulam, Tamil Nadu

PKM 1 Chinna Mid-season, Regular, cluster , long distance transport, 250-300g,

swarnarekha x prominent beak

Neelum

PKM 2 Neelum x Mid-season, 650-700g, keeping quality good, glands prominent

Mulgoa

Agricultural Research Station , TNAU, Paiyur, Tamil Nadu

Paiyur-1 Open pollinated Dwarf, HDP,400 plants/ha,150-200g

Selection from

Neelum

Agricultural Research Institute, Sabour, Uttar Pradesh

Prabhasankar Bombay x Semi dwarf, regular in bearer, fruit is of good keeping quality.
 kalaepad Strong tendency to bear fruits in adverse weather conditions.

Mahamudbahar Bombay x Tree is semi dwarf and regular in bearing.

kalaepad

Jawahar Gulabkhas x Semi dwarf, highly regular in bearing &precocious

Mahamooda

Bahar

Central Research Institute of Sub-tropical Horticulture, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Ambika Amrapalli x Regular, high yielder, yellow colour with red blush on peel, late

Janardhan variety

Pasand

Arunika Amrapali x Dwarf in stature; can be planted at 5m x 5m (400 plants per

Vanraj hectare) Regular bearer; tolerant to anthracnose

MPKV, Rahuri, Maharashtra

Sai- Suhandh - Improvement-Totapuri, free from spongy tissue and stone weevil,

export variety, table, flesh firm

Fig .1. Different mango varieties

Propagation
 Mango is a highly heterozygous and cross pollinated crop. There are two types i.e. Monoembryonic

and Polyembryonic. Polyembryonic varieties can be propagated through seed because they produce true

to type seedlings whereas the monoembryonic varieties need to be propagated vegetatively.

Inarching orapproach grafting is the principal method of propagation followed by veneer grafting.

Cuttings do not root successfully in open. There is limited success under constant growth regulators. Air

layering with use of growth regulators is also reported to be of some success but did not reach commercial

exploitation. Shield and patch methods of budding are practiced in Far East countries. It is not in vogue in

our country. The method most commonly used in this country is therefore, inarching because of its high

percentage of success. Inarching has some

Drawbacks:

 The rootstocks have to take to the scion tree for grafting.

 Scaffolding has to be built to hold the rootstock pots at scion level.

 The rootstock plants have to be watered individually while they are perched at various levels and at

odd places hidden in the scion tree and all these increases the cost of production of grafts making

it very cumbersome.

Several devices have been suggested to get over these difficulties:

 Grafting in rainy season, so that, the rains wet the stocks.

 Avoiding the pot of the rootstock by substituting it with grass wrapping.

 Use of grafting pot stands

 Reducing pre grafting and post grafting irrigation costs on the, by keeping the pots in a trench and

letting in water to irrigate them.

 Training the scion trees to low heights.

  Wrapping roots in moss or soil and covering with polythene sheet so that no watering will be

needed till union takes place

Amongst the grafting methods, the detached scion method is gaining popularity (veneer

grafting).This has the striking advantage in using the scion sticks for propagation and the twigs from the

variety to be propagated can be cut from the mother plant and taken to the rootstock seedling growing in a

nursery. The scion stick, which is procured, must be 3-4 months old. It is found that scions ranging from 2.5

to 10 cm in length are suitable for the purpose. But the growth of the scion is always more when bigger

scion pieces are used. If necessary the scion sticks can be stored for 6 days during April to June by

wrapping them in moist paper and enclosing in an alkaline bag without any deterioration in the percentage

of success. This is a less expensive and easy method of propagation to inarching.

Raising of rootstock

The seeds (stones) are extracted from full ripe fruits within a week. The viability of seeds varies

from 90-100 days. The seeds are sown directly in poly bags or raised beds with a mixture of farm yard

manure, red soil and sand. The seeds are sown flat and germination occurs within 10-15 days. One year

old seedlings are used for grafting.

Scion selection

 Should be of pencil thickness

 Selected from healthy terminal shoots of 3-4 months age

 The scion should be defoliated 8-10 days before grafting. This is called procuring.

Rootstocks

Mangifera like M. foetida and M. odorata have been found to show promise as rootstock. Kalapad

variety is said to be dwarfing stock and a wild mango variety Pulima (Ceylon) is considered as prolific
rootstock. Polyembryonic seedlings which are uniform amongst themselves are recommended

asrootstocks as they reduce variability due to the rootstock.

Sl. No. Variety Special characters

1. Kurukkan Salt resistant and Polyembryonic.

2. Olour Vigorous rootstock, Polyembryonic and dwarfing.

3. Rumani, Kalepad and Vellaikolamban Dwarfing.

4. Moovandan and Nekkare Salt tolerant.

5. Pulima Prolific rootstock

Inarching / Approach grafting

This method is extensively practiced in Tamil Nadu. Nine months to one year old rootstock is

grafted with the scion which remains attached to the mother plant. In the rootstock, 20 cm above the

ground level, 5 cm long slice of bark with wood is removed and corresponding cut is made in the scion so

as to attach the cut surfaces firmly with jute thread. The tied portion is covered with cowdung mud paste.

The graft is separated from the mother plant after 70-80 days of grafting.

Epicotyl grafting

In case of epicotyl grafting, tender seedlings with height of 15 cm are selected as rootstocks and a

‘V’ shaped cut is made after beheading it as a height of 4 – 6 cm from the cotyledons connectivity. The

procured scion is collected and a wedge is made at the base of it, so as to exactly fit it in the cut made in
the stock. The scion is exactly fitted in the stock and tied with polythene strips. The success of epicotyl

graftingvaries from 50 – 60 percent and depends upon high humidity, temperature, freedom from fungal

disease, number of rainy days and rate of cambial growth.

Softwood grafting

When the above method is adopted in 30 – 40 days old seedlings, it is known as softwood grafting.

The success varies from 40 – 50 percent.

Planting

Planting should be done during rainy season in pits of size 1x1x1 m 3.Different systems of planting

like square,rectangular and hexagonal are followed but square system is most popular. In in-situ grafting,

rootstocks are planted in the field and soft wood grafting is done in the following year during August –

September. Normally spacing adopted for grafts is 10 X 10 m and for seedlings and in very fertile soils it is

12 X 12m. For dwarf varieties high density planting is considered. The spacing adopted under high density

planting is 5x5 / 5X3 / 5X2.5 / 4x4 / 3x2.5 2.5x2.5m. While planting grafts, the graft joint or the union should

be 20 cm above the soil surface to prevent entry of disease carrying organisms in to the graft joint.

Immediately after planting plants are watered and staked. Under Tamil Nadu conditions, planting season

varies from June to September. In north India, planting can be done in February to March if irrigation is

available.

Planting systems
 Different systems of planting like square, rectangular and hexagonal are followed at different

places. However, square and rectangular systems are also popular.

Spacing

Normally spacing adopted for grafts is 10 x 10 M and for seedlings and in very fertile soils it is 12 x

12 M. Generally square system of planting is followed. Spacing 7 to 10 m either way adopt high density

planting (10 x 5 m) for Alphonso, Banganapalli, Mallika, etc. for higher productivity.

High Density Planting (HDP)

High density planting helps increase the yield/ unit area. In north India, mango Amrapali is found

amenable for high density planting with a spacing of 2.5 m x 2.5. If coupled with pruning, it helps increase

production/unit area in Dashehari. The polyembryonic mango Vellaikolumban when used as rootstock

imparts dwarfing in Alphonso.

Advantages of HDP

 Higher yield and productivity per unit area.

 Effective utilization of land.

 Increase the efficiency of utilization of inputs such as fertilizers and water.

 Reduced labour cost.

Mango HDP

In North India, mango Amrapali is found amenable for high-density planting with a spacing of 2.5m

x 2.5m.Normally for high density planting (HDP), the distance is 5 x 3 (or) 5 x 2.5 or 4x4 3 x 2.5 or 2.5 x

2.5m.Recently at the advent of many hybrid cultivars, a closer spacing of 2.5 x 2.5 to 5 x 5 m is

recommended. In high density planting for Manjeera and Mahamooda the spacing adopted is 4.5 X 4.5 m

and for Amrapali it is 2.5 x 2.5 m.

Variety Spacing No. of plants/ha.

 Arka Aruna and Sindhu 5mx5m 400

Amrapali 2.5 m x 2.5 m 1600

Ultra High Density Mango Plantation (UHDP)

This technology was developed by Jain Irrigation Systems Ltd., (JISL), Jalgaon, Maharashtra.

Spacing is 3 m x 2 m and accommodates 674 Plants/Acre. Jain irrigation started large scale mango

plantations during 1996 and adopted 4.5m x 4.5m, which is considered as medium density plantation

(MDP). Results of MDP were remarkable and the orchard could start commercial production in the fourth

year itself and later on yields were better than those from the conventional besides several other

advantages.

Benefit to farmers

 Very low gestation period allows farmer to reduce cost burden and early income generation.

 Suitable for small, medium and semi-large farmers as it is management intensive and yields good

quality fruits which can get better market price.

 It makes sensible bankable project to offer financial support due to assured high early returns.

Nutrient management

 It is depends upon the variety, age, soil and irrigation.

 Follow INM (Integrated Nutrient Management).

 No inorganic manures in first year.

 At planting, apply 10 kg FYM/pit.

 Apply in September - October.

 45-90 cm away from trunk up to peripheral leaf drip.

 All the chemical fertilizers should mix with FYM and apply.
 Dose manures and fertilizers (Kg per tree)

Manures and 6thyear onwards

1 Year old Annual increase
Fertilizers (Kg per tree)

FYM 10.00 10.00 50

N 0.20 0.20 1.0

P 0.20 0.20 1.0

K 0.30 0.30 1.5

Manures and fertilizers may be applied during September - October, 45 - 90 cm away from the

trunk up to the peripheral leaf drip and incorporated. In Tamil Nadu the manures and fertilizers are applied

in two split doses. First dose is given during June - July, consisting of complete Nitrogen with half potash at

the onset of monsoon. The second dose is applied during September-October with FYM, super phosphate

and remaining half of potash.

Foliar application

Promotes growth, improves fruit set, yield and quality. Foliar spray is given immediately after the

harvest of the crop. Spray urea @ 1-2% and another after flowering and at marble stage to improve fruit set

and to reduce fruit drop.

Irrigation

The young plants upto 2-year-old should be watered regularly. The newly-planted grafts need

about 30 litres of water every week. Irrigation during preflowering phase increases flowering. Irrigating

grown-up trees after fruit set at 10-day interval increases the yield. However, for obtaining god flowering,

the irrigation must be stopped atleast two to three months before the flowering period
Intercropping

In mango, intercropping helps check weed growth and reduces nutrient losses. Intercropping

blackgram-wheat-mango and brinjal-onion-mango gives better monetary benefits. Besides, taking up cover

crops like sunhemp, cowpea, pea help to prevent soil erosion.

Weed management

 Root zone area of the trees must be kept weed free all the time.

 Manual cultivation is not recommended as it will disturb active roots.

 Weed killers with heavy mulch may be quite effective in controlling weeds.

 Weed control practices do not differ from what was explained for non bearing trees.

 Weeds can be controlled by the application of 4 kg/ha Atrazine/oxyflurofen (Goal) @ 800ml/ha as

pre-emergence and application of 2 liters/ha Gramaxone (Paraquat)/as post emergence.

Training and pruning

Bearing habit

It refers to the position of the fruit bud with respect to the vegetative growth. Mango is a terminal

bearer in the past season’s growth. The inflorescence is a panicle from terminal shoot and rarely from the

auxiliary buds. Flowers are small, andromonoecious in nature with male and perfect flowers in the

inflorescences. It is highly cross pollinated crop. The number of flowers varies from 1000-6000 per panicle.

The flowering period is for 2-3 weeks and extends from November to February.

Training

Rootstock sprouts and low-lying branches have to be removed in the initial years of establishment.

Besides, training is done to provide a good frame work for the future so that branches are spaced properly

and these do not break with the crop load at the bearing stage. Thereafter, overlapping, intercrossed,

diseased, dried and weak branches are to be removed after their harvest season is over.
Pruning

Mango is a terminal bearer in the past season’s growth and normally does not require any pruning.

But when the trees become very old, the bearing capacity decreases. This is due to imbalance in hormonal

status, which might be due to excess vegetative growth and self-shading of most of lower branches. The

productivity of old trees can be revived by judicial pruning practices. It involves heading back and thinning

out.

Heading back

Pruning is done during the month of August – September. In the heading back process, the hefty

criss-cross branches are beheaded so that the centre is opened up. All the dead and dried branches should

also be completely removed. By this, there will be abundant penetration of sunlight as well as aeration. The

dormant buds in the old woods get activated. This should be practiced normally once in five years.

Thinning out

In the thinning out process, the excessive terminal shoots all over the surfaces of the canopy are

thinned out by retaining only one or two shoots for each previous season growth. This directs the nutrient

and hormonal flow to restricted number of shoots, so that the terminal buds is converted into a reproductive

bud. Thus the old unproductive trees can be made to bear a good crop. This has resulted in greater yield

than in previous years in cultivar Mulgoa. Recently another method of pruning is recommend. It involves

heading back of flowering shoots after harvest below a node. This helps to produce 3 to 5 new shoots

below the pruned nodes which will bear the fruit buds during the nest season by November – December.

This pruning should be followed by immediate irrigation and thereafter also at regular intervals to get

desired effect.
 Before thinning After thinning

Cluster thinning of shoots in mango

Flowering and Fruiting

Mango is a terminal bearer i.e. fruits are borne on terminal shoots and almost all the varieties show

alternate or irregular bearing habit which requires certain amount of shootmaturity before flowering. The

vegetative growth is produced in two to five flushes-one during spring season, the next at the time of

flowering land the subsequent ones depending upon favourable climatic conditions till the tree goes to

dormant phase in autumn. Though mango grafts start flowering in the second year, crop should be taken

only after the 4th or 5th year. The grafted mangoes come into bearing in five years and commercial

production can be obtained in about seven years. Seedlings take about 10 years. Theprecocious varieties

like dashehari start bearing even from the third or fourth year onwards. A grafted mango tree usually

continue to bear till up to 50 years, but its most prolific years of bearing are generally from the 10 to 14

years. Seedling trees usually take about 8 years to come to bearing but their productive life is much longer.

Flowering time is closely linked with the fruit-bud differentiation which varies with the variety and the area

where it is grown. In most cases, fruit bud differentiation occurs between October and December. The

flowering in mango takes place as early as November – December in Tamil Nadu, February to March in

north India and January - February in eastern parts of the country. Off-season flowering in Tamil Nadu is

during August - September.Regular cropping can be obtained by planting regular bearing varieties such as

Totapuri, Neelum etc. (or) Five sprayings of Ethrel at a concentration of 200 ppm coupled with 0.1 %
ureaare given, beginning from middle of September at monthly intervals and deblossoming th trees in 'on'

years. Mango inflorescence consists of two types of flowers, viz. male and perfect flowers. The number of

flowers per panicle varies between 1000 - 6000, depending upon the variety. The proportion of perfect

flowers determines the initial fruit set in mango, but final retention depends on the climatic conditions,

Varietal characteristic, etc. Mango is a highly cross pollinatedcrop and pollination is through insects (Main

pollinator is house fly [Musca domestica]) and flies. Successful pollination requires a dry and frost free

period. During rains and dew, insect activity is reduced, the pollen becomes sticky, and increasing the

incidence of pests and diseases and the resultant effect impedes pollination and fertilization. Commercial

mango varieties such as Dashehari, Chausa, Langra and Bombay Green are self-incompatible and

henceBombay Green for Dashehari and Dashehari for Chausa should be used as pollinizers.Bearing habit

 It refers to the position of the fruit bud with respect to the vegetative growth.

 Mango is a terminal bearer in the past season’s growth.

Flowering trait

 The inflorescence is a panicle from terminal shoot and rarely from the axillary buds.

 Flowers are small, polygamous, monoecious or hermaphrodite, protogynous in nature.

 Only 0.1 % flowers (perfect) develops fruits to maturity.

 It is highly cross pollinated crop. The numbers of flowers varies from 1000 - 6000 perpanicle.

 The flowering period is for 2-3 weeks and extends from November to February.

 The duration of flowering is very short, usually of 2 to 3 weeks.

Use of growth regulators and chemicals

To induce flowering

Soil application of Paclobutrazol (Cultar) @ 5 ml/10 litre of water/tree for full bearing tree during

August - September. Salicylic acid 2000 ppm - successful in Amrapali and Dashehari. Malformation was
minimum.Spray urea 0.5% (5 g/lit.) (or) 1% Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) (10 g/lit) during February. It may

spray to induce flowering, if trees do not flower by that time.

To increase the fruit retention and to control fruit drop:

Two sprays of NAA 20 ppm (Planofix 1 ml/45 lit). (One at flowering and the other at marble stage).

Spray 2% Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) at mustard size to increase fruit set and retention of fruits.

Use of Paclobutrazol (Cultar) on mango flowering

A. To induce regular flowering and to overcome alternate bearing:

Soil application of Paclobutrazol (Cultar) @ 5 ml/10 litre of water/tree for full bearing tree during

August - September. Application of Paclobutrazol @ 3ml/m canopy diameter at 90‐120 days before bud

brust is recommended for increasing the yield and to control alternate bearing in mango cultivars. Apply

Paclobutrazol @ 10 g a.i. / full bearing tree during first fortnight of September to get maximum number of

fruits and yield during off years.

To induce off-season flowering (August - September):

 Soil application of Paclobutrazol (Cultar) @ 5 ml/10 litre of water/tree during April - May.

 The flowering will occur within 90 to 120 days.

 Heading back of crowded branches and centre opening with use of Paclobutrazol is

overcrowded mango orchard is recommended for commercial adoption. Retardant i.e.

Paclobutrazol (pp333) is recommended to convert "off year" into "on year" Application of pp333

is done during 15th July to 31st August.

 Soil drenching with paclobutrazol (2ml/ tree) induces flowering during off year. It has become a

commercial practice in Konkan region of Maharashtra.

Harvesting indices or Maturity index

 It requires considerable experience to judge the stage of maturity at which the fruits are to be

picked. If the fruits are harvested at an immature stage, theydevelop white patches and the normal TSS /

Acid ratio isalso not obtained. On the other hand, if the fruits areharvested when over mature or fully ripe,

more microbial and physiological spoilage occurs due to increased susceptibility of fruits, thus reduces the

shelf life of fruits. The correct stage of harvesting of fruits canbe judged in several ways.Maturity index

 Attainment of full size of a variety is indicated by stoppage of increase in size and flesh

becomes soft.

 At maturity, the colour changes from green to yellow and the development of "shoulders" on

the stem end of the fruit are the best indicators of maturity.

 Flowering to maturity - 110 - 130 days.

 Development of waxy coating (Eg. Neelum) and red blush (Senthura and bangalora) on

matured fruits.

Harvest

The fruit injured or even slightly bruised during the picking operation losses its keeping quality and

becomes unfit for dispatch to distant markets. The usual practice of harvesting the fruits is knocking down

the fruits or shaking the trees violently to get the fruit down need to be discouraged. If the fruit is hanging

high, it should be picked up with the help of a step ladder. In no case, the picker should climb up the tree as

this practice is harmful both for the tree and the picker. The fruits should always be harvested and the

harvested fruits are placed in canvass bags or padded baskets and carried to the packing house.

Yield

The yield of mango depends on no. of factors like age of the plant, soil fertility, climatic conditions,

variety, type of plant material like graft or seedling, management of the orchard etc. A mango tree having
an age of 5 years bears about 200 fruits and 10-20 years bears a crop of 500-1000 fruits during an year.

During 20-40 years its yield may range between 1000-3000 fruits.

Yield varies with varieties and spacing adopted

 The average yield in our country is about 7.5 to 10 tonnes per hectare.

 8-10 t/ha - Regular varieties.

 15-25 t/ha - Hybrids.

 400-600 fruits/year/tree (10 year old tree).

 The number of fruits per tree during its steady bearing age (i.e., after 20 years) generally varies

from 1000 to 2000 fruits.

Post-Harvest Technology (PHT)

Grading

After harvesting, mangoes are graded according to their size.

According to weight

 Grade 1 - 200 g and above.

 Grade 2 - 170 to 200 g.

 Grade 3 - Less than 170 g.

Packing

Fruits can be washed prior to packing to remove surface resins and then dipped in hot water

(55°C). To maintain the quality, proper packaging is a must. In western region, bamboo baskets are used

for packing. A basket contains 50-100 fruits. Straw is used for packing. Wooden boxes are also used in

some place. However, now perforated cardboard are generally used. In these boxeseither fruits are

individually wrapped with tissue paper before packing or paper shavings are used for cushioning.Storage
 Fruits are stored for 15 days at 15°C and RH (Relative Humidity) of 85-90%. Ethylene is used to

accelerate color development (by 3-8 days) and allow more uniform ripening. Dip the fruits in 52.1 0C hot

water immediately after harvest for 5 minutes followed by 8% plant wax (Fruitox or Waxol) to reduce

anthracnose disease in mango during storage.

Two pre-harvest sprays of 0.20% Mancozeb (2.0 g/lit) will also reduce the incidence. Mangoes are

susceptible to chilling injury and must not be stored at below 10 - 120C. Storage life is only 2 - 3 weeks

under optimal conditions. Hydro-cooling at 12 - 150C and holding for 2 weeks at 150C followed by storage

for 1 week at ambient temperature gives good storage life to fruits.

Physiological disorders - Problems in mango cultivation

1. Alternate (Biennial) and Irregular bearing in Mango

It is a burning problem in mango industry since; it renders cultivation of mango less remunerative to

the growers. When the mango tree bears heavy crop, the bearing season is called ‘on’ year. When it bears

a poor or lean or no crop, the season is called ‘off’ year. In boththe years the mango grower is at a loss. In

the ‘on year’ there is abundant fruiting and the market is flooded with fruits and the prices fall down. In the

‘off year’, there is scarcity of fruitsfor supply to market, prices are highly remunerative but the grower has a

very little or no fruits to supply to the market. This phenomenon is called ‘irregular bearing’ or ‘biennial

bearing’. Most of the promising varieties like Alpphonso, Dashehari, Langda, Mulgoa, Kesar etc. Various

factors are reported to be responsible for this phenomenon. These phenomenaare mainly due to specificity

of varieties, climatic changes in a locality, imbalance in soilnutrition status and consequent changes in

balance of these nutrients in the shoots of the treemainly the carbohydrate / nitrogen ratio and hormonal

substances. No single reason could be pin pointed to this strange phenomenon.Causes

Internal factors: Physiological, genetical, nutritional, sex ratio and hormonal imbalance.

External factors: Rain, wind, low temperatures, cloudy weather, light, pests and diseases.

Varietal factors
 The habit of bearing heavy and poor or no crop in alternate years is believed to be an inherent

character because some varieties, viz., Fazil, Neelum, and Bangalora are regular bearers.

Maturity and age of trees and seasonal vegetative growth

In mango the maturity, age of trees and seasonal vegetative growth influence and control the

flowering. In mango a definite relationship appears to exist between growth ofvegetative flushes and fruit

bud formation. An early production of shoots during the first flush(February-April), and an early cessation of

the growth in the season seem to be conducive to regular bearing in mango. But in several old and

neglected orchards the tree bearing heavily in a year put forth little or no vegetative growth during flowering

to fruit maturity, and as such no fruiting wood is available for the following year, which consequently, turns

out to be an off year for cropping.C: N ratio and Nutritional deficiency

It is also contended that irregular bearing in mango was caused by nutritional deficiency especially

Nitrogen. A proportionate increase in nitrogen leads to vegetative growth, whereas its proportionate

decrease induces flowering. Higher starch reserves, total carbohydrates and C: N ratio favour flower bud

formation but not in Baramasi and regular bearing varieties. Studies on nitrogen content in stems and

leaves of different cultivars indicated possibility of high no. of trees to flower, but no correlation between

flower bud initiation and total nitrogen could be derived. Thus C: N ratio reserve, though playing an

important role in flowering, is not the primary cause of biennial bearing.

Hormonal imbalance

Higher level of auxin like substances and an inhibitor (similar to ABA) and lower levels of

gibberellins (GA3) like substances are vital for floriferous shoot in mango.

Inflorescence type

The varieties that produce mostly terminal inflorescence and only few axillary types of flower

clusters are more markedly biennial bearers; while those varieties which produce a greater percentage of
axillary inflorescence are moderately regular bearing. Unfortunately, most of our good dessert varieties are

biennial bearers.

Climatic factors

Adverse climatic factors such as cloudy weather, rains, high humidity, convert an ‘on year’ in to an

‘off year’ by promoting incidence mango hoppers and diseases like powderymildew and anthracnose etc.,

especially during flowering, preventing pollination and damaging the floral parts. Frost and low

temperatures during flowering adversely affect fruit set there by turning an ‘on year’ in to ‘off year’.

However, these don‘t form basic causes of biennial bearing. In view of the above various possible factors

associated with this problem can begrouped as internal factors and external factors.Suggested measures

to overcome alternate bearing (or) Control of Alternate bearing

 Selection of regular bearing varieties specific to a locality. Neelum and Bangalore are regular

bearers under South Indian conditions which are not much affected by changes in weather

conditions in a particular year.

 Planting of varieties which are regular bearers Eg. Bangalora, Rumani, Banglora, Neelum,

Mallika, Amrapali and Ratna.

 Plough and harrow the orchard twice in a year, in the beginning of the monsoon after

 harvest and in October.

 Apply the fertilizers as per recommended schedule.

 After the harvest of the crop, dead and diseased branches and the Loranthus parasite should

be removed.

 Providing orchards with wind breaks, regular ploughing, and liberal manuring at appropriate

intervals and adequate irrigation and other cultural practices are also recommended for regular

bearing.
Deblossoming

Half the no. of flower clusters are removed from the tree in the on year as soon as they emerge.

The food reserves of these deblossomed shoots would be utilized by the tree in producing vegetative

growths in the spring and summer andmature to produce.

Over vigorous trees may be subjected to induce rest by withholding irrigation with good exposure

to sunlight. Application of common salt @ 2.5 kg. Per tree in September checks vegetative growth causing

accumulation of carbohydrates for induction of flowering. This is practiced in over-vigorous trees and not on

weak trees.

Pruning

Proper pruning of mango trees after the harvest gives the best results in terms of disease and pest

management, diversion of food materials to the productive shoots, increased photosynthetic activity and

increased carbohydrate and starch content, early production of new flush that bear the crop in the next

season. Pruning also helps in increased cytokinin content, Ascorbic acid and auxin, which was beneficial

for flowering. Abscissic acid level will also increase which inhibits the vegetative growth and promoted

flowering. Thus pruning helps in obtaining regular fruiting and production of quality fruits.Smudging during

October-December is reported to be useful in forcing Mango to flowerwith limited practical utility.

Hybridization

By crossing good quality variety with regular bearing varieties may be helpful in inducing regular

bearing tendency in to the hybrid. Eg. Mallika and Neeleshan.Spraying Ethrel during October at 200 ppm at

20 days interval till flowering appears.Spraying 1% urea immediately after harvest of fruits in rain fed

orchards and prophylactic sprays against mango hopper during September- October, also helps in

regularity in bearing.Application of growth retardants like Placlobutrazol (Cultar) especially in areas like

Konkan where the climate is hot and humid which results in continuous vegetative growth, inhibits the

growth promoting gibberellins with in the tree with the result that vegetative growth gets restricted and trees
put forth regular flowering.Paclobutrazol is a promising chemical for flower induction in mango. Soil

drenching with paclobutrazol (5g-10g/tree) results in minimum outbreak of vegetative flushes during

September to October giving an early and profuse flowering and more annual yield without affecting fruit

size and quality.

2. Mango malformation

Most of the flowers lack essential organs and don‘t set fruit and its inflorescencecontinuously hang

on the tree for months, being more green and sturdy. It is a complex and serious malady in North India and

not socommon in South India. Some varieties like Chausa, and Bombay green aremore susceptible than

others in N.India.It is one of the most importantdisorders, causing huge losses. It is a majorproblem in

Punjab, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh. However, it has also been noticed in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Bihar, West

Bengal and Orissa.

There are the 2 types of mango malformation, they are, vegetative malformation and floral

malformation.

Vegetative malformation

It is more common in nursery seedlings and young plants. Affected mango seedlings or young

plants develop excessive vegetative branches which have limited growth, swollen and with very short

internodes and develop abnormally compact rosette like shoots presenting a bunchy top appearance.

Floral malformation

Floral malformation affects trees at the bearing stage. Directly affects the productivity.The affected

inflorescence becomes clustered. The incidence of disorder varies from variety to variety. Various causes

like nutritional disorders, physiological, viral, fungal and acarological are reported. The available literature

doesn‘t appear to support the above causes except the fungal; the only positive evidence for the cause of

this is fungal origini.e., Fusarium moniliforis. Control measures

  Destruct the infected small plant or plant parts Spraying a fungicide like Captan @ 3grams or

Bavistin @ 1gram / litre of water.

 Remove the affected parts by pruning 30cms below and paste with Bordeaux paste.

 Early deblossoming combined with NAA 200ppm spray during October also reduces this

considerably.

 Bhardhan variety of U.P. is resistant and free from this infestation.

3. Spongy tissue

Fruits from outside look normal but inside a patch of flesh become spongy, yellowish and sour. A

non-edible patch of flesh develops in the mesocarp of the fruit and becomes spongy, sour and yellowish is

termed as spongy tissue. This can be detected only after cutting the ripe fruit. It is a physiological disorder

in which the fruit pulp remains unripe because of unhydrolised starch due to inactivation of ripeningenzyme

because of high temperature, convective heat, and post-harvest exposure to sunlight arethe causes.

Alphonso variety is very susceptible to this spongy tissue.Control

Sod culture (growing grasses in orchard) and mulching are useful in reducing spongy

tissue.Growing mango hybrids Ratna and Arka Puneet, which are free from this problem, have Alphonso

like characters and do not suffer from this malady. Harvesting fruits when they are three fourths matured

rather than fully matured ones also reduces this malady.

4. Fruit Drop

Fruit drop is serious problem in mango and cause great loss to the growers. A tree producing

several thousand panicles yields only a few hundred fruits. Most of the flowers falling down after full bloom

or at later stage of development. Only 0.1 to 0.25% perfect flowers oreven less develop in to mature fruit.

Maximum fruit drop takes place in last week of April or first week of May depends upon favourable

condition. The fruit drop can be divided in to three distinct phases Eg. Pin head drop, post setting drop and
May drop. The flower drop as well as the fruit drop is primarily due to the formation of an abscission layer at

the point of attachment of the fruit with the twig. Several factors have been considered responsible for the

formation of abscission layer. The causes can be divided in to two; External causes

 Unfavourable climatic conditions.

 High incidence of serious diseases like powery mildew and anthracnose and pests like hoppers

and mealy bugs.

Internal causes

 Poor soil.

 Lack of pollination.

 Low stigmatic receptivity.

 Defective perfect flowers.

 Poor pollen transference.

 Occurrence and extent of self incompatibility.

 Abortion of embryo.

 Degeneration of ovules.

 Competition between developing fruit lets.

 Drought / lack of irrigation.

Measures to prevent fruit drop

The extent of fruits drop can be reduced significantly by regular irrigation during the fruit

development period, maintaining sufficient soil moisture also prevents fruit drop and helps in increasing the

size of the fruit and timely and effective control measures against major pests and diseases.

Spraying of 2, 4-D @ 10 ppm or NAA @ 50 ppm at pea stage and at marble stage helps in preventing fruit

drop.Through the application of growth regulators like NAA (50 ppm) and 2, 4-D (20 ppm)during off years
about six weeks after fruit set.Providing pollenisers for self incompatible types.Provision of wind beaks all

around the orchards, which prevents drop due to highvelocity winds at the time of fruit development.

5. Black tip

This disorder is mainly noticed in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. The distal-end of

the affected fruits turns black and becomes hard. These fruits ripen prematurely and become

unmarketable. This disorder is caused by the smoke of brick-kilns located within a distance of 1.5 to 2 km.

Gases like carbon monoxide and carbondioxide, sulphur dioxide and acetylene cause these symptoms. It

can be controlled by raising the height of the chimney of the brick-kilns. Spraying borax (0.6%) and caustic

soda (0.8%) at 10-14 days intervals starting from before flowering, flowering and fruit set satge can also

controls it.6. Clustering disorder in mango (Jhumka)

A fruiting disorder, locallly known as ‘Jhumka’, is characterised by the development of fruitlets in

clusters at the tip of the panicles. Such fruits do not grow beyond pea or marblestage and drop down after a

month or so of fruit set. These fruits do not contain seeds when they are cut open. The disorder seems to

be due to lack of pollination / fertilization which may be attributed to many reasons. Among them, absence

of sufficient population of pollinators inthe orchards is the major reason. Some of the remedial measures

are suggested below:Insecticides should not be sprayed at full bloom to avoid killing of pollinators.Pests

and diseases should be controlled in time by spraying the recommendedpesticides only.

 Introduction of beehives in the orchards during flowering season for increasing the number of

pollinators.

 The practice of monoculture of a particular variety may be avoided. In case of Dashehari, 5-6 per

cent of other varieties should be planted in new plantations. In old orchards, where monoculture of

a particular variety like Dashehari is followed, a few branches may be top worked with pollinizing

varieties.
  Pruning of old trees may be done to open the canopy.

 Spraying of 300 ppm NAA may be done during October-November

Pests

Hopper

 2 sprays of acephate 75 SP@ 1g/lit or phosalone 35 EC @ 1.5 ml/lit or carbaryl 50 WP 2 g/lit or

phosphamidon 40SL 2 ml/lit of water will control hopper.

 First at the time of panicle emergence and the second two weeks after first spray.

 Wettablesulphur @ 2 g/lit may be sprayed after spraying carbaryl to avoid mite resurgence.

Phosphamidon + neem oil 5 ml/lit of water can be mixed with any insecticides for the control of hopper and

shoot webber

Leaf galls and Aphids

Application of Dimethoate or Methyl demeton @ 2 ml/lit will control the pests.

Flower Webber

Application of Phosalone 35 EC @ 2 ml/lit will control webber.

Nut Weevil

Fenthion 100 EC 1ml/lit spray during marble stage and second spray 15 days after the first spray will

control nut weevil.

Mealy bug

 Spraying of Chlorpyriphos 20 EC 2.5ml/lit or Monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.5ml/lit.

 Band the trees with 20 cm wide 400 gauge polythene sheets will prevent the spread of the pest.
  Release of Australian ladybird beetle, Cryptolaemusmontrouzieri @ 10/tree will be a very effective

bio-control measure.

Stem borer

 Monocrotophos (36 WSC) 10 ml is soaked in absorbent cotton and placed on the affected stem by

removing the bark of 2.5 cm².

 Then the portion is wrapped with gunny or plastic papers thereby the chemical gets into the

system so as to kill the stem borer.

 The trees should not be treated during their bearing stage.

 Application of carbofuran 3 G @ 5g per bore hole and plugging with mud after mechanically

removing or killing the grub by introducing a needle or wire will also control the pest.

Fruit fly

 Spraying of Fenthion 2 ml/lit or malathion 2 ml/lit will control the pest.

 Ploughing the inter spaces will expose the pupae. Pheromone trap with methyl eugenol 1 ml in 1

litre of water + 1 ml of malathion solution will attract and kill the female insects.

 Take 10 ml of this mixture per trap and keep them in 25 different places in one hectare between 6

a.m. and 8 a.m.

 Collect and destroy the fallen fruits.

Diseases

Powdery Mildew (Oidiummangiferae)

 Most serious diseases of mango affecting almost all the varieties.

 White superficial powdery fungal growth on leaves, stalk of panicles, flowers and young fruits.
  Affected flowers and fruits drop pre maturely reducing the crop load considerably or might even

prevent the fruit set.

 Rains or mists accompanied by cooler nights during flowering are congenial for the disease

spread.

Control

 Alternate spraying of Wettable sulphur 0.2 per cent (2 g Sulfex/litre), Tridemorph 0.1 per cent (1

mlCalixin/litre) and Bavistin @ 0.1 % at 15 days interval are recommended for effective control of

the disease.

 The first spray is to be given at panicle emergence stage.

Anthracnose (Colletotrichumgloeosporioides) :

 Widespread occurrence in the field and in storage.

 Serious losses to young shoots, flowers and fruits under favourable climatic conditions (high

humidity, frequent rains and the temperature range of 24 - 320C).

 The disease produces leaf spot, blossom blight, withered tip, twig blight and fruit rot symptoms.

 Fruits infected at mature stage carry the fungus into storage and cause

 Considerable loss during storage, transit and marketing.

Control

 Diseased twigs should be pruned and burnt along with fallen leaves.

 Spraying twice with Carbendazim (Bavistin 0.1%) at 15 days interval during flowering controls

blossom infection.

 Spraying of copper fungicides (0.3%) is recommended for the control of foliar infection.
  Postharvest disease of mango caused by anthracnose could be controlled by dip treatment of fruits

in Carbendazim (0.1%) in hot water at 520C for 15 minutes.

Die Back (Botryodiplodia (Lasiodiplodia theobromae) :

 Serious diseases of mango.

 Most conspicuous during October-November.

 Characterized by drying of twigs and branches followed by complete defoliation, which gives the

tree an appearance of

 scorching by fire.

Control

 Pruning of the diseased twigs 2-3 inches below the affected portion

 Sraying Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) on infected trees controls the disease.

 The cut ends of the pruned twigs are pasted with Copper Oxychloride (0.3%).

Red Rust (Cepbaleurosvirescens) :

 Causes reduction in photosynthetic activity and defoliation of leaves.

 Rusty red spots mainly on leaves, petioles and bark of young twigs.

 Spots are greenish grey in colour and velvety in texture and later, they turn reddish brown.

 In case of severe infection, the bark becomes thick, twigs get enlarged but remain stunted and the

foliage finally dries up.

Control

 Two to three sprays of Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) is effective in controlling the disease.

Sooty Mould (Meliolamangiferae) :

 Common in the orchards where mealy bug, scale insects and hoppers are not controlled efficiently.
  Black sooty mould on the leaf surface.

 In severe cases, the trees turn completely black

 Severity of infection depends on the honey dew secretion of the above insects.

 Honey dews secretions stick to the leaf surface and provide necessary medium for fungal growth.

 Fungus causes no direct damage, the photosynthetic activity of the leaf is adversely affected.

Control

 Pruning of affected branches and spraying of Wettable sulphur (0.2%) + Metacid (0.1 %)+ gum

acacia (0.3%) helps to control the disease.

Diplodia Stem-end Rot (Lasiodiplodiatheobromae)

 Fungus enters through mechanically injured areas on the stem or skin.

 The fungus grows from the pedicel into a circular black lesion around the pedicel.

Control

 Careful handling to minimize mechanical injuries.

 Postharvest dip of fruits in Carbendazirn (0.1%) in hot water at 52 ± 1°C for 15 minutes controls

the disease in storage and transit.

 BANANA

Botanical name:Musa sp. L.

Family: Musaceae

Chromosome no.: 2n = 22, 33 & 44

Origin: Tropical regions of South East Asia (Assam, Burma and Indo-China region).

The banana is considered to be one of the most primitive, cultivated tropical fruits in India. It is the

second most importantfruit crop of India.Banana is one of the oldest fruit known tomankind and also

important food for man. It is one of the oldest and commonest of the Indian fruit that hasbeen cultivated

since ancient times. Its antiquity can be traced back to Garden of paradise where eve was said to have

used its leaves to cover hermodesty in the garden of paradise. It may be one of the reasons why banana is

called “Apple ofParadise” and botanically named Musa paradisiaca. Banana plants refer to Biblical legend

as“Tree of wisdom” for good and evil in the Garden of Eden. Banana by virtue of its, multiple uses is

popularly known as “Kalpataru” (a plant withvirtue). It is used as staple fruit in most of the African countries

and is used as ripe (table) or raw fruit (cooking). Edible bananas are mostly hybrids of the two species from

M. acuminata and M. balbisiana. They set fruits by parthenocarpy. It is called as ‘Apple of paradise’ and

‘Adam’s fig’. This is the fruit for all ages and it is a good laxative. It is one of the fruit among ‘Mukkani’ or

Triplet fruits, comes last (Ma-pala-vazhai). It is equally suitable both for large scale cultivation as well as for

home scale cultivation.Nutritive value

Banana is a rich source of energy in the form of sugars and starch. Fruit for all ages. Banana is

eaten when ripe as dessert / table fruit. It is good laxative. Rich source of carbohydrates, Vitamins,

riboflavin, niacin, Ascorbic acid and Minerals -Ca, Mg, K & P. Rich source of energy (137 K. Calories/100g)

or (350 to 550 kilo joules/100g).

Climate
 The banana is strictly a tropical crop. It grows luxuriantly in the warm, humid and rainy climate of

tropical regions of the equator. It grows well in regions with a temperature range of 10-400C and an

average of 230C. In cooler climate the duration is extended, sucker production is affected and bunches are

small. Low temperature i.e. less than 10 0C is unsuitable since, they lead to a condition called choke throat

or impeded inflorescence and bunch development. Banana grows well under high rainfall areas .On an

average 100 mm rainfall per month appears to be satisfactory for growth of banana. Hot winds blowing in

high speed during the summer months shred and desiccate the leaves. Stagnation of water is injurious and

may cause diseases like panama wilt. Banana comes up well up to an altitude of 1500m above sea level in

the tropics. The hill bananas in Tamilnadu are raised between elevations of 500-1500m mostly under rain

fed conditions. Absence of strong winds and cyclones are important.

Soils

Banana is voracious feeder and requires a well-drained soil with plentiful organic matter. Even

though banana requires heavy irrigation, it cannot with stand water stagnation. Therefore, the soil should

be well drained and deep (At least 1m depth).It grows successfully in loamy soils, well drained clay soils of

delta areas, irrigated medium soils. The production in lighter soils is good. Saline soils with salinity

percentage exceeding 0.05 are unsuitable. Banana can grow well even under slightly alkaline soils. Such

soils are found preferable for avoiding the wilt disease, which is known to be severe in acid soils.

Varieties

Most of the present day edible banana varieties have originated from the two species viz.,Musa

acuminate andMusa balbisiana

The notation of ‘genome’ was ‘A’ for acuminata and ‘B’ for balbisiana as suggested by Simmonds

and Shepherd (1955) as a key to the classification. ‘A’ represent, acuminata genome with 11 chromosomes

from M.acuminata. While ‘B’ represents genome with 11 chromosome from M. balbisiana.

Names of banana varieties are often confused by local synonyms.

  AA - Matti, Sana Chenkadali, Namarai (Diploid acuminata types)

 AAA - Gross Michel, Grand Naine, Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta & Red banana (Triploid

acuminata types)

 AAAA - Bodles Alta fort (Tetraploid acuminata)

 AB - Ney poovan, Kunnan (Diploid mixed)

 AAB - Poovan, Rasthali, Hill Banana, Ladan, Nendran (Triploid mixed)

 ABB - Monthan, Karpura valli (Triploid mixed)

 ABBB - Klue taperod (Tetraploid mixed)

Matti (AA): It is commonly grown in Kanyakumari district. Fruits are small – taste is good. Good male

parent.

SannachenKadali (AA): It resembles red banana. It performs well even under full shade. Hence, it can

be grown in coconut gardens.

Namarai (AA): Grown in Kanyakumari district. Good male parent – produce fertile pollen grains.

Gross Michel (AAA): Has desirable fruit characters. It is susceptible to wilt. Now not grown commercially.

Dwarf Cavendish (AAA) suitable for wind prone areas.

Synonyms: Basrai Dwarf, Pachavazhai, Mauritius, KullaVazhai, Kuzhi Vazhai, Kuttavazhai.

a. Plant stature is dwarf.

b. Crop duration is 10-12 months

c. Each bunch weight 18-20 kg.

d. Fully ripped fruits will be greenish yellow in colour.

Robusta (AAA): Variety with big fruits and heavy bunches.

Synonyms: Bombay Green, Harichal, Pedda Pacha Arati.

a. Semi tall sport of Dwarf Cavendish.

 b. Average bunch weight is 40 kg.

Red Banana (AAA): Medi banana with medicinal properties.

Synonyms: Lalkela, Chenkadali, Sevvazhai Rathambala.

a. The colour of the pseudostem, petiole midrib and fruit is purplish red.

b. Bunch weight 20-25 kg with 100 fruits.

c. Crop duration from planting to harvest: 18 months.

Ney Poovan (AB): Small fruited.

Synonyms: Rasakadali, Elakki, Senoreeta, Nallippovan.

a. Rind of the fruit is very thin and papery with yellow colour.

b. Bunch weight – 12kg with 150 fruits/bunch

c. Duration : 13 months.

Kunnan (AB): Small fruited

a. Quality variety of Kerala

b. Fruits with firm pulp.

Poovan (AAB):

Synonym: Champa, Lalvelchi, Mysore, Palayam kodan, Fill basket.

a. Individual fruit has prominent nipple.

b. Average bunch wt. – 15 kg having 8-12 hands each hand with 11-18 fingers.

c. Crop duration - from 11 to 14 months.

Rasthali (AAB):

Synonym: Silk fig, Martaman, Malbhog, Amruthapani, Rasabale, Vellai thuzhuvan.

a. Plant is tall and can be identified by the yellowish green pseudo stem with brownish blotches,

reddish margins of the petiole and leaf sheath.

 b. Bunch wt. – 12 kg. Fruit peel is thin with silk flesh.

c. Easy dropping of ripe fruits from the bunch (Poor pedicle attachment)

d. Formation of hard lump in the pulp.

e. Duration 14 months.

Ayirankai Rasthali (AAB):

Synonym: Ayirankaichi

It is a natural mutant of Rasthali. The fruits are longer at basal end and become smaller towards

tip. No male phase and number of fruits ranged from 600-700 per bunch. Duration: 15 ½ months.

Hill Banana (AAB):

Synonym: Virupakshi, Sirumalai, Malavazhai, Vella Vazhai.

a. Perenial banana liked for its good flavour and keeping quantity.

b. Bunch weight 10-12 kg with 7 hands.

c. Duration 14 months.

d. Each fruit has 5 ridges/sides.

e. Peel is thick. It has 5 ridges/sides.

f. It peels off easily from the pulp.

Ladan (AAB):

Synonym: Nadan, Singan.

g. Variety with large leaves can be grown under shade.

h. Stem is greenish with purple tinge.

i. Duration – 12 ½ months.

Nendran (AAB)

Synonym: Ethankai, French Plantain.

a. Pseudostem has a distinct shade of pink colouration.

 b. Fruit is longer, peel is thick.

c. Bunch wt. – 12-15 kg.

d. Fruit with 3 prominent ridges strongly held.

e. Duration : 11 to 12 months.

Monthan (ABB):

Synonym : Bontha, Kanch kela, Bluegoe.

a. Culinary banana

b. Duration 12-14 months.

c. Bunch wt. 20-25kg with 80-100 fruits per bunch.

Sambarani Monthan (ABB)

A mutant of monthan with fruits having an ashy coated rind.

Karpoora valli (ABB)

Synonym Raja vazhai, Karpura vazhai, Pisang Awak.

a. Pseudo stem is light green with purplish tinge. Huge and tall

b. Peel yellow with ashy coating.

c. Pulp is very sweet with pleasure flavour.

Naatu Vazhai (ABB)

Synonym : Vayal Vazhai.

d. Popular in Southern districts of TN – unripe fruits are used for culinary purpose.

e. Ripe fruits for dessert purpose. Good coolent.

CO-1 (Hybrid) from TNAU, Coimbatore (1983)

It is a multiple hybrid developed from

Ladan (AAB) x Musa balbisiana clone sawai (BB)

 

F1 (AB) x Kadali (AA)

Co.1 Banana (AAB)

a. The fruits have flavour and taste similar to Hill banana, at the same time, the plants can be

grown in plains.

b. Bunch weight 10.5kg having 7 hands with 80-85 fruits / bunch. Each fruit weight about 150g.

c. TSS 22.6o Brix. Crop duration is 14-15 months.

d. The fruits will be sweet only after ripening.

Hybrids

BRS – 1 (Agniswar x Pisang Lilin) : Early ratooning ability, 100 days earlier then Rasthali,

resistance to sigatoka leasf spot, (KAU, Kerala)

BRS – 2 (Vannan x Pisang Lilin) : Dark green poovan like fruits, 14 kg of bunch weight, it is having

8 hands, number of fruit should be 118 and resistance to sigatoka leaf spot, rhizome weevil and

nematodes, (KAU, Kerala).

Gold Finger (FHIA01)

It is a hybrid between Dwarf Prata x SH3142 developed at Honduran federation of Agricultural

Research. It is adapted to different soils – fruits ripen slowly. It could replace Cavendish banana. Bunch

wt. 20-25kg.

Propagation

Banana is propagated vegetaively through suckers and rhizomes.

Suckers

There are two types of suckers. 1) Water sucker 2) Sword sucker.

Water sucker

Have broad leaves and broad pseudostem and they don‘t produce a healthy banana clump and

hence not suitable for planting.

Sword sucker

It has a strong large base, gradually tapering to a slender point with one or two narrow sword like

leaves at the tip. The sword sucker is most vigorous, grows fast and comes in to bearing early. Hence,

sword suckers are preferred for planting.

Rhizomes

After harvest, a number of its suckers are encouraged to grow up to 1-2 feet. They are then dug

out and their pseudostems are completely cut above the solid rhizome and roots removed. The rhizomes

weighing about 450-900 grams are stored for two months in a dry place under shade. During storing the

bottom remains cut off leaving the heart bud prominent at the top of the rhizome. The conical rhizomes,

which have a sound heart, will be selected for planting. Some times the rhizomes are cut in bits of 1

kilogram and are used for planting.

Selection of sucker

Select only 3-4 months old suckers from healthy vigorously growing and good yielding plants. The

sword suckers should have 1.5- 2 kg weight.

Preparation of the sucker

The selected suckers should be separated from its mother plant along with a portion of a rhizome.

Later, the stem of the suckers should be beheaded at 20-30 cm height in a slanting manner. This helps in

producing new leaves quickly. The slanting cut also prevents the stagnation of water in the sucker. The old

roots should be removed and then dipped in 0.1% cereson @ 1 g.per litre of water for 5 minutes before

planting.

Selection of planting material

  Sword suckers should be vigorously growing and weighing 1.5 to 2.0 kg

 The suckers should be swollen at the base and tapering towards the top.

 Free from pests, diseases and nematodes.

 They are prepared by trimming off the roots and decayed portion of the corm and cutting the

pseudostem leaving 20 cm from the corm.

 The suckers can be graded and grouped based on their size before planting.

Pre treatment of suckers (Paring and Pralinage):

 The rhizomes selected from mother plant should be free from pests, diseases and nematodes.The

rhizomes are trimmed and then dipped for 5 minutes in 0.2% Carbendazim solution (2g in 1 lit of

water). This treatment will help to control Panama wilt.

 Then the sucker is dipped in clay slurry solution of 4 parts clay plus 5 parts water to have a thick

coating of slurry over which 40g of carbofuran 3G granules is sprinkled. This treatment will control

nematodes.

 Alternatively, the corms can also be dipped in with 0.2% Monocrotophos (2ml Monocrotophos 36

WSC / l of water), shade dried for atleast 24 hours.The sucker is then planted at the centre of the

pit and the soil is pressed around.

 Sucker treatment and planting

Land preparation

The land should be deeply ploughed, harrowed and leveled and pits of 45cmx45cmx45cm should be

dug at the required spacing. The pits should be exposed for weathering for about a week to control the

presence of any grubs, ants, weevils etc. The soil from the pits should be mixed with the following

thoroughly.

 5-10 kg of FYM

 0.5 kg of castor or neem cake

 2 kg of wood ash or 50 grams of muriate of potash

 200 grams of super phosphate.

The pits are then filled with the above-manured soil thoroughly. While filling the pits with the manured

soil apply to the pit 50 grams of lindane dust to control weevil which affects the rhizome or sucker in the

soil. The sword suckers are later planted straight in the pit along with a portion of rhizome at a depth of 10-

15cm.

Planting
 The period of planting should be such that the active growth phase of the plant may continue un-

hampered during the flower bud initiation stage or stage at which embryonic bunch is formed inside the

pseudostem. This generally occurs between 4 and 5 months after planting. This stage determines the no.

of hands / fingers in future bunch after planting. At this stage there should be any extreme cold or hot

weather or lack of soil moisture or lack of nutrients in the soil. June-July (On set of monsoon) is the planting

season.

In general the beginning of monsoon i.e. June is the best time for planting banana in most parts, as

the rapid growth during first 4 months of monsoon is particularly helpful. In the heavy rainfall tracts like

Malabar planting is done after the cessation of monsoon from September to October. This also makes the

plants quite small during the expected periods of high winds, storms and cyclones etc.

System of cultivation in Banana

System of Season of
Preparatory cultivation Variety Spacing
cultivation planting

Garden land 2-3 ploughings, then taking pits Robusta Jan – Feb and 1.8 x 1.8 m

and farming channels and basins Nendran, Dwarf Nov – Dec 1.5 x 1.5 m

Gavendish,

Grand Naine

Wet land No elaborate preparation is Poovan, Feb – April 2.1 x 2.1 m

required since banana follows Rasthali,

paddy. Planting is done in small Monthan,

pits, sufficient to accommodate Neyvannan

the corms

Perennial One deep mammutti digging, Poovan, Jan – Feb 3.3x 3.3 m
(Padugai) annual deepening of the water Monthan Aug – Sept

channels and spreading of the silt

in the bunds.

Hill banana Scrub jungles are removed, Virupakshi, Apr – May 3.6 x 3.6 m

contour walls are constructed. Sirumalai Jun – Aug

Application of fertilizers

N P K
Particulars
(g / plant / year)

Garden land

Nendran 150 90 300

Other than Nendran 110 35 330

Wet land

Nendran 210 35 450

Rasthali 210 50 390

Pooven and Robusta 160 50 390

Hill banana

 375 g of 40:30:40 NPK mixture and 130 g MOP/clump per application during October, January

and April. Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria - 20 g each at planting and 5th month after

planting preceding chemical fertilizer application.

 Apply N as neem coated urea. N & K in 3 splits 3 rd, 5th and 7th month P at 3rd month of planting.

 For tissue culture banana 50% extra fertilizer at 2 nd, 4th and 6th and 8th month after planting.

Irrigation
 Irrigation should be given immediately after planting and life irrigation after 3-4 days; subsequently

irrigations are to be given once in a week for irrigated plantations of garden lands and once in 10-15 days

for wet lands. The field should be sufficiently irrigated after every manuring.

Drip irrigation can be advantageous to reduce water loss in conveyance and improving efficiency.

Drip systems are especially useful in salt affected soil. Nearly 40 % savings in water is noticed when drip

systems are used. 15 lit of water / plant / day from planting to 4th month, 20 lit / plant / day from 5th to

shooting and 25 lit / plant / day from shooting till 15 days prior to harvest.

Weeding

In the first four months after planting, it is necessary to remove weeds. The stirring of the soil is

done by the spade after every 6 or 7 irrigations. It is necessary to maintain its tilth andabsorptive power.

Weeds can also be checked by the use of herbicides. Apply Diuron @ 4 kg per hectare and simazine @ 6

kg/ha. To control grasses and broad leaved weeds when applied after planting and repeated 30 days after

planting. Glyphosate @ 1 kg a.i. per hectare at thetime of planting followed by 0.5 kg a.i.per hectare at 30

and 60 days after planting of suckers is recommended. Banana is sensitive to 2, 4-D and hence the

phenoxy compounds are not used.Intercropping

Leguminous vegetables, beet root, elephant foot yam and sunhemp. Avoid growing cucurbitaceous

vegetables.

Fertigation

Application of fertilizers through irrigation water is known as fertigation.

Advantages

 Very high yields with high quality fruits

 The dosages required by the plant can also be reduced by 25-50 % when the fertigation is

practiced along with high density planting

  Effective utilization of fertilizers, no wastage

 Uniform growth of plants

 Reduced labour cost

It is possible to regulate and supply the required nutrients through irrigation water if drip

systems have been laid out. This will help in obtaining very high yields compared to conventional method of

fertilizer application in the soil. The dosages required by the plant can also be reduced by 25-50 % when

the fertigation is practiced along with high density planting. Experiments conducted at this department

showed that weekly scheduling of fertigation is sufficient and different nutrients.

25 litres of water / day + 200:30:300 g N:P 2O5:K2O /plant using water soluble fertilizer. For

economizing the cost of fertilizers fertigate using normal fertilizers (urea and MOP) with 30% of the

recommended dose along with recommended dose of P as basal at 2nd month of planting.

Fertigation schedule

Weeks after planting N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%)

9-18 (10 weeks) 30 100 20

19-30 (12 weeks) 50 - 40

31-42 (12 weeks) 20 - 32

43-45 (3 weeks) - - 8

Total 100 100 100

Flowers and Fruit

The inflorescence of banana (flowering stalk) emerges from the center of thepseudostem 7 to 9

months after planting; depending upon varieties by this time 26 to 32 leaves are produced. Theprocess of

banana flowering is called shooting. The flowers appear spirally along the axis of the inflorescence in

groups of 10 to 20, covered by purplish-to-greenish fleshy bracts which shed as flowering development
progresses. The first flowers to emerge are functionally female. In the edible cultivars, the rapidly growing

ovaries develop parthenocarpically (without pollination) into clusters of fruits, called "hands." Although most

banana cultivars produce seedless fruit, some are fertile and can set seed. The last flowers to emerge are

functionally male. In plantains, the male part of the inflorescence and/or male flowers may be absent or

greatly reduced. The time from shooting to fruit harvest depends upon temperature, cultivar, soil moisture,

andcultural practices and ranges from 80 to 180 days.

High density planting

To increase productivity in unit area, it is advisable to go for high density planting systems. Besides

higher yield, high density planting also helps to reduce labour cost for matt management and increase the

efficiency of utilization of inputs such as fertilizers and water. Experiments conducted by TNAU in cv.

Nendran and Robusta with increased population per hectare has indicated that very high yields can be

achieved. The population is increased by adjusting the row to row spacing and planting more than one

sucker / hill. Accordingly, the following spacing is recommended. For cv. Nendran, adopt a spacing of 2 x 3

m with 3 suckers per pit (5000 plants/ha) with 25% extra NPK fertilizers per pit. In the case of Robusta,

adopt a spacing of 1.8 x 3.6 m with 3 suckers per pit (4600 plants/ha) with 300:90:450 g of NPK per pit.
 3- Plants /Hill Paired row system

1.8 X 3.6 m (4800 pl/ha) 1.2 x 1.2 x 2.0m(5200 pl/ha)

Special intercultural practices

Bunch cover

During the development stages, the surface of the fingers may get bruised or damaged due to their

exposure. Use of transparent polythene sleeves provided with 2-4% ventilation to cover the bunches can

be helpful to avoid such damages. Besides, reducing the blemishes, it improves bunch appeal, advances

the maturity by 7-10 days in banana. The right stage of bunch covering is when the last hand has opened

and the male bud has to be removed at that time. The top end of the sleeves should alone be tied with the

peduncle leaving the bottom open for better aeration.

 Banana bunch cover

Removal of male bud

The removal of male bud along with withered styles 8-11 days after bunch emergence along with
the removal of withered styles is recommended to favour fruit development. This is called denavelling

Removal of male bud Male bud

Removal of withered styles and perianth

In some varieties the styles are persistent and hence they remain in the bunch till maturity. They

can be easily removed by a light brushing movement of the hand a few days after flowering and if it is

delayed, it is difficult to remove and later, they become brown and shriveled. This operation eliminates the

removal of infection by saprophyte fungi especially to avoid the fingertip disease.

 Dried and withered styles and perianth

Desuckering
It refers to the removal of unwanted suckers. They are to be periodically removed otherwise they
compete with the mother plant for nutrients, resulting in lower bunch weight and yield. Desuckering is
accomplished by cutting the suckers at ground level or pushing a chisel-shaped crowbar between the
parent and the sucker and giving a twisting motion. Under garden land and wetland conditions, desuckering
is done at monthly intervals. In hill banana, two bearing plants and two followers per clump are considered
optimum and the rest are desuckered. Normally, desuckering is done at 3 times in a year.

De-suckering De-suckering equipment

Use Growth regulators

a. in certain pockets of Trichirapalli, the banana cultivar Poovan is with a peculiar development

disorder viz., ‘kottaivazhai’ which is characterized by the presence of distinctly conical and ill filled fruits with

a prominent central core having many under developed non-visible seed like structures rendering the fruits

inedible. This disorder can be overdome by spraying 2,4-D 20 ppm when the last hand of the bunch is
opened. The same chemical at the same dose and stage results in increased bunch weight and uniform

grade especially cv. like Nendran and Monthan.b. In cv. Rasthali, hard mass or hard lump, characterized by

pinkish brown, firm pulp than the usual soft pulp occurs, tests like immature or unripe fruits. Spraying the

bunches uniformly with 2,4-D 1000 ppm or dipping the cut end of peduncle of the bunches for a period of 5

minutes appears to favour the reduction of lumps and improve the size.

The process of flowering governed by Gibberlin like substances helps in development of plant, later

on anthecin hormone inducing flowering of plant, both combiningly called as “Dual factors hypothesis”.

To improve the grade, 2, 4-D @ 25 ppm (25 mg/lit) – spray in Poovan & Co.1 after opening of last hand. It

is poured in the growing apex, than bunch will have more of female flowers/fingers. This also helps to

remove the seediness in poovan variety.2, 4, 5-T – 100 ppm – increased finger size and appearance.2, 4-D

– 100 ppm – finger weight, pulp % and TSS.NAA 100 ppm – 5th and 7th month – increased fruit size and

yield.Application of GA3 at 50mg/L resulted in maximum yield and required less number ofdays for fruit

maturity in Giant Governor Banana.

GA3 400 ppm – 35 or 55 days – 3 times on alternate days - increased colour of fingers.GA3 – 50

ppm – increased yield – 56-65 t/ha.Spray CCC 1000 ppm of 4th and 6th month after planting.Spray

plantozyme @ 2ml/lit at 6th and 8th month after planting to get higher yield.

Sunscald

The peduncle of bunches may be covered with flag leaf to prevent ‘main stock rot’ and also the

bunches with banana leaves to avoid sunscald.

Propping

The pseudostem requires the support from propping with bamboo or casuarinas poles at the time

of bunch emergence. The pole is fixed and tied around on, one side of the plant or two poles are tied at the

tip in such a way, they form ‘x’ shaped and are kept against the pseudostem to bear the weight of the

bunches.
 Propping

Mattacking

After harvesting, the pseudostem should be cut leaving a stump of about 60 cm height. This

practice is called ‘mattacking’. The food material stored in the left out stump continues to nourish the

daughter sucker till it withers and dries up. Bananas are not usually allowed to ripe on the tree as it takes

long time. Besides, the fruit peel splits, fruits ripens unevenly and fails to develop good colour and aroma.

Hence, banana is made to ripen artificially.

Smoking

Smoke treatment is the commonest method to induce ripening in Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.

Smoking is done with straw, leaves and cowdung in a closed chamber with bunches arranged in a heap for

18-24 hours in summer and 48 hours in winter. After taking the bunches from the chambers, they are
placed in a well ventilated room for development of colour. Bunches take 3 days for ripening in this method.

Ethrel treatment (2500 ppm) also cause ripening within 2 days. In this method, the bunches are arranged in

a closed chamber and ethrel is taken in a beaker and added with few pellets of sodium or potassium

hydroxide. This facilitates the release of ‘ethylene’ gas which aids in ripening the fruits.

Harvesting and post-harvest technology

Maturity indices

The colour of the fruit changes from deep green to a lighter green. The fruits are harvested when

top leaves start drying. Shedding of floral ends of the fruits with slightest touch of the hand. The angles or

ridges of the fruits become less prominent or they become round. Harvest may be delayed up to 100-110

days after opening of the first hand. Fruits are harvested when about 75 % mature as fingers on upper

hands turn light green in color. The bunch is cut from pseudostem leaving a portion of peduncle for

handling during transport.

Yield

The average yield is as follows,

1. Dwarf varieties : 30-40 t/ha/year.

2. Tall varieties : 15-20 t/ha/year.

3. Poovan, Rasthali and Ney Poovan: 40-50 t/ha/year.

4. Robusta and Dwarf Cavendish : 50-60 t/ha/year.

5. Monthan : 30-40 t/ha/year.

Post-Harvest Technology

Bunches should be kept out of light after harvest since this hastens ripening and softening. For

local consumption hands are often left on stalks and sold. For export, hands are cut into units of 4-16

fingers, graded for both length and width and carefully placed in polylined 12 to 18 kg boxes. Prior to

packaging, fruits are cleaned in water or diluted sodium hypochlorite solution to remove the latex and
treated with thiobendazloe and other fungicides. It is successfully demonstrated that 100 gauge thick

polythene bags with 0.2% holes enhance shelf life under room temperature as well as in cold storage.

Ripening

Bananas are not usually allowed to ripe on the tree as it takes long time. Besides, the fruit peel

splits; fruits ripen unevenly and fail to develop good colour and aroma. Hence, bananais made to ripen

artificially. Smoking done with straw leaves & cow dung in a closed chamber for 18-24 hours insummer and

48 hours in winter and later shifted to ventilated room for uniform ripening. Theexogenous application of

100 ppm ethylene gas in an enclosed chamber for 24 hrs for willproduce uniform colour and ripening. Fruits

are ripened by exposure to ethylene gas (1000 ppm for 24 hrs) at their destination, in sealed "banana

ripening rooms". Hands can be stored for a short time at temperatures not lower than 12 0C since fruits are

susceptible to chilling injury. Storage

Banana can be stored at about 13 0C with the Relative Humidity of 85-95 per cent for 3weeks and is

ripened in a week at 16.5 - 210C. The fruits should not be stored / shifted underrefrigerated condition. The

storage life can be increased by keeping the fruits in high concentration of carbon dioxide and low

concentration of oxygen. Also storing in sealed polythene bags containing ethylene absorbent like

potassium permanganate. Shrink film wrapping or Waxol (12 per cent) treatment can extend shelf life up to

3 weeks.Physiological disorders

1. Hard lump

It is characterized by pinkish brown, firm pulp than the usual soft pulp occurs in cv.Rasthali, tastes

like immature or unripe fruits. Spraying the bunches uniformly with 2, 4 D at 1000 ppm or dipping the cut

end of peduncle of the bunches for a period of 5 minutes appears to favour the reduction of lumps and

improve the size.

2. Kotta vazhai
 It is also a malady of unknown etiology affecting Poovan banana.“Kottai” means seed, referring to

conspicuously enlarged ovules and immature darkgreen fruits.Application of 2, 4-D 20 ppm is found to

improve the bunch weight.

3. Neer Vazhai

It affects the variety Nendran.Infested plants show poor plant growth, delayed shooting, lanky

bunch with few handsand immature unfilled fingers.Fruits ooze out watery fluid when cut and severe root

damage is noticed.Cause of this disorder is unknown and found to be transmitted through

suckers.Application of NAA improves the finger filling.

Package of practices for tissue culture banana

Advantages of using tissue cultured banana plants

 Plants are selected from high yielding clones so, yield will be high

 Plants are micro propagated under optimal conditions - Uniform superior planting material.

 Production of high yielding quality planting material which are uniformity healthy, disease free

and having accelerated growth reducing the crop cycle.

 Stable plants with well-developed root system and their observation and growing capacity in very

high.

 Tissue culture plants enable flexibility in accordance with the planting season and marketing

demand.

 Fruit bunches are dense, and compact having well shape fingers for better marketability.

 Optimal yields are ensured every season following requisite cultural practices.

 Integration of 3 crops (including two ratoons) from tissue culture with advanced growth ensures

highly profitable plantation.

 Large quantities of plants could be supplied at a time.

  Quality plant command premium in the market.

Propagation using tissue culture plants

At present, tissue culture plants of choice varieties of banana are commercially available. The cost

of these planting materials are higher compared to suckers, but so also the benefits. The plants are initially

free from disease inoculum and hence proved to be very vigorous once they establish in the field. If they

are derived from superior and high yielding mother plants, then they also perform better yield wise. The

plants usually attain shooting and harvest uniformly.

Compared to conventional suckers, the tissue culture plants will easily suffer post planting

diseases due to soil borne pathogens such as Erwinia bacterial wilt. Hence, periodical drenching with

bleaching powder @ 2 g/lit. at an interval of 10-15 days can be taken up if such infection is noted.

Varieties and Spacing

Sl. No. of plants per No. of plants per

Varieties Spacing
No. acre Ha.

1. Dwarf Cavendish Basrai (1.65m x 1.65m) 1440 3600

2. Robusta, Poovan (1.80m x 1.80m) 1210 3025

Land Preparation

 Plough and dig pits of 2' X 2' X 1.5' and fill the pits with well decomposed FYM/compost (15 -

20Kg) and thoroughly mix with sand and soil in 1:1:1 proportion. Irrigate the pits to allow the

soil to settle.

 Apply 1/2 Kg. neem cake and mix well with soil or apply Furadan 3 G @ 20g/pit or thimmet 10

G @ 12g/pit within a week after planting.

  We can also apply 20 g in each of Azospirillum, Phosphobacteria and 50 g VAMwith 25 g of

Pseudomonas fluorescence and Trichoderma viridie / plant at planting to control diseases and

nematode.

Planting

Split open the polybag and remove the plant carefully with the ball of earth intact. Place the plant in

the centre of the pit without disturbing the roots. Deep planting should be avoided. After a week of planting,

drench the soil with Emisan @ 1g/litre. A week later spray streptomycin (500ppm) - 1/2 g/lr to control

bacterial infection.

Instead of using these chemicals we can apply 50 g VAM in soil application with Application of

Pseudomonas fluorescens and Trichoderma viridie at the rate of 5 g/ lit. as drenching (250 ml/plant) around

the root zone may also be helpful.

Fertilizer Application

Fertilizer Application depends on soil fertility. General recommendation is 200:100:200 g/plant of

NPK in split doses as detailed below:

Day's after Urea Fertilizer Dosage (g/plant)

S.No
Planting (g/plant) Ammonium Sulphate Super Phosphate Muriate of Potash

1. 30 45 100 125 50

2. 75 90 195 125 85

3. 110 110 245 125 85

4. 150 110 245 125 85

5. 180 90 195 125 100

At Bunch
6. - - - 85
emergence
 Apply fertilizers 2" to 3" below the soil surface. Apply 1st and 2nd dose of fertilizer at a distance of

20 cm away from the plant. 3rd and 4th dose of fertilizer should be applied at 40-50 cm and 5th and 6th

dose at 50-60 cm. from the plant.

Pest and Disease management

Rhizome weevil (Cosmopolitus sordidus)

 Most destructive pest of banana.

 Grub feed on rhizome while the adult weevils feed on the pseudostem.

 Plants become weak, eventually rot and collapse particularly in monsoon.

Management

 Use healthy planting material

 Wash the suckers and dip in a solution of Chlorpyrifos 20 EC at 2.5 ml/l before planting

 Incase of post planting infestation, spray the pseudostem and drench around the base of the tree

with Chlorpyrifos 20 EC at 2.5 ml/l. after a week spray and drench with Malathion 50 EC at 2 ml/l

 Trapping of adult weevils using pseudostem or rhizome pieces

Pseudostem weevil (Odaiporous longicolis)

 The weevil breeds throughout the year but it incidence is at peak during summer and monsoon

seasons.

 Both adults and grubs feed on the plant.

 Pseudostem become weak and start rotting.

 Exudation of plant sap comes from the holes and blackened mass comes out from the holes bored

by the larvae. Finally the whole plant dies.

Management

 Chopped pseudostem pieces along with carbaryl can be used as bait to trap weevil

 Application of Neemazal 0.5% (neem based insecticide) reduce the incidence of pseudostem borer

 Stem injection of Dichlorovos 0.25 % in the bored holes at the low infestation stage

 Cleaning the plants off the dry leaves and spraying chlorpyriphos (0.05 %) at monthly interval for 3

times at 6th, 7th and 8th months reduce the infestation of pseudostem borer

Aphids (Pentalonia nigronervosa)

 Vectors of banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) and can be seen as congregation under the leaf base

of pseudo stem.

Management

 Rouging out of virus affected plants

 Spray of 0.1% monocrotophos or 0.03% phosphonidon on the leaves is effective

 Spray Dimethoate 30 EC at 2 ml/l or Oxy-demeton methyl 25 EC at 2 ml/l at fortnightly intervals

Bunchy top virus

 Irregular, nodular, green streaks along the secondary veins on the upper side of lower portion of

leaf blade, midrib and petiole.

 Subsequent leaves show the same symptoms and progressively dwarfed.

 Marginal chlorosis and curling.

 Leaves are brittle in texture and petioles are incompletely elongated.

 Pale, white streaks may be seen along the length of lamina.

 Leaves become smaller and eventually the crown of the plant becomes composed of stunted

leaves, the rosette or bunchy top.

  Emergence of the bunches is choked by the pseudostem and may split instead of emerging in the

normal passion.

 Bunches are reduced in size and the fruits lose their market value.

Management

 Use virus free planting material and survey and eradicate infected plants regularly

 Apply 40 g of Carbofuran 3 G granules per pit before planting disease free plants.

 Spray the crop with systemic insecticides 0.1 % phosphamidon or 0.2 % oxydemeton methyl or

0.1% monocrotophos at 1 ml/plant (1 ml diluted in 4 ml of water) at 45 days from third month till

flowering is very effective

Bract Mosaic Virus

 Mosaic symptoms on the male flower bracts are diagnostic and distinct

 Mosaic patterns, stripes and spindle-shaped streaks may also be visible on the base of the

pseudostem when the leaf sheaths are removed.

 The leaf consists of spindle-shaped lesions and streaks running parallel to the veins.

Management

 Disease free planting material should always be used for new planting

 The diseased plants should be removed as and when noticed to avoid the spread of the disease

Erwinia rot or soft (Erwinia carotovora)

 The suckers show poor sprout emergence, stunting and yellowing.

 Incidence is highest in wet humid areas

Management

 Avoid wounding plant tissue during cultivation, harvest, packing and storage
  Treatment of planting suckers with dipping in copper oxy chloride (COC) at 4 g per litre and

Streptocycline (0.03%) for 45 minutes were found to be effectively control the Erwinia rot

Panama wilt or fusarium wilt

 Entry of fungus is facilitated by root damage cause by the nematodes.

 Infected plants show characteristic yellowing of leaf blades developing as a band along the margin

and spreading towards midrib.

 Leaf wilts and the petiole buckles.

 Leaf hangs between the pseudostem while the middle of lamina is still green.

 All the leaves eventually collapses.

 Young and old plants show dwarfing or stunting.

 The affected rhizome when cut transversely showed yellow colour streaks. Red or brown dots or

streaks are also seen.

 The cut stem smells like rotten fish.

Management

 Flooding of wilt affected areas for 6 months.

 Use of healthy planting material

 Removal of infected plants at first sight

 Avoidance of root injury through intercultural operations

 Crop rotation with rice or sugarcane and improvement in drainage

 Application of capsules filled with Pseudomonas fluorescens at 60 mg/capsule is recommended at

2, 4 and 6 months after planting

 Application of carbofuran 3G @ 40g/sucker with Carbendazim 0.2% drenching during 4th , 6th and

8th month after planting significantly reduce the wilt incidence (0 %)

  Application of liquid formulation of Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf1 @ 4 lit/ha through drip system

had effective control of Fusarium wilt and nematode population.

 Pf1 strain around the rhizosphere region significantly enhanced the yield.

Sigatoka leaf spot

 Initial symptoms - small lesions on leaves which are pale yellow or greenish yellow streaks that

appear on both sides of leaves parallel to the leaf veins.

 Leaf spots on leaves increase in size to form dark brown to black linear oblong areas.

 Centre of the spot dry out, becoming light gray, but a narrow, dark brown to black border persists

giving an eye spot appearance.

 In severe cases, the petiole collapses and the leaf hangs down the pseudostem. The infection may

cause complete failure of maturity of the bunch.

Management

 Removal and destruction of infected leaves

 Spraying 1% Bordeaux mixture mixed with 2 % linseed oil, providing improved drainage, good

weed control, removal of suckers and correct spacing helps in reducing the disease incidence

 Spraying 0.1% Carbendazim or 0.2% Chlorothalanil 3-4 times at fortnightly interval was quite

effective in field trials

 Three sprays (from flowering to shooting period @ 20-25 days interval) of Propiconazole (0.5 ml/L)

with petroleum based mineral oil (1 %)

Anthracnose (Gloesporium musarum)

 Fungus attacks the young banana fruits usually at distal end.

 Skin turns black, shrivels and covered with characteristic pink acervuli.
 Finally the whole finger is affected.

 The whole bunch resulted in premature ripening and shriveling of fruits which are covered with pink

spores.

 Finally the fruits turn black and rot

Management

 Removal of distal bud should be done when all the hands have opened to prevent infection

 1% Bordeaux mixture controls the disease at the young bunches

 Pre-harvest spray with 0.2% Prochloraz or 0.1% carbendazim or 0.2% Chlorothalanil or 0.15 %

Kitazin 3-4 times at fortnightly interval was quite effective in field trials

 Post-harvest dipping of fruits in 440 ppm mycostatin or 100 ppm aureofungin or 400 ppm

carbendazim or 1000 ppm benzomyl prevents fruit rot

 Banana bunches should be harvested at correct stage of maturity and should be stored at 12 OC
 CITRUS

Botanical name:Citrus spp.,

Family: Rutaceae

Chromosome number: 2n-18

Origin: Tropical and Subtropical regions of south East Asia and Indio-china

Citrus fruit is the world's leading tree fruit crop and in India, it is the third important fruit crop next to

mango and banana. This group of fruits includes sweet organs, mandarins, limes, lemons, grapefruits,

pummelo, citro Kumquat etc. It is believed that most of the species under the genus Citrus are native to

tropical and subtropical regions of South – East Asia, particularly India, China and in the regions between

these two countries. Now citrus is grown in more than 100 countries of the world and the major citrus

producing countries are USA, Spain, India, Italy, Israel etc. Citrus fruits contain considerable amounts of

Vitamin C. Fruits are also good source of Vitamins and P. The mild bitterness in juice is due to the

presence of glucoside called Naringin which is said to have a medicinal value. The rind of the citrus fruits is

rich in pectin and essential oils. The major mandarin growing area in India are Coorg (Karnataka state),

Nagpur belt (Maharashtra), Darjeeling District (West Bengal) etc. In Tamil Nadu, mandarins are grown in

Pulney, Nilgiris and Shervaroy hills.

Citrus plants are perennial, small trees. Its leaf is uniformly compounded. In most species, the

petioles are winged exception being lemon and citron. Grapefruit and pummelo have large wings while

sweet oranges and acid lime have small wings. Flowers are produced on current season growth in cymes

both axillary and terminally. Two types of flowers, perfect and imperfect (with rudimentary pistils) are found.

The fruits of citrus are of a special type of berry known as 'hesperidium'. The pericarp is divided into three

layers.

a. Exocarp (Flavedo) - Outer most layer of the fruit having many oil glands.
 b. Mesocarp or albedo - is a white spongy portion adhering to the inner side of the exocarp.

c. Endocarp - is the edible portion containing many carpel segments. The segments are separated by

carpel walls. Within the carpels are many juicy vesicles developed from hair – like papillae on the

segment membrane and some seeds. The juicy vesicles are attached to the membrane with the

thread like stalk.

Nutritive value

They are a rich source of vitamin-C and protect a person from scurvy a dreaded disease

causingbody sores, bleeding gums, etc. The citrus fruits also contain vitamin K, which keeps the small

blood vessels in our body in healthy condition and helps in assimilation of vitamin C. The oranges of the

reticulates group are good sources of beta-carotene or vitamin A. Citrus fruits also have fair amounts of

most mineral nutrients like calcium. Perhaps that is why citrus is important in diets of sick and

convalescents. All the citrus fruits supply a large amount ofpotassium and calcium.

The important sugars in citrus fruits are sucrose, g1ucose and fructose occurring in a ratio of 2:1:1

respectively. Thus, they are good energy food too. The acidity of these fruits is mainly due to citric acid. In

the sweet varieties, acidity comes down upon ripening and at the same time fruit's sugars increase. Most

citrus fruits have trace of bitterness which is due to the presence of flavonoid compounds. The aromatic

principle in these fruits is due to a chemical substance called limonene and other essential oils. All these

chemical compounds present in citrus fruits are found to have extensive uses in industry, pharmaceuticals

and food processing.

Sub groups in citrus

1. Acid group

a. Acid lime: Citrus aurantifolia

b. Tahiti or Persean lime: Citrus latifolia

c. Rangpur lime: C. limonia

 d. Lemon: Citrus limon

e. Rough lemon: C. jambhiri

f. Citron: C. medica (Kidarankai in Tamil, used for pickling)

g. Sweet lime: Citrus limettoides

2. Orange group

a. Sweet orange: Citrus sinensis

b. Sour orange: Citrus aurantium (Narthankaai in Tamil, used for pickling)

c. Multiple leaf orange: C. multifolia

d. Japanese summer grape fruit: C. natsudaidai

3. Mandarin group: (Loose jacket)

a. Coorg mandarin, Nagpur Santra and Kodai orange: C. reticulata

b. Japanese Satsuma mandarin : C. unshiu

c. Willow leaf mandarin: C.deliciosa

d. King mandarin: C. nobilis

e. Kinnow mandarin: King x willow leaf

f. Tangerine orange var Dancy (trifoliate x mandarins): Citrus tangerina

4. Pummelo and grape fruit group

a. Pummelo: C. grandis

b. Grape fruit: C. paradisi

c. Kumquat: Fortunellasp.
 Sub Groups in Citrus

5. The fifth group consists of mainly hybrids of different citrus fruits with trifoliate orange

(Poncirus trifoliata) and mainly used as rootstock.

e.g. Citrange (Poncirus trifoliata x C. sinensis) var. Troyer, var. Carrizo

a. Citrangor (Citrange x C. sinensis)

b. Tangelo (Tangerine x grape fruit)

c. Citrangequat (Citrange x kumquat)

Acid lime
Sweet oranges

Mandarin

Pumelo

Grapefruit
Major Citrus species of horticultural importance are

a. Acid Lime (C. aurantifolia): A highly polembroyonic species, flowers are white, fruits are small,

round to oval, greenish yellow and thin skinned, core, solid at maturity e.g. kagzilime, PKM-1

developed at HCRI, Periyakulam, a selection from seedling progenies of Kadayam type, fruits are

big, each weighs about 50 g, rich in juice (52%). Each tree bears on an average 934 fruits

weighing 37 kg.

b. Sweet Orange (C. sinensis): Also known as tight skinned oranges. A highly polyembryonic

species, trees medium – large, fruits sub-globose to oval in shape, orange colour skinned,

segments 10 -12, orange coloured, pulp juicy. Important cultivars are Mosambi, Malta Blood Red,

Sathugudi, Pineapple and Valencia Late etc.

c. Mandarin Orange (C. reticulata): Also known as ‘Tangerine’ or loose skinned oranges. Fruits

medium sized, globose, sweet in taste, segments easily separable, core open at maturity, loose

skinned orange in colour, rind thin, rind and segments easily separable, usually 10 – 14 segments

in each fruit. Important cultivars are Coorg Orange, Kodai Orange, Nagpur Santra, Khasi Mandarin

etc.

d. Lemon (C. limon): The petals are pink coloured and the fruits are oval to elliptic with prominent

nipple. Fruit’s surface smooth, light yellow, core solid and juice abundant and acidic. Important

varieties are Sevelle, Malta, Rajamundhry, Mayor, Eureka etc.

e. Pummelo (C. grandis): A monoembryonic species with large sized fruits, sub- globose to pyriform

in shape, with thick and spongy rind, white fleshed and pink or red fleshed types are available.

f. Grapefruit (C. paradisi): A polyembroyonic species, fruits large, sub- globose in shape, fruit rind

and flesh are yellowish in colour, fruits highly juicy, sweet with bitter taste, central axis or core

opens at full maturity.

Climate and Soil

Citrus can grow well in a wide range of soil but it prefers deep, well-drained loamy soils. The best

pH is 5.5 to 7.5 good drains is an important pre-requisite of soils and the water table should be always

below 2.0 meters.

Citrus thrives well in frost - free subtropical to semi-tropical climate. However each citrus kind

needs a specific climate for its better performance. Sweet oranges prefer dry arid conditions coupled with

well-defined summer and winter seasons having low rainfall ie 20-40 cm. Places receiving high rainfall and

high humidity are unsuitable. On the other hand mandarins perform well in sub-mountain tracts like Coorg,

Wynad, Nilgiris, Pulney and Shervaroys hills ranging from 600-1000 m and the rainfall ranging from 75 to

250 cm. The do equally perform well in Nagpur area with an elevation of 300-600 m, the rainfall of 110 cm,

relative humidity of 53 per cent besides extremity in temperature ie maximum temperature being 47 0C and

the minimum temperature being 60C. Lime and lemon on the other hand prefer warm regions, moderately

moist and free from strong winds from sea level upto 100 m. MSL. Punmmelo and grapefruit can thrive both

under humid and dry tracts. They can grow well upto an altitude of 1000 m.

ACID LIME

Botanical name: Citrus aurantifolia

Chrosome No.: 2n = 18

Origin: India

Acid lime also known as Sour lime, Kagzi lime or Mexicain lime Keylime, West Indian lime etc. In

Hindi it is calles as Neebu. It is a good source of vitamin - C and extensively used for culinary purposes.

Salted lime peel is recommended for indigestion. It is also have medicinal valu, it is an appetizer. India is

the largest producer of acid limes in the world, but ranks fifth in the production of limes and lemons. Acid

lime is the third important citrus fruit after orange and mandarins. It is grown in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Assam and Rajasthan.

Climatic and soil requirement

Acid lime is tropical in its climatic requirement and sensitive to frost than any other citrus fruits. It

thrives well in a dry climate. The optimum temperature is 20-30o C. Right fromsea level upto even 1500 m

above MSL it can be grown. Lime grows well in deep (2-2.5m) well drained soils rich in organic matter. pH

range of 6.5 to 7.0 will be ideal for better growth and yield. It can not grow in water logged soils, alkaline

soils with high lime content. Lemons grow better in shallow soils also if well drained.

Important vatieties

i. Kagzi lime is the best most popular one.

ii. Some of the improved varieties of limes are: Pramalini, Vikram and Saisarbati -Supposed to be

canker free and prolific bearers.

iii. Chakradhar: Seedless strain of acid lime,

iv. PKM-1 - Heavy yielder.

v. Selection 49: Tolerant to canker, tristiza and leaf miner. It is also a prolific bearer.

vi. Seedless lime: Fruits are oblong and prolific bearer.

vii. Tahiti lime - Plants nearly thornless, leaves much larger of different shapes. Fruits alsomuch

larger and seedless - Triploid.

viii. Mithachikna (Thin rind) and Mithotra (Thick rind): Two varieties of sweet lime withless acid,

sweet fruits and are mostly used as stocks.

ix. Rangapur lime is grown for root stock purpose.

Varietal description

i. Kagzi lime

It is the most common variety found in north India. But this cultivar is highly susceptible to tristeza

virus and bacterial canker diseases.

ii. PKM - 1

It was developed at Horticultural College and Research Institute, Periyakulam of Tamil Nadu

Agricultural University by selection from seedling progenies of kadayam type of Nellaikattabomman

(Thirunelveli) district of Tamil Nadu. The fruits are rich in juice (52.3% by weight). Acidity of juice is 6.5%.

Each tree gives on an average 934 fruits per year weighing 36.9kg.

iii. Sai-Sharbati

It is a kagzi lime selection developed at MPKVP, Rahuri, Maharastra from a local germplasm

collected from Western Maharastra. Fruit surface smooth, fruits more uniform good size, thin skin, high

juice, TSS and acidity. High yield potential with higher (25%) cropping intensity in summer. Tolerant to

canker and tristesia.

iv. Tahiti Lime or Persian Lime or Seedless lime

It is closely related to lime but belongs to Citrus latifolia. It is triploid and does not possess seeds,

hence, multiplied by ground layering and air layering.

v. Rangpur Lime

It is also related to acid lime but belongs to Citrus limonia. It is mainly used as rootstock as it has

good adaptability to a wide range of soil conditions especially for heavy soil. It is tolerant to tristeza virus

and also to salt. However, it is susceptible to foot rot, exocorits and xyloporosis.

Propagation

Raising of seedlings

It is commonly propagated by seed all over the country because the seeds exhibit a high

percentage of polyembryony. Acid lime is mainly propagated through seeds selecting the nucellar

seedlings. Treat the seeds with GA3 25 ppm (or) thiourea 1 % - improves germination. Seeds should be

sown on raised nursery bed immediately after extraction of seed (at least within 3 days) as they lose their

viability quickly. Since, it produces polyembryonic seedlings which are from nucellar origin. Each
polyembryonic seed produces 3 to 4 seedlings. Among them, one is sexual origin remaining are nucellar.

Nucellar or apogamic seedlings breed true totype not in the case of sexual seedlings. The sexual seedlings

are stunted and poor in growth compared to apogamic or nucellar seedlings. When the seedlings attain 4-6

leaf stages, they are transplanted in secondary nursery at spacing of 20-30cm and off type or sexual

(hybrid)seedlings are identified and removed carefully. Seedlings are ready for transplanting 6 to 9 month

after sowing. However, usually one year old seedlings are preferred for transplanting, Acid lime can also be

propagated by budding, ground and air layering. Tahiti lime is seedless and hence propagated by air

layering. Acid limes can also be budded by patch buddingon Rangpur lime (Citrus limonica), Rough lemon

and Trifoliate orange (Ponicirus trifoliate).Cross protection or Pre-Immunization

As the plant are susceptible to a viral disease viz., ‘tristeza’, pre-immunization byinoculating a mild

strain of this virus through patch budding of a bark piece on healthy seedlings is done to induce resistance

to virulant form of virus. Such seedlings are called Pre Immunized Acid Lime Seedlings (PIALS)Field

preparation and planting

Field is ploughed 2-3 times and pits of 75 cubic centimeters are dug at a spacing of 3.6 m x 3.6 m

or 4.5 m depending on the fertility and type of soil. A close spacing of 3 m x 3 m can be adopted initially

and after about 8 years alternate rows can be removed. This will increase the yield in early years.Planting

After filling the pits with top soil and 20 kg of FYM, the seedlings (10-12 months old) or air layers

can be planted in the centre of the pit and supported by staking with bamboo stick to prevent any possible

break by wind. The pits are irrigated immediately after planting.

Season of planting

Planting is done during monsoon season. September – October or February – March, when

assured irrigation facilities are available.

Manures and manuring

 A bearing lime tree is to be fertilized with 600g of N, 300g of P and 300g of K besides 50kg of Farm

Yard Manure. Apply NPK along with VAM (Glomus fasiculatus) @ 1 kg/tree will help to accumulate

Phosphorus, Zn, Cu and sulphur.

The total nutrients have to be split into two equal parts and applied once during June -July and other during

November - December. The manures and fertilizers are mixed and applied as a band application in the

basin 70 cm away from the trunk and incorporated. NPK @600:300:300g + 15kg neem cake / plant / year

significantly increased the fruit yield and quality in acid lime. Application of green leaves 30 kg per tree

once in 3 months also recommended.

Manures and Fertilizers 1 year (kg) Annual increase (kg) From 6thyear (kg)

FYM 10.00 5.00 30.00

N 0.200 0.100 0.600

P 0.100 0.025 0.200

K 0.100 0.040 0.300

Micronutrient application

The spray solution containing following micronutrients can be applied once in three months at the

time of new flesh production. Zinc sulphate - 0.5%, Manganese - 0.05%, Iron - 0.25%, Magnesium - 0.5%,

Boron - 0.1%, Molybdenum - 0.003%. In addition to that apply 50 g in each of ZnSo4 and Fe So4 per tree

per year.

Irrigation

Under tropical condition water requirement of acid lime has been found to be 875 mm per year.

The daily water requirement would be 50-60 litres per plant during humid months and 90-100 litres during
summer. The chloride content of the irrigation water should not exceed 100 ppm. Soil moisture stress will

be detrimental to plant fruit enlargement and juice formation. Interculture and weeding

Under normal planting system, pulses like black gram, cowpea or vegetables like cucurbits, (beans

and carrots during winter season) can be grown as intercrops. Mulchingbasins will be very beneficial. Weed

management can be done by a pre-emergent application of 3 kg diuron per ha followed by gramaxone 1.5

lit as a post emergent application in the interspaces.Special horticultural practices

Crop regulation

Paclobutrazol @ 18g/ tree as soil application enhanced the flowering, fruit set and produced 1600 fruits /

tree / year in acid lime. Flowering can be regulated by withholding irrigation for 1-2 months and again stress

is alleviated which will result in flowering. But excessive stress will lead to over flowering, poor fruit set and

plant health will also be affected adversely. Application of 500 ppm of paclobutrazol (PP333) at new flush

will encourage profuse flowering. Application of 2, 4, 5-T @ 20 ppm at pepper stage would help to prevent

fruit drop. To increase fruit set spraying 2,4-D-20 ppm during flowering. Fruit retention spraying-2,4-D@ 20

ppm or NAA 30 ppm after fruit set (marble size).

Growth regulators

GA3 - good for staggering fruit production.Cultar @ 50 ppm at new flush good flower induction. 2,4-

D @ 20 ppm at flowering – fruit set increase and fruit drop reduced.NAA 30 ppm – reduces fruit drop.Spray

2,4 -D @ 20 ppm during flowering to increase fruit size.Spray NAA 30 ppm or 2, 4 – D 20ppm at fruit set

(Marble size) for fruit retention.

Pruning

Remove branches of main stem upto 45 cm from ground level and remove the watersprouts, dead

and diseased branches.

Harvesting and post-harvest technology (PHT)

Maturity Indices

Unlike some other fruits, citrus fruits do not ripen further once they have been removed from the

tree, so it is important that they are picked at the right stage of maturity. Maturity is measured depending on

different characteristics such as color, juice content, level of soluble solid (sugar) and solids to acid ratio.

Normally, citrus fruits are harvested by hand.Though limes can be harvested throughout the year, the main

crop is harvested during different periods in different parts of the country. The average yield is 20-25

kg/tree/year. Harvesting season extends from Jan-September depending upon the locality for acid lime and

May for lemons, June-Aug for Rangpur limes. Lime yields 2000-5000 fruits/plant.

Storage

Acid limes can be stored for 6-8 weeks at 8.3 to 10.00C and 85.9 % RH and lemons for 8-12 weeks

at 7.2-8.60C and 85-90 % RH. Limes can be stored at 180 C. At Horticultural Collegeand Research Institute,

Periyakulam a low cost storage tank has been developed with double layer brick work, the interspace filled

with sand which is kept wet by periodical watering. This is called as ‘Zero energy cool chamber’.

SWEET ORANGE

Botanical name:Citrus sinensis

Chromosome No.: 2n = 18

Origin: Asia

Sweet orange is also called as tight skinned orange or tight jacket orange. Due to sweet taste,

pleasant flavour and refreshing qualities, the demand for orange as a dessert fruit is very great. It is a good
source of vitamin C (64 mg / 100 g of juice) besides vitamin A and B.Major Producing States - Andhra

Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab and Rajasthan.Climatic and soil requirements

Sweet orange thrives better in a subtropical dry climate (low humidity) having well defined summer

and winter seasons, coupled with low rainfall. Rainfall seems to be unimportant if irrigation is provided.

Even in a tropical climate it can be grown. But atmospheric humidity exerts a greater influence. Though it

can be grown in a wide temperature range of 10 º C to 38 º C, the optimum temperature would be 20 – 30 º

C. Sweet oranges do not bear fruitssuccessfully in regions of heavy rainfall and high atmospheric humidity

like Konkan, Kerala, Mysore, East Coast of Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Bihar and Assam. Here trees flower

irregularlyat different times and fruits do not develop colour and ripen properly.Dry climate of Pune,

Ahmedabad and Hyderabad (RF 500 mm to 1750 mm / annum restricted to June - September) favours the

cultivation of an excellent variety Mosambi. InCuddapah, Kurnool, Chithoor and Rayalaseema of Andhra

Pradesh, a variety “Sathgudi” is extensively cultivated. “Malta Blood Red” is a popular variety grown in

plains of Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh where summer and winter are marked and severe. Ideal soil

for sweet orange cultivation would be minimum or light loam. The deep alluvial loam of Indo - Gangetic

plains and coarse friable black soils of Madhya Pradesh are considered excellent for sweet orange. It is

very sensitive to high concentration of salt and cannot withstand water logged condition. The best pH would

be 4.5 to 6.5.Varieties

Blood red in Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan. Jaffa, Hamlin, Pineapple are exotic, Mosambi in

Maharasthra and Sathgudi in A.P.

Sathgudi

It is the most important sweet orange cultivar grown in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. A good

variety with fruits having a fairly smooth surface which is green at full maturity and turn to pale orange at

sesnescence. Flesh is pale yellow in colour and sweet in taste with characteristic flavour. Granulation viz.,

drying of juice vesicles is a problem in this variety.

Mosambi

It is the commercially grown excellent early season variety produced under irrigation in the dry

climate of Pune, Ahmedabad and Hyderabad. Fruits are small to medium and sub globose having smooth

surface with longitudinal furrows. Apex is marked with circular ring. Flesh is pale yellow, juicy, acidic and

has no marked flavour. Being an early variety reaching the market in November itself,it fetches a premium

price. The TSS / acid ratio is 13 :1.Pine Apple

It is a midseason variety, the fruits reaching the market in December. Fruits are medium sized, having a

distinct flavour and deep golden orange colour. The shape is round to ovate. Thin rind is tight and bright. Apex is

rounded or slightly depressed. Flesh is orange yellow in colour; juice has a TSS / acid ratio of 14 :1

Jaffa

It is another midseason variety (December maturing) grown in Punjab, Northern Rajasthan and

Western Uttar Pradesh. The fruits are round, orange yellow to orange red with smooth skin. Flesh is light

orange in colour; juice has a TSS / acid ratio of 14 : 1.

Malta blood red

It is an excellent variety favoured for its red flesh. Extensively grown in the plains of Punjab,

Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh where summer and winter are more marked and severe. Fruits are medium to

large, round to slightly oblong. Fruit skin is cadmium yellow to deep orange, glossy,thin and tight. Flesh is

streaked with red colour in early ripening period. After full ripening, the flesh becomes completely red. TSS

/ acid ratio is 14 : 1. The maturity time is January. Though it is a shy bearer, because of good quality it is

highly priced.

Valencia late

It is one of the commercial varieties grown in USA. Fruit shape is round to slightly oblong having a

deep golden orange thin skin. Juice has a TSS / acid ratio of 10 : 1. It is a late variety maturing during

February - March.
Washington navel

It is a seedless budsport of the Brazilian Orange variety “Laranja S electa”. It is characterized by a

rudimentary secondary fruit embedded in the fruit apex. It is commercially cultivated in USA.

Other important varieties are

Shamouti of Israel, Succari of Egypt and Dobla Fina of Spain.

Propagation, preparatory cultivation and planting

Sweet orange varieties are propagated by patch budding or shield budding on selected root stock

seedlings of one year old. The buds should be obtained from true to type, high yielding, disease and virus

free mother tree which was indexed and certified as virus free tree. The most ideal time is September to

November.

Root-stocks recommended

Sour orange: (Citrus aurantium)

It is widely used as root-stock for sweet orange. Trees on sour orange give high yield with quality

fruits. But it is susceptible to tristeza virus, citrus nematode and burrowing nematode.

Rangpur lime: (Citrus limonia)

Tolerant to tristeza virus and salt. But susceptible to foot rot, exocortis and xyloporois.

Carrizo citrange

(Citrus sinensis 'Washington' sweet orange x Poncirus trifoliata) Citranges are recently

recommended rootstocks in the place of sour orange. Citranges are tolerant to tristeza, intermediate

resistant to root rot and resistant to burrowing nematodes.

Cleopatra mandarin: (Citrus reticulata)

Tolerant to tristeza, exocortis, xyloporosis and fairly tolerant to phytophthora root rot. As a

rootstock, it excludes sodium and chloride from the soil.

Rough lemon or Jambhiri: (Citrus jambhiri)

 Tolerant to tristeza, relatively tolerant to saline and calcarious soils but susceptible to root rot and

blight.

Sweet orange: (Citrus sinensis)

On its own root-stock, the plants are cold hardy and have wide range of soil adaptation, resistant to

tristeza, exocortis and xyloporosis. Recent studies in Mayal (Karnataka) indicated that sweet orange when

budded on wood apple (Feronia limonia) resulted in dwarf (1 M height) and bushy (1 square metre spread)

trees. They are resistant to drought and to soil borne diseases. Bearing and quality of fruits are also good.

In the selection of bud from the scion of the mother tree, care should be taken to confirm true to type and

free of virus. More than 15 viruses are reported in the world among which four namely tristeza including

seedling yellow strain, greening (mycoplasma disease), exocortis and a strain of psorosis are found in

India. Buds are taken from such trees which are indexed as free of viruses and budded on root stocks

raised. Budded plants will be ready for planting in the main field in about 12 months period.

Planting

Budded plants can be planted in pits of 1 cubic metre size filled with 20 kg FYM and top soil dug at

a spacing of 6M x 6M. A close spacing of 6 M x 3 M (as double planting) can be adopted. After 8 – 10

years, alternate plant or alternate row on either way can be removed. This will increase the yield in early

years.

Nutrition, irrigation and interculture

One tonne of orange would remove 1. 18 - 1. 85 kg N, 0.17 - 0.24 kg P, 1.79 - 2. 61 kg K, 0.36 -

1.04 kg Ca and 0. 17 to 0.19 kg Mg. A quantity of 800 g of N, 200 g of P and 400 g of K / tree / year has to

be applied in two equal splits one during June and another during December.Micronutrients like Zn, Mn, Mg

@ 0.5 % foliar spray and Cu @ 0.25 % have to be applied once during March and second during July so as

to avoid any micronutrient deficiency. Foliar spraying should be done after new flushing (on 30 - 45 days

old leaves). Irrigation must be done when the available soil moisture (ASM) at surface soil level (0 - 30 cm)
reaches 50 %. In sweet orange cv. Sathgudi, castor cake @ 7.5 kg along with 400 : 150 : 300 g NPK per

plant year improved the fruit yield and quality. To control fruit drop, 2, 4 - D @ 10 ppm (10 mg / litre) should

be sprayed two times, once in the first week of September.

Irrigation

Irrigation requirements depend upon soil and weather conditions. Irrigations should be regular

during fruit development. Water should never come in direct contact with the trunk of the tree; For this

reason double ring or check bund method is best suited for this crop. Presently drip irrigation is becoming

popular which helps in saving of irrigation water. Stopping irrigation 1 or 2 months prior to flowering is

beneficial to the crop, till the tree withers and drops half of its leaves.

Interculture

During the pre-bearing stage of the plants, vegetables other than solanaceous crops can be grown,

taking care not to waterlog the soil around the trunks of the plants. Leguminous crops are the best

Intercropping with „pea‟ was found to improve the yield of sweet orange. Cucurbits also can be grown

successfully.

Weed Management

Weeds can be controlled with pre-emergence spray of diuron @ 3Kg/ha twice at120 days intervals.

Other weedicides used are simazine, atrazine, bromacil, 2, 4-D. etc.

Pruning and training

No regular pruning except removing dead, diseased and over crowding branches after harvesting

of the fruit. Plants should be trained during first 3 years to have a well distributed frame work at 1mt height

on a single trunk.

Harvest, yield and storage

For sweet oranges the main harvesting season in North India is from December to February while

in the South, it extends from October to March. The fruits remain fresh for several weeks without any
deterioration after attaining full maturity which facilitates harvesting according to one’s choice and demand

in the market. Application of 10 ppm of GA by spraying on the trees just before fruits turn yellow will not

only help to extend harvesting season but also improves resistance to fruit flies, transport tolerance and

resistance to post harvest mouldsand mechanical injury by keeping the peel tough. The yield is 200 - 300

fruits / year / tree. Oranges can be stored for 12 weeks at 5º C (If stored at 0 º C, there will be chilling

injury).

Physiological disorders

Granulation

Granulation is a physiological disorder of the juice sacs of citrus fruits wherein they become

comparatively hard, dry, assume a grey colour and become enlarged. It is common in varieties like

Sathgudi, Mosambi, Jaffa, Malta Blood Red and Valencia late. To decrease this disorder, irrigation (amount

and frequency) should be reduced. The trees should not be over irrigated. Lime spray @ 20 kg in 450 liters

of water controls this. Zinc (0.5 %) spray and copper (0.25 %) spray also control this.

Colour development

Colour development in sweet orange especially under tropical condition is a problem and to obtain

colour on fruit, 1000ppm of ethephon as a pre-harvest spray or fruit dip in combination with Benlate

1000ppm is recommended.

Sun burn

Sun burn or sunscald is another problem in sweet orange fruits coming to harvest during April to

June. The portion exposed to sun develops yellow patches which gradually turn brown and become hard.

The inner portion becomes desiccated and discoloured. Affected fruits are malformed and have low juice

content. Severely affected fruits drop off and leaves turn brown. This physiological disorder can be

controlled by,

1. Spraying the trees with lime solution @ 20 g / litre before summer.

 2. Planting a row of Sesbania grandiflora or Sesbania aegyptiaca on the South Westernside of

the tree in the basin at an espacement of 30 cm.

3. Regulation of irrigation to bring down the temperature.

4. Mulching the tree basins with groundnut husk or haulms.

5. Raising line wind break with teak plants to check hot dry winds.

MANDARIN ORANGE (LOOSE JACKET ORANGE)

Botanical name:Citrus reticulata

Family: Rutaceae

Chromosome no.: 2n - 18

This group of orange is otherwise called Kamala orange, Nagpur santra of Maharastra, Coorg of

Karnataka and Kodai orange of Tamil Nadu, Japanese satsuma, King, Willow leaf of USA, Kinnow of

Punjab and Tangerine of Florida. Belong to this group though they are classified under different botanical

names. This group is characterised by the loose skin of the fruit.

Climatic and Soil requirements

Mandarin oranges grow very well under a mild subtropical condition preferably free from frost. They

prefer more humid (as against more arid by sweet oranges) and subtropical summer but warm winter and

would grow successfully in a sub-mountain tract (600 m to 1100 m above MSL) with an annual rainfall of

750 mm to 2500 mm. Such conditions are met with Coorg (Mysore), Wynad tract of Malabar (Karnataka),
Lower Palani and Shervoroys of Tamil Nadu, West Bengal at altitudes below 300 m MSL. Severe frost

during winter and heavy hot winds during summer will cause adverse effect on the growth of mandarins. A

medium or light loam with a pH range of 5.5 to 6.5 would be ideal to grow mandarin orange.

Varieties

Kodai Orange

Trees are vigorous; fruits are very small characterized by loose rind and medium flavour. But it is a

heavy seeded variety.

Nagpur Santra

Large vigorous growing variety. Fruits are medium to sub globose having a loose rind. Flesh is fine

textured with abundant juice. Fruits mature in January – February.

Coorg mandarin

Medium to large fruits, bright orange with a loose rind. It has a good flavour, ripens later than

Nagpur Santra. It is a regular bearer. It is the commercial variety in the Coorg region of Karnataka. In

Darjeeling district of West Bengal, the variety grown is known as Darjeeling orange and it is Desi in Punjab.

In Sikkim, the mandarin cultivar grown is known as ‘Sumithira’ while in Meghalaya it is called as ‘Khasi

Mandarin’ or ‘Soh Niamtra’.

Satsuma Mandarin: (Citrus unshiu)

It is a Japanese variety with small spreading tree. Fruits are seedless with thin rind having orange

colour at maturity. The quality of fruits is excellent with good blend of sugar and acidity.

King Mandarin: (Citrus nobilis)

It is a commercial variety of USA. The tree grows 5-6 m, petioles narrowly winged. Small, flattened,

orange red fruits with distinctly sweet pulp, which is juicy, and of excellent quality.

Willow Leaf Mandarin: (Citrus deliciosa)

 It is another commercial variety of USA. Trees medium sized with drooping growth habit. Fruits

strongly compressed and yellow to light orange in colour with distinct flavour. The fruits are juicy, rind and

segments loose and seedy.

Kinnow: (King x Willow Leaf)

It is a hybrid of King x Willow leaf. It has performed very well in Pakistan, Punjab and foothills of

Himachal Pradesh. It has medium sized fruits with orange skin colour, flesh bright and golden yellow.

Segments do not separate easily. TSS 10o brix, acidity 0.8%.

Dancy Tangerine: (C.tangerina)

This is the commercial variety of Florida in United States.

Propagation:

Mandarin varieties are propagated by shield budding or ‘T’ budding using the buds on Rangpur

lime (Citrus limonia) or Cleopatra Mandarin (C. reticulata). Bud wood taken from the disease free mother

plants. While Rangpur lime is a vigorous, hardy rootstock with good adaptability to a wide range of soil

particularly heavy soil, tolerant to tristeza and salt, it is susceptible to foot rot, exocortis, and xyloporosis.

Cleopatra mandarin is the most salt tolerant rootstock with the ability to exclude sodium and chloride taken

up by root system. It is also tolerant to tristeza, exocortis and xyloporosis and fairly tolerant to phytophthora

root rot. For Kinnow (Hybrid mandarin), the best rootstock was Jatti Khatti (C. jambhiri) and Karna Khatta

(Citrus karma). Rootstock seedlings are raised in nursery and after 3-4 weeks time they will germinate.

When the seedlings attain 4-6 leaf stages, they are transplanted in secondary nursery at spacing of 20-

30cm and off type or sexual (hybrid) seedlings are identified and removed, by which true to type nucellar

seedling rootstocks are obtained. ‘T’ budding or patch budding is done on one and a half to two years old
seedling. In about 6-9 months, the budded plants will be ready for transplanting in the main field. Troyer

citrange rootstock is ideal rootstock for Kinnow mandarin.

Preparation of main field and planting

The budded plants can be planted during June to December. Pits of 45 cubic centimeters are dug

at a spacing of 6 m x 6 m and filed with farmyard manure, sand and top soil and then basins are formed.

The buddlings are planted in the centre of the pits and irrigated.

Manuring

The following nutrients are applied in two splits one in May-June and another in September-

October.

Fertigation

Age of the tree in years FYM N P K

1 Year 10 100 100 50

II 20 160 165 140

III 20 320 310 250

IV 25 500 380 500

V 25 600 400 520

VI Years and above 25 700 500 600

For shervaroyan hills (for trees above 6 years old)

700: 375:600 g/tree NPK along with VAM (Glomus fasiculatus) @ 1 kg/tree. The manures and

fertilizers are mixed and applied in broad ring formed at a distance of 80-100 cm away from the trunk at a

depth of 10 cm, then closed with top soil and irrigated. In hilly areas where the pH is very low, depending
upon the pH, 2 to 4 kg of lime or dolomite (not mixed with chemical fertilizer) should be applied for each

tree once in two years, one month ahead of the application of regular fertilizers.

Micronutrient spray

The following micro nutrients mixture can be applied during new flush: ZnSO4 - 600 g, MnSO4 -

600 g, MgSO4 - 600 g and FeSO4 - 600 g. By spraying the above micronutrient mixture in 450 lit of water

the deficiency of micronutrients can be avoided. Application of Vesticular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (VAM)

which are symbiotic fungi @ 1 kg/tree will help to accumulate phosphorus zinc, copper and sulphur and by

this quantity of 125 g of phosphorus can be reduces from the regular does of 500 g.

Fertigation

The fertigation treatment consisting of 500:240:70 g of NPK dose with 20% depletion of available

water content (AWC) found best to increase higher canopy volume, fruit weight, TSS content, juice content

and fruit yield in Nagpur mandarin (Citrus reticulata). Gypsum and neem coated urea (N 450 g/ plant/ year)

found best to increase canopy volume and fruit yield in Nagpur mandarin. Application of 7.5 kg neem cake

along with 600:300:600 g NPK per plant per annum produced maximum fruit yield and best quality fruits in

Khasi mandarin. Two sprays with GA3 15 ppm + Urea 1% Benomyl 1000 ppm in April and May resulted in

22.20% reduction of fruit drop over control in Nagpur mandarin.

Irrigation

The frequency and quantum of irrigation depends upon many factors such as species, stage of the

crop, soil type etc. Mandarins are mostly grown under rainfed conditions; however, irrigation during dry

months is beneficial. During the periods of rapid growth, flowering and fruit set, the citrus trees are sensitive

to moisture stress. Moisture stress during fruit development phases affects the size of the fruit besides

causing excessive fruit drop. They are equally sensitive to excessive moisture and water logging

conditions. Care should be taken to avoid the irrigation water directly contacting the tree trunk.

Crop Regulation
 In central India, mandarins bloom thrice a year. The February flowering is known as Ambe bahar;

June flowering as Mring bahar and October flowering as Hast bahar. Under suchcircumstances, plants give

irregular and small crops at indefinite intervals. To overcome this problem and to get fruitful yield in any of

the 3 flowering seasons’, treating mandarin trees has been practiced which is called resting or root

exposure or bahar treatment. In this method, roots of the plant are exposed too sun by removing up to 7 -

10 cm soil around 40-60 cm radius of tree trunk. The water is withheld for a month or two month before

flowering. As a result of water stress, leaves show wilting and fall on the ground. At this stage the roots are

again covered with a mixture of soil and FYM and irrigated immediately.

Subsequent irrigations are given at suitable intervals. Consequently, plants give new vegetative

growth, profuse flowering and fruiting. However, in light sandy and shallow soils, exposure of roots should

not be practiced and mere withholding of water for 2-3 weeks is sufficient for wilting and debilitation of

trees. It depends upon the choice of the grower as to which of the 3 bahars is to be taken to get maximum

profit. As the availability of water is a problem in central India during April – May, the farmers prefer mrig

bahar (June) so that the plants are forced to rest in April – May. Resting treatment is not feasible in North

India, as mandarin plants normally rest in winter and flower once a year. It is experienced that resting

treatment in general is a devitalizing process and should be resorted to only under the advice and direction

of a technical expert.

Growth regulators

To increase the fruit retention spraying the trees at flowering and again at marble stage with 2,4-D

at 20 ppm or NAA 30 ppm.

Training and Pruning

The water shoots and rootstock sprouts should be periodically removed. Trees are trained to single

stem with 4 – 6 well – spaced branches for making the basic framework. Further no branches should be

allowed from the trunk up to height of 45-50 cm from the ground level. An ideal mandarin tree should be
low headed with dome like crown. The bearing trees require little or no pruning. Pruning of bearing trees

consists of removal of dead, diseased, criss-cross and weak branches. Removal of water shoots and

suckers of rootstocks is also highly essential. Pruning of non-bearing trees can be done at any time of the

year, but for bearing trees, the best time is after harvesting, during late winter or early spring when these

are in somewhat dormant stage.

Intercultural operations

Heavy bearing branches should be supported by bamboo stakes. During summer, the tree basins

should be mulched with dried leaves so as to prevent moisture loss. Dry grass mulch is very effective in

maintaining soil moisture, soil temperature and reducing fruit drop.

Harvest and yield

A small crop can be obtained from 4 year old tree and the yield will be higher from 7 th year. From

flowering to fruit maturity it takes 9 months. In Coorg, the main crop is harvested in December to April. A

small off-season crop is obtained during July to September. In Tamil Nadu, the main season of harvest is

November – December. Harvest should be done at right maturity. About 1000-1500 fruits can be harvested

from a tree per year. The fruits harvested at green mature, colour break and ripe stage dipped in 8 per cent

wax retained the freshness of fruits upto 60 days under ambient condition. Kinnow mandarin fruits wrapped

in HDPE can be safely stored upto 60 days and 80 days at ambient and cold storage respectively without

much loss of quality.

Citrus fruits - Physiological disorders

Fruit drop

Citrus drops flowers and fruits at different stages as a natural means of adjusting to it resources.

These are normal and may not affect the yield. Pre-harvest drop of well grown fruits prior to maturity is a
serious problem reducing the yield. The main causes may be due to Climatic factors, Improper water

management. Lack of nutrition and Relation of seed to fruit drop.

Control: Spraying 10 ppm 2, 4-D 2 months before harvesting. Fruit drop may be due to presence of pests

and diseases also which can be controlled by spraying 1 % Bordeaux Mixture.

Fruit cracking

It is due to sudden changes in temperature and also due to moisture stress condition. Cracking of

fruits may be radial or transverse. Secondary infection is also possible due to Aspergillus, Fusarium or

Alternaria

Management

Apply light irrigation at frequent intervals and Application of potassium during fruit development.

Granulation

The juice vesicles become hard, enlarged and turn opaque grayish in colour. The density of pulp is

increased, juice contains increased minerals (Calcium, sodium, potassium) and decreased carbohydrate

and organic acid. It results in lignification of juice cells that leads to formation of sclerenchyma. High

humidity and fluctuation in temperature are the major factors.Young trees are more prone to granulation

than older trees.Application of more nitrogen, excess irrigation, large size of fruits, rootstocks are also a

cause. Mandarins on jattikhatti rootstock are more susceptible than sweet orange .

Management

Avoid excess moisture, Spray lime @ 20kg in 450 l of water. Spray zinc (0.5%) and copper (0.5%).

Sunburn or sunscald

The portion that is exposed to sun develops yellow patches which turn brown and become hard.

The inner portion becomes dessicated and discoloured.Affected fruits are malformed and have low juice

content. Severely affected fruits drop off and leaves turn brown.
Management

Spraying lime solution @ 20g//l before summer. Regulation of irrigation to reduce the temperature.

Mulching the tree basins. Incompatibility of rootstock and scion, salinity, water logging and mismanagement

of citrus orchard are causes to citrus decline.

Citrus Quality Improvement

Degreening in mandarins

Although mandarins may attain optimum maturity standard but the fruits may not be attractive at

the time of harvesting due to lack of good yellow colour. Accordingly, degreening of mandarins with the

application of ethrel (50 ppm) one week before the harvesting develop golden yellow colour within 5 days of

the treatment.

Colour development in sweet orange

Colour development in sweet orange especially under tropical condition is a problem and to obtain

colour on fruit, 1000 ppm of ethephon as a pre-harvest spray or fruit drip in combination with Benlate 1000

ppm is recommended.

Pests

Leaf miner - Dichlorvos 76 WSC @ 1 ml/lit or Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/lit or neem seed kernel extract

(NSKE) @ 50g/lit or 3 % neem cake extract or neem oil.

Leaf caterpillar

– Quinalphos25 EC @ 2ml/lit

– Larvae can be hand picked and destroyed.

Sucking pests
 – White fly - Quinalphos 25 EC @ 2 ml/lit

– Black fly - Monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 1.5 ml/lit

– Aphids - Demeton 25 EC or Monocrotophos @ 1 ml/lit or neem oil 3ml/lit or Fish oil resin

soap 30 g/lit or Quinalphos25 EC 2ml/lit

Fruit sucking moth

– Malathion 50 EC @ 1 ml/lit

– Bagging of fruits with polythene bags punctured at the bottom

– Light traps or food lures (pieces of citrus fruits)

Shoot borer

– Monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 1 ml/lit or Quinalphos 25 EC @ 1.5 ml/lit or Carbaryl 50 WP @

2 g/lit

Stem borer

– Pruning of branches containing grubs

– Plugging the fresh holes with cotton soaked in Monocrotophos solution mixed @ 5 ml/20

ml of water

Fruit fly

– Malathion 50 EC @ 1 ml/lit or Fenthion 100 EC @ 1 ml/lit with 1% crude sugar (10 g/lit).

– Set up bait with Methyl eugenol 0.1% solution mixed with Malathion 50 EC 0.05% between

6 a.m. and 8 a.m.

Mealy bugs

– Use Dichlorvos (0.2%) in combination with fish oil resin soap (25g/lit) as spray
Nematodes
 – Apply Carbofuran 3 G @ 75 g/tree to control citrus nematodes in severe infestations.
– Apply 20 g Pseudomonas fluorescens formulation per tree at a depth of 15 cm and 50 cm
away from the trunk once in four months.
Diseases

Twig blight

– Prune dried twigs and spray 3% Copper oxychloride or 0.1% Carbendazim at monthly
intervals to reduce the spread of disease
Scab

– 1% Bordeaux mixture spray

Canker

– Immediately after pruning one spray of Copper oxychloride (COC) 0.3% is done followed

by 4 sprayings with Streptocyclin 100 ppm + COC 1.5 kg/ha at monthly interval

GRAPES

Botanical name: Vitis vinifera

Chromosome no.: 2n = 38

Family:Vitaceae

Origin:Armenia

The grape is one of the important fruit crops grown in India. It is a native of Armenia (USSR) and

was introduced in India during 11th century and in Tamil Nadu it was introduced in Madurai and Salem

districts in 1832 by French Missionaries. The area uder grapes in India have been increased substantially

in the last four decades and the present area is about 0.25 lakh ha with an annual production of 4.08 lakh

tones. The principal centres of grapes cultivation are Madurai in Tamil Nadu, Nasik and Poona in

Maharashtra, Hyderabad and Aurangabad in Andhra Pradesh. Punjab and Haryana. In Tamil Nadu until
recently grapes were grown only in two districts viz. Madurai and Dharmapuri. Now it has been extended to

other districts like Coimbatore, Salem, Tiruchirapalli and Tirunalvelli. Cultivation of grapes is also called as

Viticulture

Nutritive value

The fruits are a rich source of carbohydrates (13.1%), protein (0.6%) calcium (20mg/100g),

phosphorous (25mg/100g) and iron (0.5mg/100g).

Climate and soil

The grapevine is a subtropical plant and in temperate regions the vines are deciduous while in the

tropics the vine is evergreen, growing continuously. But It originated as a temperate plant only by

subsequently acclimatized to subtropical and tropical conditions also. For best development, the vinifera

grapes reqires long warm to dry summers and cool winters in temperate regions. The grapevine in Tamil

nadu grows luxuriously without an unproductive dormant bud, characteristic of most vineyards in the

temperate and subtropical regions. The grapes growing districts receive moderate rainfall distributed in

such a manner that it done no harm to any phase of the crop. The rainy seasons are broken by frequent

spell of dry weather so that the vine receives heat and sunshine sufficient to mature two crops satisfactorily.

The significant climate feature of Tamil Nadu which in contrast to northern grape belts enables to harvest

even five crops in two years against only one crop in other parts of India. Further, hail storms, gales an d

floods are practically unknown in the grape districts of Tamil Nadu.

The climate in South India such as Bangalore in Karnataka, Dharmapuri and Theni districts of

Tamil Nadu is slightly humid and tropical. Here the maximum temperature goes upto 35 0C and the

minimum temperature does not fall below 12 0C due to warm winter condition there is practically no rest

period. Almost rainless period during November - June favours heavyas well as sweet crop. Here the vines

are pruned twice. Early December pruning yields a sweet crop during April and summer pruning (May)

yields a slightly sour crop during September.The weather conditions at the time of pruning and following
pruning and upto berry development should be free o heavy rain as continuous cloudy and rainy weather,

besides interfering with flower and fruit set, encourages pests and diseases. In tamil Nadu, pruning is done

in such a manner that vines are not in flowering during October and November, the Northeast monsoon

seasons.Grapes can be cultivated in a wide range of soils, from low to high fertility. An ideal soil for

grapevine should be well drained, rich loamy one with low water table. The soil depth should be at least 60

cmVarieties

The existing cultivars can be broadly grouped under the following categories.

Commercial varieties

Coloured seeded - Bangalore Blue and Gulabi (Muscat)

Coloured seedless - Beauty Seedless and Sharad Seedless

White seeded - Anab-e-Shahi, Dilkhush (clone of Anab-e-Shahi)

White seedless - Perlette, Pusa Seedless, Thompson Seedless, and its clones Tas-AGanesh, Sonaka and

Manik Chaman

a. Table grapes: Utilized either as a fresh fruit or for decorative purpose. They must have an

attractive appearance, good eating quality, good shipping and storage qualities e.g. Thompson

Seedless, Beauty Seedless, Bangalore Blue.

b. Raisin grapes: grapes which produce an acceptable dried product are called raisin grapes.

Seedless cultivars with high sugar content production yellowish or greenish raisins are preferred.

E.g. Black Corinth, Sultan, Thompson seedless.

c. Juice grapes: The juice of some cultivars with muscal flavour produces an acceptable

unfermented beverage when it is preserved by pasteurization other means, E.g. Bangalore blue,

Beauty Seedless.

d. Wine grapes:Cultivars which have high sugar content and low acid with can produce satisfactory

wine is called wine-grapes. E.g: Muscat Canelli, Black champa.

 e. Canning grapes:seedless cultivars with white grapes with larger barriers are preferred for

canning. E.g. Thompson seedless, Pusa seedless, Perlette

A. Seeded varieties

Anab-e-Shahi

This variety had originated from a bud sport. The yield is 75-90 tonnes/ha per year. The bunches

are large with largeattractive oval berries which are pale green in colour. The keeping quality is excellent.

The TSS is 12-160brix and acidity is 0.4 to 0.5%. It is a late maturing variety.

Bangalore Blue (Bangalore Purple)

Important variety around Bangalore used in brewery industry and also for making juice. Medium

yield, bunches hardly shouldered, compact, purple in colour with uniform ripening. TSS 16-180brix, pulp

pale green. Acidity 0.8 to 0.9%, good keeping quality. Highly resistant to anthracnose and powdery mildew

diseases. It possesses labrusca blood i.e. it is a natural hybrid between V. vinifera x V. labrusca. This

variety is suited for kniffin and bower systems of training.

Cheema Sahebi (Selection No.7)

This is a seedling selection from open pollinated progenies of Pandhari Sahebi at Agricultural

College, Pune by Dr.G.S.Cheema. The vine is vigorous with heavy yield.

Paccha Draksha (Bhokri)

It is grown in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Vigorous vines, heavy yield, bunch medium to large,

compact, berries green, medium size, round to slight oval in shape, TSS 17-180brix.

Black Champa

It is a selection developed at the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore. The

vines are vigorous and the yield is medium. The high quality purple coloured berries are highly suitable for

table, juice and wine making.

Champion
 The juice of this variety is highly flavoured having a TSS 210brix and suitable for juice industry. It

has small bunches with medium sized berries.

Early Muscat

This variety is medium vigorous and perform well on kniffin system of training. The fruits are green

with good Muscat flavour.

Gulabi (Panneer Drakshai)

It is otherwise called Karachi or Black Prince. This is the most important cultivar for Coimbatore

conditions. Vine is very weak, having cane with basal fruitful buds, pruned to short canes (5-6 buds), high

tolerance to powdery mildew and anthracnose.

Dilkush

It is a bud sport of Anab-e-shahi producing golden yellow enlongated berries in attractive bunches.

Grape hybrids and their specific characters

Hybrid Parents Distinguishing characters

Arkavati Black champaXThompson Seedless Good for raisin making

Arka Kanchan Anab-E-ShahiXQueen of Vineyard Late maturing and good quality

Arka Hans Bangalore BlueXAnab-e-Shahi Suitable for white wines, berries with poor

attachment

Arka Shyam Bangalore BlueXBlackChampa Good for juice and wine making, suitable for

double cropping in S.India

Arka Neelmani Black champaXThompson Seedless Table as well as red wine making

Arka Shweta Anab-e-ShahiXThompson Seedless Seedless and suitable for table purpose

Arka majestic Anab-e-ShahiXBlack Champa Table purpose

Arka Chitra Angoor KalanX Anab-e-Shahi Table purpose

Arka Soma Anab-e-ShahiXQueen of Vine Yard Suitable making good quality wine making
Arka Trishna Bangalore BlueXQueeen of Suitable for wine making

Vineyard

Arka Krishna Bangalore BlueXConvent large Suitable for juice

Black

Arka Urvashi HurXBeauty seedless Suitable for juice and wine.tolerant to

Anthracnose

Pusa MadeleineAngavineXRuby Red Tenturier,suitable for juice and wine

Navarang
B. Seedless varieties
Thompson Seedless
It is also called as ‘Sultanina’ or ‘Oval Kishmish’ and is an introduction from the University of
California, USA. It is commercially cultivated in Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. TSS is 22-230brix. This
variety is suitable for bower and trellis systems of training. The berries are used for raisin making.
Pusa Seedless

This variety is a selection from Thompson seedless developed at IARI, New Delhi. Pusa seedless

is similar to Thompson seedless in many characters except the shape of the berry which is round in this

variety. It is used for table purpose and raisin making.

Perlette

It is a hybrid between Scolokertekhiralynoje 26 x Sultanina Marble The berries are medium in size,

spherical and whitish green. Perlette has good keeping quality.

Delight

It is a sister seedling of ‘Perlette’. An early ripening variety with good Muscat flavour. It is a good

table variety with good shipping quality.

Beauty Seedless
 This variety is medium vigorous in growth. It is susceptible to pre-harvest berry drop.Beauty

seedless is suitable for head system of training.

Sarath seedless

It is a selection from Beauty Seedless made by grapevine growers.

Kish Mish

‘Kishmish Beli’ is a variety with berries which are small sized, elongated and golden yellow.

‘Kishmish Charni’ is with brick red.

TABLE GRAPES

Arka Shweta (E-11/29)

A cross between Anab-e-shahi and Thompson seedless. Each bunch weighs 260 g,greenish

yellow coloured obovoid uniform seedless berries. TSS 18-19°brix , acidity 0.5-0.6%. On bower system at 3

m x 3 m planting distance, it yields 31 tonnes/ha; comes to harvest in 153-155 days after pruning.

Arka Majestic (E-14/20)

A cross between Angur Kalan and Black Champa. Suitable for head system of training.Hence, 2

crops can be taken in a year. All buds are fruitful. It yields 38 tonnes/ha and 34 kg/vine on bower system,

requires 160-163 days for harvest from pruning. Deep tan coloured uniform bold round berries, TSS 18-

20°brix, each berry has 2-3 small seeds.

Arka Chitra (F-5/4)

A cross between Angur Kalan and Anab-e-Shahi. All buds are fruitful requiring nospecific pruning,

bunch weight 310 g. bunches are golden yellow with pink blush, slightly elongated berries each weighing

3.18 g, TSS 20-21°brix. On bower system spaced 3 m x 3 m apart, it yields 38 tonnes/ha and 34 kg/vine.

From pruning to harvest, it takes 154-158 days.

WINE GRAPES
Arka Soma (E-9/3)

White berries, seedes, meaty pulp and Muscat flavoured.

Arka Thrishna (E-21/28)

Deep tan coloured berries, seeded with very sweet pulp, male sterile.

Propagation

Grapes are commonly propagated by rooted stem cutting; 20-30cm long cutting are made from

ripened wood of the previous season. The lower cut is made just below a node. The cuttings prepared

should have atleast 3 to 4 buds. The cuttings are planted in the nursery with one or two internodes

exposed. Cuttings are soaked in 500 ppm of IBA for 12 hours (or) 12,000 ppm for 3 seconds. It gives good

percentage of rooting. Grafting and budding is practiced with a particular root stock for specific requirement.

Well matured healthy cutting form the roots within 3 to 4 weeks and strike roots to the extent of 90%. After

a period of three months, the rooted cuttings could be potted in the tube pots. Grapes are also propagated

by budding (chip budding) and grafting (whip, cleft, side grafting) so as to establish vines on a rootstock

resistant to soil borne pests, disease, nematodes or alkaline or saline conditions.

Rootstocks

Rootstocks are employed for grapes to overcome salinity, nematode damage and toimpart vigour

to vines.

a. Phylloxera resistant root stock - Vitis riparia, V. rupestris, Teleki 5-A and St. George.

b. Nematode resistant root stock - 1613, Dogridge, Salt creek, Freedom andHarmony.

c. Saline tolerant - 1616, 1613Solanis, Ramsay, Dogridge andRupestris du hot.

d. Drought tolerant - 110 Richter, 140 Ruggeri, 99 Richter and 1103 Panlsen.

Preparation of main field and planting

Trenches of 0.6 m width and 0.6 m depth are dug at a distance of 3 m apart for Muscat.Other

varieties 1 m3 size pits are dug at required distance recommended for different varieties Well decomposed
FYM or compost or green leaf manure has to be applied in the trenches or pit and then covered with soil.

Rooted cuttings are to be planted in the centre of the pit during June - July. In Tamil Nadu, they are usually

planted from June to January.

Planting

In Tamil Nadu, they are usually planted from June to January. The rooted cutting is usually planted

in pits. Pits of 1m x 1m x 1m size are dug at required distance recommended for different varieties

Variety Spacing

Muscat 3x5m

Pachadraksha 5x5m

Anab-e-Shahi 6x6m

Thompson Seedless 5x5m

Well decomposed farm yard manure or compost, red earth and sand should be mixed in equal

proportion and are used to fill up the pits. Rooted cuttings are to be planted in the centre of the pit.

Nutrient management

A grapevine removes an appreciable quantity of nutrients from soil both in terms ofwood and fruits.

It has been estimated that an average crop of grape removes from the soil 40- 60 Kg N, 10-15 Kg and 50-

70 Kg K per hectare. Hence, to maintain the soil fertility for consistent yield, it becomes necessary to

replenish these nutrients through proper manures and fertilizers. The following manures and fertilizers are

recommended for grapes in Tamil Nadu.

S.no Nutrients First year Yearly increase Full grown vine

1 Farm Yard manure 50 kg 25kg 200kg

2 Green leaf manure 50kg 20kg 200kg

 3 Ammonium 500g 250g 1kg

sulphate

4 Super phosphate 500g 250g 1kg

5 Muriate of potash 500g 250g 1kg

6 Bone meal - 500g 2kg

The manures and fertilizers are applied to the soil soon following pruning removing thesoil to a

depth of 15 cm leaving a space of 30 to 60 cm around the trunk of the vine. Muriate of potash is applied in

two split doses as it will improve the qualities of the berries. Half the dose is applied after pruning and the

other half 60 days later.

Irrigation

During growing season, there should not be any water stress. Normally irrigation will berequired

once in 10 days in non-monsoon, but during monsoon rains, irrigation need not be given. During new

growth, flowering and early and mid fruiting phase, there should not be any moisture stress. About two

weeks prior to harvest, the irrigation should be stopped which will facilitate ripening of fruits. The vines

should be irrigated soon after pruning and fertilizer application. Until the berries attain pea size, water is

given at intervals of 5 to 7 days and thereafter until the commencement of maturity at 10 days interval.

Irrigation is usually withheld until harvest which will help to improve the quality of berries.

Weed management

Weed management is essential especially in young vine yards. Pre emergent herbicidesshould be

applied after pruning of vines and before the monsoon. Several herbicides like simazine, diuran, nitralin,

triflurali, paraquat, dalapon etc., are in use fore control of weeds in vine yards.
Training and Pruning

Proper methods of pruning and training contribute towards higher production of better quality fruits

in grape. Training mainly concerns with giving the form and the direction of the trunk and arms and the

position of the shoots. Training determines the form while pruning effects the functioning of the vine. It is

done to concentrate the activity of the vine to the parts left after pruning. Pruning is the most important

operation for the maintenance of fruitfulness and quality along with vigour of the vine. Before actually

discussing the subject of training and pruning it is necessary to understand the various terms commonly

used in these operations to make the subject more intelligible

Trunk The main stem of the vine which is vertical

Arms/Cordons (Primary) The main branches arising from the trunk or extensions of the trunk usually

grow vertically

Arms/Cordons (Secondary) The branches arising from primary arms or extensions of the primary arms

Head The region of the trunk from which the arms or canes arise

Shoot The young growth(herbaceous) of the current season developing from a

bud situated on the arm or trunk

Cane The matured shoot of the past season

Spur The shortened cane or part of the cane left after pruning

Fruiting spur The spurs having a few buds some of which (usually the apical ones)

sprout and grow into fruiting shoots.

Training

In the natural habitat, a grape vine is robust climber but it can be trained on any fashion. Although

a no. of training systems are known only four namely bower, kniffin, telephone trellis, and head system are

followed in India.
Head System

This is the cheapest and easiest system of training grape vines. In this system the vines are trained

like dwarf bush. Less vigorous varieties and varieties producing fruitful shoots from the basal buds are

suitable for this system. Ex. Beauty seedless, Perlette, Delight and Gold. In this system the plants are

spread very closely to accomodate2000-2500 plants per acre. The vine is allowed to grow to a single stem

with the help of stakes. After attaining a height of 3‘ the plant is topped and two lateral branches are

encouraged. The plant is again topped at 4‘ height by which two or more laterals are developed. After

keeping 4 laterals, 4‘ above the ground in all directions, the rest of the shoots are thinned out. These later

cut to two buds at the first dormant pruning, will produce secondary arms. Generally two arms of about 20-

30cm are kept on each lateral. At the time of second pruning, normally 1-2 fruiting spurs are kept on each

secondary arm. After 3-4 years, the vine becomes like a dwarf bush and needs no stake.

Steps in training a grape vine on Head System

Advantages

 Simplicity in shape

 Ease in training

 In expensive to establish

 Possibility of cross cultivation

Dis-advantages

 The vines are slow to come to full production

 Increased possibility of bunch rot and poor colour

 The bud and flower drop is maximum compared to other systems.

Pandal System

This system is also called as Arbour, Pergola, Mandwa, Over head or Bower system. Owing to the

vigorous growth of the vine and pronounced apical dominance in the tropics, this system is most suitable

for many of the commercial grape cultivars. This is more popular system for Anab-e-shahi in A.P.This is

best suited for vigorous varieties, which don‘t perform well on other systems.Inspite of being the most

expensive; this is being adopted on a large scale almost in all the grape growing regions of India.

In this system the vines are spread over a criss cross network of wires usually 7‘ (2.1m) above the

ground supported by pillars(Concrete, stone or iron).Galvanized wires of 5,8 and 10 gauge thickness and

turning buckles are used. Only the best growing shoot from the plant is allowed to grow upright along the

stake provided up to the bower height. When the vine reaches the wires, it is pinched off 15cm below the

pendal level to facilitate production of side shoots close to the wires. Two vigorous shoots in opposite

direction are selected and allowed to grow in opposite directions on the wires overhead. These two shoots

develop into primary arms. On each primary arm three laterals on either side at a distance of 60cm (2‘)

(along the wires) are kept as secondary arms. Thus, there will be 12 secondary arms on each, which after

maturity form fruiting canes. These primary and secondary arms for the permanentframe work of the vine.

The vines are allowed to trail straight along the wires by tying intermittently with banana fibre.

Advantages

 Greater spread of the vines.

 Better exposure of the foliage to the sun, resulting in better maturity of the canes.
  Higher production.

 More uniform bunch colour

 Superior quality of fruits, which are free from sunscald.

 The vines in general give uniform performance

 It gives good protection to the canes against hot desiccating winds with ease in bird scaring.

Dis advantages

 It is the most expensive than all other systems

 Pruning, training and spraying operations become difficult

 The spraying material cannot reach effectively the leaves and shoots.

Steps (A-H) in training a grape vine on Pandal system

Telephone system (Overhead trellis / Telephone trellis system)

This system is suitable for moderately vigorous varieties with more apical dominance. The chief

demerit of kniffin system, where the lower arms are rendered unproductive, is modified in this system by

wires, stretched at one height like telephone wires. It is also an improvement over bower system in respect
of ventilation and light penetration. It is relatively less expensive than kniffin system. The usual spacing

provided for each vine is 3x3m. Trellies are erected by using the granite stone pillars of 8‘ length and 6‖x6‖

thick at the ends and 8‖x4‖x4‖ in the middle of the lines. The middle pillars may be spaced at 20‘ distance.

Cross arms of 41/2‘ length are fixed on each pillar at a height of 5‘.These can be iron blades of 4‖ width

and ¼‖ thick or the angle iron pieces of 2‖x2‖ width and¼‖ thick. Three wires of 8 gauge thick galvanized

iron are pulled horizontally over the cross arms at a regular spacing of 2‘ using turning buckles at the end of

pillars are supported side ward. In this system the vines are allowed to grows straight up to a height of 1.5m

(5‘) and then trained over head on a canopy of usually 3or 4 wires (45-60cm apart) fixed to the cross angle

arms supported by vertical pillars or posts. The young growing vines are supported by bamboo sticks. After

reaching the height of telephone (5‘) the tip should be pinched off to encourage side shoots close to wires.

Two vigorous side shoots (cross to wires) are selected as primary arms from which four vigorous laterals

on each side along the wires are allowed to develop on secondary arms. Each complete secondary arm

can carry 6-8 fruiting units.

Telephone system

Telephone system Advantages

 Greater spread of the vine

  Better exposure of the foliage to the sun resulting in the better maturity of canes.

 Higher production

 More uniform bunch colour

 Superior quality of fruits free from sunscald

 Vines in general give more uniform performance.

Dis advantages

 Cost of establishment is high. At present rates it may cost 60-70 thousand rupees.

 It is a system difficult to develop i.e. vine training needs a lot of skill and effort.

 The bunches are not as well exposed to light as kniffin system.

 Not suitable for vines making low to moderate growth.

Kniffin System

It is also called as espalier system. It is a system of training grape vine in which the arms of the

vine are tied to horizontal wire at the same level above the ground. This system is not as common as the

bower system. It is suitable for the moderately vigorous varieties with less apical dominance. Closer

planting is adopted for this training system with in the row and 3m (10‘) between the rows. Galvanized iron

wire of 8 gauge thickness is stretched parallel to the ground at a height of 75cm above which two or more

wires are stretched at successive heights of 60cm.when the plant crosses the first it is topped leaving a bud

above the wire. Two laterals are developed on either side of the plant along the wire and the terminal shoot

is allowed to grow vertically. Similarly, a pair of laterals is developed along the second and third wire. Thus

each vine will have six arms. In some cases only two pairs of laterals are developed at a height of 41/2‘

(1.35m) and 61/2‘ (1.95m) from the ground level and in such cases it is called four arm kniffin system. This

system is suitable for Beauty seedless, Early Muscat, Bhokri and Delight.
 Steps in training a grape vine on Kniffin system

Advantages

 This system is cheaper when compared with bower system.

 It is a good system for obtaining full crop on vines, the basal buds on the canes of which are sterile

and which require long cane pruning.

 It is good for small clustered varieties which require fruit thinning for improved quality.

 The system allows more lateral spread of fruit bunches than cordon system.

 The average yields are 10-15kg per vine when planted at 3.0 mx3.0 m spacing.

Dis-advantages

 Cultivation is possible in one way

 The lower arms become unproductive after some years.

 The arms produce fruiting wood mainly at the extreme ends only.

 From the pruning point of view, it is very difficult and exacting system. Since the retained fruiting

units are very few, they must be perfect and pruner must have a thorough knowledge for their

appropriate selection.

 Its cost of establishment is about 50-60 thousand rupees per hectare.

 This system is mainly confined to research institutes and it is not popular with the farmers in any of

the regions of the country.

Pruning

In grape pruning is done only once in North India during the month of January to make the fruitful

buds to sprout but in south India, pruning is done twice in a year, once in summer and again in winter.

Grape vines in these regions grow continuously without any dormancy (due to tropical climate).Hence by

pruning in April (summer) the vines are forced to have a rest period, which helps in fruit bud differentiation.

Pruning time mainly depends on rainfall and temperature. Pruning is adjusted so that there is no

coincidence of rainfall with fresh growth and flowering and also winter doesn‘t set in with in 8-10 days after

pruning.

Pruning refers to the judicious removal of any plant part

 To establish and maintain desired vine shape

 To increase productivity

 To facilitate various cultural operations

 To distribute proper amount of bearing wood over the vein for consistent productivity

Summer pruning

It is done during March-April in the states of A.P. and Karnataka, but in July in Tamil Nadu.In this

pruning the canes are cut back to one or two bud level for building up the fresh vegetative growth. Hence it

is called back pruning or growth pruning.

Winter pruning:This is done during the last week of November in A.P. and Maharastra, during the

second and third weeks of October around Bangalore, but at any time of the month of October in the
interior northern districts of Karnataka and in December in Tamilnadu. The mature canes (about 6 months

old) are pruned. Entire foliage and immature shoots are removed. Levels of pruning differs with

varieties.Anab-e-shahi and Bhokri are pruned to 5 bud level, Thompson seedless to 10 buds, Bangalore

Blue to 4 buds and Gulabi to 9 buds. This pruning is also called as forward pruning.

Some of the varieties like Perlette, Beauty seedless, Bangalore blue, Bhokri etc. produce fruits on

the shoots arising from the basal buds on the cane. In such varieties the canes are headed back to 4-5

buds. Such varieties are called Spur pruned varieties. On the other hand the Pusa seedless, Thompson

seedless varieties in which the fruitsare produced on the shoots arising from terminal buds, the canes are

headed back to 8-12 buds. Such varieties are called Cane pruned varieties.

Cropping: Grape has two kinds of functional buds viz (1) leaf buds and (2) fruit buds. The leaf buds is a

rudimentary sterile shoot and when it opens it will not bear fruit. Fruit bud contains a shoot having both

rudimentary leaves and flower clusters. The fruit buds take 47 to 70 days from bud break to blooming.

Special techniques to improve fruit quality

a. After fruit set, tipping of the shoots and the clusters are to be done.

b. The tendrils in the shoots are to be removed.

c. Nipping the growing shoots of axillary buds and terminal buds at 12-15 buds.

D. Thinning the bunches

Excessive bearing of vines can be reduced by cluster or berry thinning. This helps toincrease the

size of berries and also the quality. Thinning should be done when the berries are of pea-size in varieties

producing compact bunches. The degree of thinning is limited to 20 per cent of the berries in the cluster.

E. Girdling

Ring of bark removed from any part.

 0.5 cm wide ring.Done at several stages for several purposes.

 One week before bloom - To improveberry set.
  Just after berry set - To increase berrysize.
 At the beginning of color change
 To advance ripening
 To obtain uniform colour
 Better eating quality
F. Use of growth regulators

Application of gibberellic acid (GA) at 50 ppm, - at the just opened flowers in the clusters (calyptras

stage) increases their size. Besides, ethrel is used to advance ripening by a week and improve quality

including colour improvement and uniformripening. It is normally applied at 250 to 500 ppm concentration at

berry start ripening stage.

Use of Plant growth regulators

Encouraging responses were observed both in seeded and seedless varieties of grape by the use

of growth regulators. Effect on fruit set: A good fruit set was obtained by spraying the flower cluster

thoroughly 4-6 days after full bloom with 100ppm Gibberellic acid or 20ppm Parachloro phenoxy acetic

acid. This increased set in current grapes, Thompson seedless and black Corinth. Effect on berry size:

Increase in berry size in Anab-e shahi, Kishmis and Bhokri varieties was reported when GA was applied at

40ppm at bud and flower stages. Higher concentrations resulted in the increase in the length of berries.

Effect on cluster size

Use of GA, TIBA and PCPA resulted in lengthening the cluster parts especially the pedicles.

Effect on maturity

With the application of Benzothiozal A-Oxyacetic acid (BOA) maturity can be regulated. Maturity

can be delayed by 15 days with the application of this Benzothiozal A-Oxyacetic acid.

Harvesting

Bunches of most of the cultivars are ready for harvest between 100 to 120 days afterpruning. It has

to be harvested at proper stage for quality. Generally the berries are to be harvested at ripening stage,
characterized by showing colour and softening of berries. The sugar content increases at this stage. In

seeded grapes, the seeds become dark brown when they are fully ripe, while in seedless varieties, their

characteristic berry colour develops fully. Grapes are harvested when fully ripe, since they do not ripen

after harvesting, so must be left on vine until they are fully ripe. While harvesting, the clusters should be

handled only by the stem so that the natural appearance is not impaired due to ribbing of the cluster. The

cluster should be removed from the vine by cutting with a sharp knife near its attachment tothe cane.The

fruits of grapes require specific amount of heat units over and above basaltemperature for proper maturity

and ripening. The heat requirement of most varieties ofgrapes ranges from 2900 to 3600 units.

Yield

Although grapevines yield in the 2nd and 3rd year of planting, good crops can beexpected only

after the third year. Yields of grapes are highly varied as much as 12.5 to 21 tonnes as early as 10th month

from planting followed by equally heavy crops every six months thereafter until about 10 years.

Pachadraksha yields 35 to 37 tonnes in about 18 months followed by 20 tonnes within another 6 months.

This continues over a number of years. In the case of Anab-e-shahi, the cropping is unpredictable ranging

from few bunches to 25 tonnes per hectare. The yield ranges from 20-45 tones/ha depending on the variety

and system of training. The yield potential of grape in India is highest in the world. Grape variety Anab-e-

Shahi has recorded yield as high as 92 tonnes/ha, whereas Thompson Seedless has 48 tonnes/ha. The

average yield of Anab-e-Shahi and Bangalore Blue is 40-50 tonnes/ha, while that of seedless varieties is 20

tonnes/ha.Post-harvest technology

Packing

The bunches are placed in the pack in such a way that the stem end lies on the outerside of the

package which facilities easy removal of bunches during retail marketing. The CFB boxes of 2 to 4 kg are

very popular for packing grapes. "Grape Guard" is a brown-coloured paper (which is impregnated with

potassium sulphite) which releases sulphur dioxide gas when it gains moisture. Sulphur dioxide helps
checking the grey mould disease of grapes which occurs at ambient as well as under cold storage

conditions. It also helps keep the stem of the bunch from drying up. For getting the best advantages from

"Grape Guard", the grapes should be wrapped in thin tissue paper or perforated polythene bags and a strip

of Grape Guard placed in it before packing the grapes in box.

Storage

Shipping of table grapes is done immediately after harvest when possible. The grapesmeant for

storage should be packed and pre-cooled soon after harvest. Therefore, thegrapes to be cold stored should

be pre-cooled to 0-20 C using forced air-cooling and shifted to the cold store immediately after harvest. The

grape berries can be kept without spoilage for 7 days at room temperature. Grapes can economically be

stored up to 40-45 days in cold storage. The optimum storage temperature recommended is 2 to - 1.50C.

Fresh grapes can be stored for 90 to 180 days of time at 0-10C and 95% RH depending on cultivar. Raisins

can be stored for long periods of time at room temperature due to low moisture content.

Physiological disorders

Pink berry formation

It is a common disorder in Thompson Seedless and its clone Tas-A-Ganesh inMaharashtra. Pink

blush develops on a few ripe berries close to harvesting. The pink colour turns to dull red colour and the

berries become soft and watery. They do not stand for long after harvesting. Although the definite cause of

the disorder is not known, it is recommended to spray a mixture of 0.2% ascorbic acid and 0.25% sodium

diethyl dithiocarbamate at fortnightly intervals commencing berry softening.

Shot berry

The berries become underdeveloped and undesirable in the bunch. This is due to the formation of

very large number of bunches on the vine indicatinghigher crop load.Dipping the bunches at berry stage in

ethephon @ 25 ppm for 1 min. will control thisdisorder.

Uneven ripening
 Presence of green berries in a ripe bunch of coloured grapes is called uneven ripening. It is a

varietal character and a problem in Bangalore Blue, Bangalore Purple, Beauty Seedless and Gulabi

grapes. Within a variety this problem varies from bunch-to-bunch. Generally inadequate leaf area and non-

availability of reserves to a developing bunch is the reason. Cultural practices like cluster thinning, girdling

and use of growth regulators can reduce uneven ripening. Application of Ethephon (250 ppm) at colour

break stage is recommended to reduce the problem.

Post-harvest berry drop

This is due to weak pedicel attachment to the berries. This is common in Anab-e-Shahi,Cheema

Sahebi and Beauty Seedless. Spraying of NAA (50 ppm), a week prior to harvesting can minimize the post-

harvest berry drop.

Flower-bud and flower drop

When panicles are fully expanded, the flower-buds drop before the fruit set. This iscommon in

north India but not in the south. The reasons for this disorder are not known. Stem girdling about 10 days

prior to full bloom can reduce the problem.

Plant Protection – Pests

Mealy bug

Symptoms

• Plant sap is removed during feeding and large amounts of honey dew deposited on the fruit and

promote the growth of sooty mold fungus.

• Most fruit damage occurs during late summer.

• Infest grape bunches and are known to transmit certain strains of leaf roll virus.

Control
  Apply Quinalphos or Methyl parathion dust in the soil @ 20 kg/ha to kill the Phoretic ants.

 Spray Methyl demeton 25 EC or Monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 2 ml/lit of water or spray Dichlorvos

76 WSC @ 1 ml/lit with fish oil resin soap at 25 g/lit to control the pest.

 Release Coccinellid beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri at the rate of 10 per vine.

Thrips

• Sucks plant sap from lower surface, produces silvery blotches which turn yellow, leaves wither and

drop.

• The affected berries develop a corky layer and become brown on maturity.

Control

• Sanitation is maintained by removing weeds and plant debris

• Deep ploughing in summer after April pruning or exposure / raking of soil in vineyards

• Methyl demeton 25 EC or Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/lit of water to control thrips

Mites

• It causes multiple brown spots by desaping and results in defoliation.

Control

• Weeds and alternate host plants inside and near the outside the vineyard should be removed.

• The fungi Beauveria bassiana, Verticillium lecanii can be used in the management of spider mites

on grapevine.

• Different neem formulations containing azardirachtin depending upon the strength of botanical viz.,

1% @ 2.0 ml and 5% @ 0.5 ml/l can be sprayed.

• Chemical Control: Sulphur 80 WP @ 0.30mL/L and Dicofol 18.5 EC @ 2.50 ml/l

Flea beetles
 • Spray Phosalone 35 EC (2ml/lit of water) after pruning and followed by two or three sprayings.

• The loose bark may be removed at the time of pruning to prevent egg laying.

Stem girdler

• Swab the trunk with Carbaryl 50 WP @ 2 g/lit to control the pest.

Nematodes

• 60 g of Carbofuran 3 G or Phorate 10 G granules per vine are applied a week before pruning and

the plots are irrigated profusely.

• The soil should not be disturbed for atleast 15 days

• Application of neem cake 200 g/vine also controls nematodes

• Alternatively, application of Pseudomonas fluorescens formulation in talc containing 15 x 108

colony forming units/g, 30 cm away from base of the vine at least 15 cm depth at the time of

pruning will also serve as a control measure.

Diseases

Powdery mildew

• Powdery mildew is caused by the fungus Uncinula necator.

• Symptoms seen on foliage, fruit, flower parts and canes.

• Mildew usually appears first as whitish or greenish-white powdery patches on the upper and lower

sides of basal leaves.

• It may cause mottling or distortion of severely infected leaves, as well as leaf curling and withering.

• Lateral shoots are very susceptible.

• Infected blossoms may fail to set fruit.

 • Infected berries may develop a netlike pattern of russet, and may crack open and dry up or never

ripen at all.

• Old infections appear as reddish brown areas on dormant canes.

• Scarring and cracking of berries may be so severe as to make fruit unsuitable for any purpose.

• Spray 0.3% Wettable sulphur or dust Sulphur @ 6-12 Kg/ha in the morning hours to control the

fungus.

Anthracnose

Symptoms

• Caused by fungus Elsinoe ampelinea which continues to survives in affected canes and is

disseminated in the rainy season.

• It infects all the green parts of the vine including fruits.

• Dark margins are formed on the leaf around mid rib and main veins.

• Dark brown lesions with purple raised margins on canes and berries.

Control

• Spray 1 % Bordeaux mixture or any other copper fungicide at 0.25 % concentration.

• Depending upon the weather conditions the number of sprays has to be increased.

Downy mildew

Symptoms

• Caused by fungus Plasmopara viticola which prefers cool climate.

• Light yellow translucent spots appear on the upper surface of leaves.

• Later on white mould patches develop on lower side of the leaf.

• In severe cases flowers and young fruits are also affected and drop off.
 • Berries wither, turn brown and then shrivel and shatter from the bunch.

Control

• Spray 1 % Bordeaux mixture or any other copper fungicide at 0.25 % concentration.

• Depending upon the weather conditions the number of sprays has to be increased
 PAPAYA

Botanical name: Carica papaya L.,

Family:Caricaceae

Chromosome no.: 2n = 18

Origin: Tropical America

The papaya is native of Tropical America was introduced to India in the 18th century. It is now

grown in almost all tropical and subtropical countries in the world. It has originated in tropical America and

was introduced from Philippines through Malaysia to India in the latter part of 16th century by Portuguese. It

is one of the few fruit crops that flowers and fruits throughout the year giving early (9-10 months after

planting) and high yields (about 100 tonnes per hectare). It is also called as ‘Melon Tree’. Ripe papaya is

yellow in colour due to the presence of ‘caricaxanthin’ pigment. Papaya is a wholesome fruit and is rich in

vitamin A (2000 IU/100g). Papaya yield a valuable proteolytic enzyme called papain. Papaya is usually

dioecious but hermaphrodite type and gynodioecious types are also recognized. In dioecious type, both

male and female plants are separate. The male flowers are found on long pendulous panicle. Female

flowers are solitary and are much larger than male. In gynodioecious type, the female and bisexual flowers

are borne one on the same plant. The fruit develops from female flowers are globular in shape while fruits

that develop from bisexual flowers are elongated in shape.

Nutritive value

Papaya can ensure a good supply of vitamin A and C, which are essential for good

health.Moreover it is a cheap fruit available in all seasons, in all places to all the people. Papaya is a

wholesome fruit and is rich in vitamin A (2000 IU/100g).

Climate

Papaya is tropical in its climatic requirement. It is susceptible to frost. It requires warmhumid

climate and can be cultivated up to an elevation of 1000-1200 m above MSL. It is very sensitive to frost but
withstands extremes of temperature. Temperatures below 10 0C will affect the growth and fruit set. It grows

well in regions where summer temperature doesn‘t exceed 38 0C but it can stand up to 480C but optimum

range is 22-360C, a day temperature of 350 C and 250C night temperature are most suitable. It is adapted

to a wide range of rainfall conditions ranging from 35cm to 250cm annually; however, excessive moisture

adversely affects the crop as well as fruit quality. It does not stand strong (80Km/Hour) or hot winds. Dry

climate during flowering often causes sterility while the same conditions during fruit maturity add to the

sweetness of the fruit. Papaya performs well in tropical climates where summer temperature ranges from

350C to 38 0C. At higher elevations, the fruit quality is usually lower. It cannot tolerate very hot summer or

frost, this limits cultivation in Northern India. It cannot tolerate, very hot summer or frost, a dry warm climate

tends to increase the sweetness of the fruits. In strong wind prone areas, wind breaks have to be provided

to save the trees from wind damage. Tamil Nadu is an ideal home for growing papaya because of the mild

temperatures and freedom from mosaic and leaf curl virus diseases. These features help all the year round

cultivation of papaya.

Soil

Papaya grows well under well drained soil with a pH range of 6-7. It prefers fertile soil,deep clayey

and calcarious and rocky soils are not suitable. It does well in varied soil types, the best performance is

observed on loams of uniform texture upto 1.8 m in depth. The most important requirement is that the soil

should have good drainage. Even two to three cm of water stagnation around the tree for a few hours is

likely to damage them due to the collar-rot disease occurrence. Under water stagnated conditions and in

soils with poor drainage foot rot disease may cause heavy mortality. Hence, heavy soils should be avoided

as papayas cannot withstand water stagnation for more than 48 hours. A loamy soil with a pH of 6.5 to 7.2

is considered ideal. It can be grown in poor soils also provided with heavy manuring and irrigation.

Varietal identification
 Based on the sex expression, papaya varieties can be either classified as dioecious or

gynodioecious. The dioecious varieties produce male and female plants in 1:1 ratio when propagated from

seeds. The gynodioecious varieties produce female and bisexual (hermaphrodite form) in 1:2 ratio.

The varieties CO 1, CO 2, CO 4, CO 5 and CO 6 are dioecious while CO 3 and CO 7 are

gynodioecious. Among them, CO 2 and CO 5 are highly recommended for papain extraction while CO 3

and CO 7 suit very well for table purpose.

Varieties released from TNAU, Coimbatore

CO 1 (1972)

It is a dioecious variety selected from ‘Ranchi’. The plants are dwarf in stature and the fruits are

round with flattened base. They are medium sized and smooth skinned. The fruits weigh around 1.2 to 1.5

kg with a TSS of 11-13° brix and have good keeping quality. Slight nipple and ridges are present at the

apex. Fruits have orange yellow flesh with no papain odour and hence suitable as a good table variety.

CO 2 (1979)

It is a dioecious type evolved through pureline selection from a local type. Each fruit weighs about

1.5 to 2.0 kg and has a good papain yield (4-6 g from each fruit). The fruit contains 75 per cent pulp with a

pulp thickness of 3.8 cm. Fruits are oblate and large in size, flesh yellow coloured, soft with TSS ranging

from 11.4 to 13.5° brix. It is a dual purpose variety suitable for fruits and papain extraction. The yield

ranges from 80-90 fruits per tree. The dry papain yield is 250 to 300 kg per hectare.

CO 3 (1983)

It is a hybrid derivative of the cross between CO 2 (female parent) and Sun Rise Solo (male

parent). It is a gynodioecious type suitable as a table variety. The fruits are medium sized, red fleshed with

a TSS of 14.6° brix. The mean fruit weight is 0.5 to 0.8 kg. Fruits are pyriform in shape. The variety yields

90-120 fruits / plant / year.

CO 4 (1983)

It is a hybrid derivative of the cross between CO 1 (female parent) and Washington (male parent).

Petioles are purple coloured. Fruits are medium sized weighing 1.2 to 1.5 kg. It is a dioecious type. The

fruits are yellow fleshed with a TSS of 14.3° brix. The variety yields 80-90 fruits per annum.

CO 5 (1985)

It is a selection from ‘Washington’ type with the characteristic pink petiole. It is a dioecious type

suitable exclusively for papain production giving 14.45 g of dry papain per fruit. The variety yields 75-80

fruits per tree and can yield up to 1500 kg of dry papain per hectare. Each fruit weighs 1.5 to 2.0 kg with a

TSS of 13° brix.

CO 6 (1986)

It is a selection from ‘Giant’ papaya. The variety is dioecious, dwarf, suitable for papain extraction

(7.5 to 8.0 g of dry papain / fruit) and for table purpose. It yields 80-100 fruits per tree. The fruits are

medium sized weighing 1.8 to 2 kg, yellow fleshed with a TSS of 13.6° brix.

CO 7 (1997)

This variety is gynodioecious and developed through multiple crosses involving CP 75 (CO3x Pusa

Delicious and Coorg Honey Dew. It is superior to CO 3 in terms of fruit size and quality. It produces about

110 fruits / tree weighing around 1.0 to 1.2 kg each. The fruits are oblong, attractive, firm, red fleshed with a

TSS of 16.7%.

CO 8 (2013)

Dioecious, derived through improvement of CO.2,Red pulped, suitable for dessert, papain and

processing, Duration-2 Years and yield - 200-230 t /ha

Varieties released from IIHR, Bangalore

Surya

It is a cross between ‘Sun Rise Solo’ and ‘Pink Flesh Sweet’. It is gynodioecious varietydeveloped

at IIHR, Bangalore. It provides medium sized fruits each weighing on an average 600- 800 g with red pulp.

The fruits are sweet with good shelf-life. It is quite promising for fruitindustry.

Coorg Honey Dew

It is a chance seedling of Honey Dew developed at Central Horticultural Experiment Station,

Chethalli of IIHR. It is a gynodioecious type (Hermaphrodite and female trees are produced and no male

trees). The fruits are oblong. It is a dwarf and high yielder. The flesh is thick with good flavour. The fruits

formed from female flowers are almost seedless.

Varieties released from IARI, New Delhi

Pusa Delicious

This is a gynodioecious type developed at IARI, New Delhi. Trees are dwarf, fruits are medium in

size with deep orange flesh colour having food flavour.

Pusa Majesty

It is also a gynodioecious type developed at IARI, New Delhi. The fruits are medium in size, round

in shape and having good keeping quality.

Pusa Giant

This is a dioecious cultivar developed at IARI, New Delhi and tree bears fruit at one metre height.

The plant can withstand strong wind and storm. Fruits have attractive big size each weighing 2.5 to 3.5 kg.

Pusa Dwarf

It is also a dioecious cultivar developed at IARI, New Delhi with dwarf stature. Trees are more

precocious in bearing. The trees bears at 30 cm height. Fruits are oval in shape medium in size, the weight

ranging from 1 to 2 kg.

Other varieties
Punjab Sweet

It is a dioecious type developed at Punjab Agricultural University. Trees start bearing at 75 cm

height. Fruits are round to oval with yellow flesh. The weight of the fruit ranges from 1 to 1.5 kg.

Washington

It is a dioecious cultivar with pink petiole. Fruits are medium to large, each fruit weighing about 1

kg. The fruits are sweet with good keeping quality.

Weimanalao

It is a gynodioecious variety. The fruits are round with orange yellow flesh. The flavour is good and

the flesh is thick and firm.

Sunrise solo

The variety is named ‘solo’ because one man can easily consume one fruit. This is gynodioecious

variety from Hawaii with small sized fruits, pyriform and yellowish orange pulpand keeping quality is good.

Red lady

It is a Taiwan variety. The fruits are small. The flavour is good and the flesh is red thick and firm.

Important cultural practices

Propagation

 Papaya is normally propagated by seeds.

 500 g seeds will be required (200 g/ acre) for planting one hectare.

 The seedlings are raised in polythene bags of size 10 x 20 cm with 2 parts of sand and 1 part

each of red soil and well decomposed farm yard manure.

 In each bag filled with pot mixture, 5 or 6 seeds should be sown.

 Seeds germinate readily in 10 to 20 days.

 Papaya seeds loose viability very quickly if stored poorly.

  Seedlings will be ready for transplanting when they are 45-60 days old.

Planting

Pits of 45cm x 45cm x 45cm size are dug at about 1.8x1.8m apart either way. This would

accommodate 3000 plants per hectare. Due to sex variations, about 40 to 60 per cent of the plants may

turn to be male in the case of dioecious varieties. Therefore, in such case 2 to 3 seedlings per hole at 30

cm apart in the pit should be planted, so that when they reach the flowering phase, the unproductive male

trees can be removed to keep the population ratio of one male tree for every 15 to 20 female trees. In the

case of bisexual varieties, such contingency may not arise. One good seedling per pit may be planted.The

best time for planting papaya is the beginning of the South- West monsoon in most parts of India. In south

India, June to October and January to March are suitable for planting as the other months are either too hot

or rainy.

Square Method Rectangular Method

Thinning

In dioecious varieties (CO.1, CO.2, CO.4, CO.5 and CO.6), in the seedling population, the male

and female plants will be in 1:1 ratio. The male plants are not productive. Keeping one male tree for every

20 females for effective pollination, the excess male trees should be removed. Normally male trees flower

earlier than female trees and can be easily identified as they have pendulous, hanging and branched stalk.
In gynodioecious varieties, stamens can be noted adhering to petals surrounding the ovary. In the

gynodioecious varieties (CO.3 and CO.7) in each pit only one vigorously growing hermaphrodite tree

should be retained.

Manuring and fertilization

Papaya is a heavy feeder and adequate manuring of young and mature papaya tree is essential to

maintain the growth and vigour of the tree so as to obtain regular high yields. Before planting, for each pit,

10 kg of well decomposed farm yard manure or compost, 20 g Azospirillum and 20 g Phosphobacterium

should be applied. Another 20 g in each of Azospirillum and Phosphobacterium should be applied again 6

months after planting.

The following fertilizers may be applied at 2 months interval starting from the 3rd month of planting

(to provide 50 g in each of N, P and K) per pit after the removal of unwanted excess male or female plants.

Urea : 110 g

Super phosphate : 300 g

Muriate of potash : 80 g

If feasible, application of the required nutrients can be also done at monthly intervals as the studies

taken up at this department revealed that monthly split application improved yield and other parameters

compared to bimonthly applications.

Foliar sprays of zinc sulphate 0.5% and boric acid 0.1% at 4th and 8th month after planting stage

increase the yield and quality of fruits. This micronutrient spray can be prepaed by dissolving 5 kg of zinc

sulphate and 1 kg of boric acid in 100 litres water. Two more sprays can be given at four months interval for

the second year crop also. It is necessary to add a few drops of sticker solutions such as Teepol or

Sandovit to the spray fluid before taking up the foliar spray.

Fertigation
 Application of 10 litres of water per day + 13.5 g urea and 10.5 g of muriate of potash / week

through fertigation and soil application of super phosphate 278 g per plant in bimonthly intervals improve

growth, yield and quality of fruits in CO.2 papaya.

Irrigation

Papaya responds well to copious irrigation in well drained soils. Regular irrigation helps fruit

development and induces the tree to bear larger sized fruits. Water stagnation should be avoided. In most

parts of India; papaya are irrigated once in 8 or 10 days.

Intercropping

During the pre-bearing age, short duration vegetables like cabbage, cauliflower, onion, chillies,

radish, etc. can be grown as intercrops. Weeding should be done regularly to keep the field weed free in

the young plantation as in the grown up

field, the interspace remain well covered with the top growth which helps in checking weeds.

Sex expression

Many sex forms such as dioecious, hermaphrodite, gynodioecious etc., have been reported in

papaya. There, are no distinct or definite methods to ascertain the sex of the plants at the early stage itself.

Besides, many factors have been reported to influence the sex expression.

l) Environment: Low temperature tends to produce perfect flowers on the male tree and female flower

production is increased in cool weather and short days. Season of planting also affects the sex expression.

Planting during February shows more male plants while planting in March/April produces an equal number

of staminate and pistillate plants.

2) Use Growth regulators: such as GA (50 ppm), ethrel (200ppm) SADH (250ppm) and phosphon - D

(2500ppm) increase the femaleness in dioecious types. After flowering the fruits mature within 5 months

after flowering; Under adverse climatic condition flowers & fruit drop is very common, to avoid this problem

spraying of planofix @ 1ml/liter. Fruit thinning is suggested to get good size and quality.
S.No. PGRs Effect

1 GA3 25 ppm. Early flowering

2 GA3 25 ppm 45 and 75 days after planting. Sex expression

3 GA3 50 ppm 45 and 75 days after planting Increased papain yield

and ethrel at 200ppm.

4 Increased yield 25 mg paclobutrazol + 0.4 %

amino acids along with 300 g N.

5 200 ppm ethrel or ethephon. Advancing maturity

 Male Tree Female Tree Hermaphrodite Tree

Extraction of papain

The latex or milky juice of the unripe green papaya fruit contains a large amount of digestive

enzyme called papain which is able to digest the protein in our feeds. Fully developed green large sized

hard papaya fruits which are about three months old are selected for tapping. The latex is obtained by

making scratches or shallow incisions on the skin of the fruit The incisions are about 0.3 cm deep. Usually

not more than four incisions per fruit at equal distance are made every day. To cover the whole surface

around the fruit not more than five tappings at intervals of four or five days would be necessary. Non-

metallic instruments should preferably be used in tapping and collecting, as the juice acts upon metals and

gets discoloured. An ivory blade or a sharp edge or piece of bamboo splinter may be used. The latex

should be collected in porcelain glass or earthen containers. After about 2 to 4 hours, the latex is scraped

out from the tray and dried in the sun. Tapping should be undertaken early in the morning so that drying in

the sun can be done before mid-day. This makes the material sufficiently dry by the evening. When

thoroughly dried, the latex becomes crisp and flaky. It may be then ground into a powder, preferably still

warm. The dried papain is powdered and sieved in 10 mesh sieves. The cream coloured powder should be

placed in air-tight bottles or poly bags. Papain can be also dried artificiaIly at temperature of 50 to 55°c

which will attain better colour and quality. Potassium metabisulphite (KMS) at 0.5% may be added to it for
better colour and keeping quality. The papain production is influenced by certains factors such as fruit size,

fruit maturity, varietal factor etc.

Papain Extraction

Important production problems in papaya

1. Fruit Carpellody (Cat Face)

 This fruit deformity that makes the fruit look like a cat’s face occurs on hermaphrodite plants of

some genotypes when the plants are exposed to low night temperatures and high moisture

and nitrogen levels.

 Under such conditions, the stamens become joined with the ovary and develop into carpel-like

structures.

 This deformity makes the fruit unmarketable.

 To avoid this problem, do not use seeds from the affected tree to produce seedlings.

Cat Faced Fruits

2. Bumpy Fruit

 Occasionally, bumpy fruit is observed on the papaya tree.

 This is due to boron deficiency. Latex exudes from parts of the fruit.

 In severe cases, the tree may have a stunted bunchy appearance.

 The seeds are either aborted or poorly developed.

 Spraying the tree with 0.25% borax or a soil application of 0.5-1 gram of borax per tree can

alleviate the problem.

Bumpy Fruit

3. Leaf yellowing due to water logging

 Sometimes leaves of papaya trees turn yellow during the wet season.

 This is a common problem in low lying areas.

 Planting on a mound and improving soil drainage can prevent this problem.

Yellowing of Leaves
4. Papaya Ringspot Virus

 This viral disease is caused by the papaya ringspot virus –P strain.

 It is transmitted by the insect vectors belonging to the Aphididae, namely Myzus persicae and

Aphis gossypii.

 It can also be transmitted through contaminated pruning or harvesting knives.

 It was first reported in Hawaii and then in Florida, the Caribbean countries and Australia.

 It is present in a few Asian countries, including Thailand, Vietnam, the Philppines, India and

Taiwan.

Control measures

 The disease causes mottling and distortion of leaves.

 It produces ringspot symptoms on fruit and water-soaked oily streaks on stems and petioles.

 Fruit production drops and the plants are stunted and in severe cases, the tree dies.

 Since there are no remedial measures for this disease, removal of the infected trees.

 Vector control in the infected areas, as well as sterilizing pruning and harvesting knives, can

prevent its spread within the orchard.

a. Plant B. Fruit
5. Phytophthora Collar Rot

 This soil-borne fungus, Phytophthora palmivora, infects the collar of the papaya tree trunk at

the soil level and the roots.

 The infected collar and roots turn brown and becomes soft.

 In a severe infection, the root and collar will rot.

 Under suitable wet conditions, a white fungus may be seen on the infected collar.

 The older leaves of the infected tree turn yellow and eventually drop, leaving only a few small

leaves at the apex.

 The tree wilts and dies.

Control measures

 Planting the papaya seedling in an area not prone to waterlogging or planting on a mound can

reduce the incidence of Phytophthora collar rot.

 The fungus can sometimes attack the fruit and removal of fallen infected fruit from the ground

helps to remove one of the sources of infection.

 Improving the soil drainage in waterlogged areas can reduce the incidence of the disease.

 If detection of the disease is early, treatment of the collar and roots with the fungicide,

propineb, can control the disease.

 However, in severe cases, fungicides are not effective.

Phytophthora Collar Rot

6. Fruit Anthracnose

 This post-harvest disease occurs when the fruit ripens.

 Small water-soaked spots appear on the surface of the fruit.

 These brown to gray spots are depressed and enlarge rapidly as the fruit ripens to form

sunken lesions, a characteristic of the disease.

 Surrounding the spot is a circular translucent margin.

 Sometimes, the spot is covered with masses of light orange to pink conidia.

Control Measures

 To reduce the fungal inoculum in the papaya orchard, do not leave ripe fruit on the tree.

 Practice good farm hygiene by removing fallen fruit from the ground.

 For commercial fruit production, a post-harvest treatment using hot water treatment and chilling

can delay the disease occurrence.

 For some export markets, dipping the fruit in a 0.05% a.i. (active ingredient) of the fungicide,

prochloraz, is the practice to delay the onset of the disease.

Fruit Anthracnose

7. Papaya Mealy bug

Control measures

i. Chemical

 Profenophos or Dimethoate (2ml / lit.) can be combined with neem oil 20ml / lit. or nimbicidine

10000 ppm 2ml / lit.

  Add 1 ml Teepol or Sandavit / lit.

 After fortnight go for the second spray.

ii. Biological

 Many coccinellid beetles and hymenopteran wasp prey / parasitize the insect.

 Lycaenid predator: Spalgis epius larva feeds oraciously on different stages of mealy bug.

Mealy Bug Infected Papaya Fruit

Harvest

Papaya plants produce their first fruits in about 10 months from planting. The fruits can be

harvested when they are still hard and green but turn slightly yellow.

Yield

The average yield of different varieties of papaya are as follows.

CO 1 - 100-120 t/ha

CO 2, CO 4, CO 5 & CO 6 - 180-220 t/ha

CO 3 - 100-120 t/ha

CO 7 - 160-180 t/ha
Post-harvest technology

Fruits are sorted in the field and packed into single-layer boxes with tissue or foam padding to

avoid bruising. Fruits can be stored at 30°C and 100% humidity for better color expression prior to packing.

To reduce post-harvest fruit rotting papayas are commonly dipped in hot water (48 to 52 0C) for 20 minutes,

then rinsed in cool water. Fungicides and radiation treatments have also been used for this purpose and to

kill fruit fly eggs that may present under the skin. The shelf life at room temperature ranges from 3 to 8

days, depending on storage atmosphere. CA storing is done at 12 0C which allows ripe fruit to be stored for

up to 12 days. At storage temperatures below 10 0C papayas experience chilling injury.

 GUAVA

Botanical name: Psidium guajava,

Family:Myrtaceae

Chromosome No: 2n = 22

Origin: Tropical America (from Mexico to Peru)

Guava (Amrud) is one of the most common fruits in India.It ranks 4th in area andproduction after

mango, banana and citrus. It is the fourth most important fruit of India inrespect of area and production. It is

said to have been introduced from tropical America. It is grown in many parts of the world. It is also

popularly called as apple of the tropics and poor man’s apple widely naturalized in the country. As a cheap

nutritious fruit with a wide adaptability to diverse climatic and soil conditions, the guava undoubtedly

deserves greater popularization among the orchardist. Allahabad has the reputation of growing the best

guava in the country as well as in the world. It is a very hardy sub-tropical plant, prolific bearer.

Nutritive value

It is very rich and cheap source of vitamin C (100 to 260 mg per 100 g of the pulp) andcontains a

fair amount of calcium. It makes an excellent jelly and does not lose the vitamin C in the preserved forms.

Guava is the rich source of Vitamin C, and a fair source of Vitamin A. The vitamin C content of Guava is 2-5

times higher than oranges. It also contains Vit-A, B2 and minerals like Calcium, P, acidity 2.4 per cent,

carbohydrates 9-10 per cent, TSS 13 per cent, pantothenic acid, riboflavin, thiamin and niacin, also rich

source of pectin.

Climate

It is a subtropical and tropical fruit which requires a distinct winter for developing goodquality.

Guava cultivation can be extended to varying agro-climatic regions owing to wider adaptability. Guava can

be successfully cultivated both under tropical and subtropical conditions. It does well up to an altitude of

1,000-1,500 meters. It can thrive in semi arid tracts of India and enjoys cooler climate upto an elevation of
1000 m but it cannot withstand frost. It grows best with an annual rainfall below 100cm restricted between

June-September. Places having more than 250cm rainfall are not suitable for guava. Optimum temperature

requirement is 23-280C.

Soil

It is a hardy fruit which can be grown in poor alkaline or poorly drained soils without anymanuring

or irrigation. It can grow in soils with pH ranging from 4.5 to 7.5 but the best soils are deep, friable and well

drained. Since it is a hardy fruit crop, it can be grown on alkaline soils wastelands etc. It is sensitive to

waterlogged conditions. If the soils are having a pH of 7.5 and above there are more chances of getting

guava wilt. Some varieties like Lucknow- 49 can be grown in saline soils also.

Varieties

Guava varieties are generally named according to the shape, colour or smoothness ofskin or from

their place of origin.

Classification of varieties

Classification of varieties based on seed content

i. Seeded varieties (highly seeded to less seeded types-diploids

ii. Seedless varieties (triploids).

Seeded guavas are more commercial, high yielder‘s with excellent quality. The seededguavas are

diploids. Seeds range from 250-500 / fruit.Completely seedless and partly seeded, are borne on a plant of

seedless variety. The completely seedless fruits develop on the shoots arising from the stem and these are

bigger in size and irregular in shape. The partly seeded fruits are borne on normal shoots at the periphery

and are small in size and round in shape. Seedless guavas are triploids with irregular shape and low

productivity and plants are very vigorous in growth. Hence, unfit for commercial cultivation.

Guava varieties can be mainly grouped into two groups based on the flesh colour.

i. Red fleshed
 ii. White fleshed

Among these two, white fleshed are more common and red-fleshed are less common.

Important seeded, seedless and hybrid varieties commercially grown are

Seeded varieties

1. Allahabad safeda, 2. Lucknow-49, 3. Arka Mridula 4. Red fleshed and 5.AllahabadSurkha etc.

Seedless varieties

Nagapur seedless and Saharanpur seedless.

Hybrids

Saefd jam and Kohir Safeda.

Anakapalli

The fruits are slightly oval in shape with a fruit length of 5.9 - 6 cm. The average fruit weight is 95 g.

The seeds are soft and fleshy. It has 393 mg of vitamin C per 100 g of flesh.

Chittidar

It is a white fleshed variety with spherical fruits. Each fruit weighs 95 g and the fruit size is 4.4 x 4.7

cm. Pulp has good taste and flavour. At calyx end, longitudinal furrows are seen. Skin is thin. The pulp has

108 mg of vitamin C/100 g.

Lucknow-46 (Guja guava)

Fruits have got a short neck at the pedicel end and broadtip resembling the pear fruits (Pyriform).

Each fruit weighs 80 g, size 7.4 cm long and 4.9 cm dia. Flesh is white, meaty with good taste. Vitamin C is

130 mg/ 100 g of flesh.

Lucknow – 49 (Sardar guava)

Fruits are round, fairly bigger each weighing 150 – 170 g with a rough surface. The flesh is white

with good taste. It has a good adaptability to various localities.

Nagpur Seedless

The fruits are round with thin yellow coloured skin having warty surface. Each fruit weighs on an

average 100 g with a size of 4.0 x 4.6 cm. The pulp is white with pleasant aroma and taste and almost

devoid of seeds. Vitamin C content is 340 mg / 100 g of flesh.

Saharanpur Seedless

The average fruit weight is 65 g with the size of 4.5 x 4.9 cm. The skin is yellow with white pulp,

seeds will be very much limited. The vitamin C content is 250 mg / 100 g of flesh.

Arka Mridula

It is a selection from open pollinated seedlings of the variety Allahabad Safeda developed at IIHR,

Bangalore. Fruits are round, smooth with few soft seeds. Flesh is white. The TSS is 12°brix. Flesh is firm

and keeping quality is good. It is a heavy yielder.

Hisar Safeda (H25 – 25)

A cross between Allahabad Safeda x Seedless. It has upright growth with a compact crown. Fruits

are round weighing 92 g each, pulp creamy white with less seeds which are soft. TSS is 13.4 % and

ascorbic acid 185 mg / 100 g. Developed at HAU, Hisar. Yield is 114 kg / tree / year.

Hisar Surkha (H12 – 34)

A cross between 'Apple colour' and 'Banarsi Surkha' pink fleshed hybrid. Fruits are round each

weighing 86 g; pulp pink with 13.6%, TSS 0.48% acidity and 169 mg of ascorbic acid / 100 g. It yields 94

kg / tree / year.

Red Fleshed

Fruits are round with 4.5 to 5.0 cm diameter. Each fruit weighs on an average 50 g. The pulp is red

with moderate flavour and taste. Fruits are heavily seeded. The flesh contains 385 mg of vitamin C/100g.

Hafsi

Fruits are round with thin skin. The diameter is 6.5 cm and each fruit weighs 142 g. The pulp is red
in colour with good taste and flavour. Among the red fleshed varieties, it is comparatively less seeded. It

has 108 mg of vitamin – C/100 g.

Saefd jam

This is a hybrid variety released from Fruit research station, Sangareddy (A.P.). It is across

between Allahabad Safeda and Kohir. Fruit size is bigger with less seed and vitamin C ismore in

comparison to their parents.

Kohir Safeda

It is cross between Kohir and Allahabad safeda. Fruit is large in size, slightly acidic. Yield300 fruits

per tree.

Selection-8

 IIHR, Bangalore (from A. Safeda).

 Round and smooth fruits with soft seeds.

 White flesh.

 TSS - 12°B.

 Firm flesh and Keeping quality good.

 A heavy yielder.

Arka Amulya

 IIHR, Bangalore

 Seedless x A. Safeda

 Hybrid 16 - Apple color x A. Safeda

 Bright red skin.

Lalit

 Released from CISH, Lucknow.

  Fruits 185 g weight, with yellowish skin.

 Pulp light pink in colour.

 Suited for dessert and processing.

Propagation

In India, guava is commonly propagated from seed which germinates in about three weeks. Boiling

the seeds for five minutes, soaking them in water for weeks prior to sowing or treating them in strong

sulphuric acid for five minutes facilitates their germination. Propagation through this method is not desirable

as the seedlings will take more time to come to bearing and seedling trees differ greatly from the mother

plants.

Vegetative propagation through layering is therefore recommended. Both air layering and simple

layering have been found to be successful. In about 45 days, layers can be separated from the mother

plants. These separate layers should be planted in full size pots and they are hardened by gradually

exposing them to direct sunlight. Such hardened layers are ready for planting in about six months. Though

it is hard to root semi hard wood cuttings, treating with IBA or NAA at 2000 to 5000 ppm root well under

mist conditions. In some places, budding techniques using forkert, shield, patch, chip etc have been tried

with different success.

Ground layering
Propagation

Guava can be propagated both by seed and vegetatively. Among the asexual methods viz.,

cuttings, air layering, stooling, grafting and budding are important.

Seed propagation

Propagation through seed is not advisable because this would lead to lot of variation among trees

in fruit size, yield and quality. Hence, it is very important to plant an orchard only with vegetatively

propagated plants of known variety.

Vegetative methods of propagation

Air layering or ground layering can be practiced for multiplication of guava plants commercially and

the best time for doing this is rainy season. It is more commonly practiced in S.India. It is very convenient,

cheap and easy method. The layered plant being on its own roots grows more vigorously and establishes

quickly even in difficult soil conditions.

Planting

The field should be deeply ploughed and properly leveled before planting. Pits of 75-100 cm3 size

are dug well in advance to the onset of monsoon. The pits are filled with a mixture of tank silt, FYM Or

Compost and soil in equal proportions .To avoid termite problems dusts like lindane are also mixed in the

soil mixture. Guava may be planted from June to December in South India and June to August in N.India.

Spacing generally adopted is 5-6 meters in square system of planting. In highly fertile soils it may be

increased to 6-8meters.

Manures and fertilizers

A bearing guava tree has to be applied with 50 kg of FYM, 0.5 kg N, 0.5 kg P 2O5 and 1 kg K2Oper

year. This is applied twice during June-July and another during October-November.It responds well to the

application of inorganic fertilizers along with organic manures. Therefore for the bearing trees, 50 kg of

FYM and one kg in each of N, P and K are applied per tree in two equal split doses, once during March and
again during October. The manure and fertilizers are spread in the entire basin of the tree, 15 cm away

from the trunk upto leaf drip and incorporated by shallow digging. It also responds to foliar spray of

nutrients and spraying of urea 1 % + Zinc 0.5% twice a year during March and October increase the yield.

Guava sometimes suffers from deficiency of micronutrients. Hence, a mixed spray containing

ZnSO4, MgSO4. MnSO4 @ 0.5% and CUSO4 and FeSO4 @ 0.25% plus a wetting agent @ 1 ml per 5 litre

of solution at various stages viz. new flush, I month after first spray at flowering and at fruit set are

recommended.

Irrigation

Guava though can withstand drought, it responds to irrigation at interval of 10 days.

Intercropping

During pre-bearing age, some of the fruits and vegetables can be taken as the remunerative crops

i.e., Leguminous vegetables or green manuring crops are grown during first 1-2 years.

Weed Management

Weed is a problem at the early stage of growth, for conservation of moisture, properutilization of

nutrients as well as for effective control of pests and diseases weed freeenvironment is essential.

Integrated weed management programme should include growing of cover crops, use of herbicides, inter

cropping and hand weeding where ever necessary.

Training and pruning

a. Training

Open centre systems or delayed open centre is generally recommended.

b. Pruning

Pruning consists of removal of suckers arising from the base of the trunk. Dried twigs and branches

have to be removed and the cut ends may be applied with Bordeaux paste. The flowers are borne on the

axils of current season shoots. Light annual pruning after harvesting promotes vegetative growth and
flowering. In Tamil Nadu, it is recommended that the tips of 10-12 cm lengths of past seasons shoots are

pruned during September and February every year to encourage more laterals. Pruned trees give large

fruits and early ripening. When the trees become old, the branches are pollarded leaving 30 cm in length at

their origin. The cut branches produce plenty of shoots and flowers and ultimately high yields. In the trees

having upright and tall growth habits, the straight growing branches are bent and tied on the pegs driven on

the ground. In the bent branches, dormant buds are activated and induced to produce flowers and fruits

heavily. In certain parts of Maharashtra, root pruning is practiced to produce heavy yield. In this method

roots are exposed and minute roots are cut away and irrigation is withheld so as to allow the leaves to

shed. Then, the basins are covered with the manures and soil and irrigated copiously.

Flowering and fruiting

The guava bears flowers solitary or in cymes of two or three flowers, on the current seasons

growth in the axils of leaves. The bearing twigs grow a few centimeters long, putting forth 4-5 pairs of

leaves. The blooming period varies from 25-45 days depending on the cultivar, season and region. The

initial fruit set is quite high and approximately 80% of flowers set fruits. Afterwards due to severe fruitdrop

only 34 - 56 per cent of fruits reach maturity. In cultivars like seedless, the final retention is as low as 6

percent. Under natural conditions, guava tree produces flowers and a fruit twice in a year in North India, but

in South and Western India it is thrice i.e. almost throughout the year, which results in no rest period and

ultimately guava tree, bears small crops at different times of the year. The pattern of flowering and fruiting

periods in guava are:

Special cultural operations

1.Bending

In medium aged trees, when the trees reach more height, the branches will grow more or less

straight up. Such upright growing branches will not produce axillary growth leading to reduction in yield.

Such upright branches should be bent and their terminal portions should be buried inside the soil or tied
strongly to pegs driven in the soil around the trees. By this, the dormant buds are accelerated and induced

to produce new flush which will result in production of flowers leading to higher yield.

2.Pollarding (or) dehorning

When the trees become very old, there is practically no production of new flush. In such a situation,

pollarding is resorted to. It is nothing but cutting back big branches leaving 30 cm length base at the places

of their origin. The new growth in the following season will put forth profuse flowering and give high yields.

3.Cropping

The fruit buds are borne on past season growth terminally or laterally. The first flowers are borne

on the current season growth in the axils of leaves. The flowers are solitary or in cymes of 2 to 3. The

current season growth takes one or two months to bear flowers. The floral buds require 38-42 days for full

development. Layers generally take 2-3 years for fruiting. Guava flowers twice a year, first in April-May for

rainy season crop and then in August – September for wiriter season crop. In South India, there is a third crop

with flowers appearing in October. As the rainy season fruits are insipid and watery and do not keep well.

In certain parts of India, some practices are followed to avoid flowering and fruiting during rainy

season so as to get large sized fruits of better quality during winter season. They are:

Bahar treatment

Consisting of root exposure and or root pruning before the onset of monsoon.In certain parts of

Maharashtra, root pruning is practiced to produce heavy yield. In this method roots are exposed and minute

roots are cut away and irrigation is withheld so as to allow the leaves to shed. It consists of root exposure

and or root pruning before the onset of monsoon. Then, the basins are covered with the manures and soil

and irrigated copiously. There are three distinct flowering seasons with corresponding harvesting periods

like rainy, winter and spring. It is desirable to take only one crop in a year. In South India the rainy season

crop is preferred even though it is of poor quality, since the price is high at this time. In North India, winter

crop is of better quality and the fruits also escape the attack of white flies. In Western India, root pruning of
guava to regulate the season of harvesting, as is done in the case of mandarins, is recommended in heavy

soils only. In lighter soils, withholding of water serves the purpose. This practice is known as bahar

treatment.

Bahar Month Cropping season Quality

Water stress Flowering fruiting

Ambe bahar December - February - July - Rainy crop Watery and

August
January March (preferred in poor

South India)

Mrig bahar 3rd week of June-July November - Winter crop Excellent

April December

Hasta bahar August - October - March-April Spring crop Good but low

September November yield

b. Deblossoming of rainy season crop - spraying NAA 200-400 ppm and

c. Withholding of water and removing the soil from around the upper roots during rainy season and

covering it again with soil and manure mixture.

d. CISH, Lucknow recommends elimination of rainy season crop by spraying fertilizer grade urea 10-15%

twice at interval of 10 days during April-May to get good yield and quality fruits during winter.

Guava fruits should be picked immediately when it is mature and they should not be allowed to

ripen in the trees lest the damage by birds and squirrels. Individual hand picking is preferable to shaking

the tree. Mature or half ripe fruits are mostly prefered for consumption than ripe or over ripe fruits. Yield
varies due to many factors. On an average 800 number of fruits weighing 20-25 kg may be obtained from

guava tree.

Harvest and yield

Guava, being a climacteric fruit, it ripens after harvesting; the fruits are harvestedthroughout the

year (except during May and June) in one or the other region of the country. However, peak harvesting

periods in north India are August for rainy season crop, November-December for winter season crop and

March April for spring season crop. In the mid climatic conditions of other parts of the country, the peak

harvesting periods are not so distinct. change in colour of fruits from dark green to pale green is the

indication of maturity, the fruits are harvested at their full yellow but firm for local market, whereas half

yellow fruits should be picked for distant markets. The fruits are harvested selectively by hand along with

the stalk and leaves.

Yield

Each tree will bear on an average 500-800 number of fruits weighing 20-25 kg may beobtained

from guava. The yield per hectare would be 12-15 tonnes/year.

Post-harvest handling and storage

Because of their perishable nature, guavas are disposed off immediately after harvesting in the

local market and a very small quantity is sent to distant market, they are not kept in cold storage. However,

shelf-life of guava can be extended up to 20 days by keeping them at low temperature of 5 0C and 75-85%

relative humidity. It can also be stored for about 10 days at room temperature (18 0 -230C) in polybags,

providing a ventilation of 0 .25%.

Plant Protection

TeaMosquito bug

 Malathion 0.1% @ 15 days interval

  Neem oil 2%

Mealy bug

 Thimet 10 G at base of tree

 Phorate 10 G

 Spray 0.1% metacid

 Biocontrol – Lady bird beetle – 10-15/tree

Diseases

Wilt

 Drench with 0.1% B.M

 0.1% Carbendazim
 SAPOTA

Botanical name:Manilkhara achras (Manilkara zapota/Achras sapota)

Family: Sapotaceae

Chromosome number: 2n = 26

Origin: Tropical America (Mexico)

Sapota is a delicious fruit introduced from tropical America. It is also known as sapodilla or chiku in

India. Sapota fruits are recommended to adult patients ailing from tuberculosis (TB) and children from

primary complex. This offers high economic returns even under marginal land and low input management.

Sapota is mainly cultivated for its fruits in India while in other countries; it is mainly cultivated for the milky

latex produced from the bark and fruits, which yields a commercial product called “Gutta parcha” which is

the base for the manufacture of chewing gum (Chicle). Sapota is a native of tropical America and is

believed to have originated in south Mexico or Central America and from there, it spread to India and other

countries where it adopted very well. Sapota, when fully ripe, is delicious and is eaten as dessert fruit. The

pulp is sweet and melting. The sapota fruits are good source of sugar which ranges between 12 and 14 per

cent.

Nutritive value

Sapota is good source of sugar, protein, fat, fiber and minerals (Ca,P,Fe).Sapota is a delicious

dessert fruit. The latex from stems and immature fruits is used in the preparation of chewing gum. Fruits

can be dried and made into nutritious powder which can be used in Milk shakes and sweets. In countries

(Indonesia) Young leafy shoots are used in salads or as vegetable. Sapota is supposed to be medicinal

also seeds as diuretic, bark as tonic, antipyretic, febrifuge and in curing biliousness and febrile attacks.

sapota is a very sweet fruit when ripe. It contains 15-20% sugars. Sapota pulp is extensively used for

making sweets and halwas. It is also an ingredient of fruit salads and milkshakes. The milky latex secreted
by unripe sapota fruits, known as chickle, forms the base for making chicklet and chewing gum. Chickle has

also got good market potential. Another bitter principle found in unripe sapota fruits called "sapotonin" has

pharmaceutical uses. This way sapota is an easily available low cost fruit with a delicious honey like flavour

which is relished by one and all. Its composition is given in table.

Climate and soil requirement

Sapota being a tropical fruit crop can be grown from sea level upto 1200 M. It prefers a warm and

moist weather and grows in both dry and humid areas. Coastal climate is the best Suited. Areas with an

annual rainfall of 1250-2500 mm are highly suitable. The optimum temperature is between 11°C and 34°C

at higher temperature above 430 C during summer, the flower and fruitlets may drop. Sapota being a hardy

tree can be grown on a wide range of soils with good drainage. It come up well in alluvial soils of the river

banks, sandy loams near coastal areas, red laterite soils of the heavy rainfall area and medium black soils.

Soil should be well drained without any hard pan. Deep and porous soils are preferred. The most ideal soils

are deep alluvium, sandy loams, red laterites and medium black soil. It can tolerate the presence of salts in

the soil and irrigation water to certain extent.

Varieties

Cultivars classification based on growth habit

i. Trees with erect growing habit.

ii. Trees with drooping habit.

iii. Trees with spreading habit.

iv. Trees with spreading and inferior quality fruits.

i. Trees with erect growing habit

Branches are appearing in whorls, leafy dark green, broad and oval, fruits large and superior.

ii. Trees with drooping habit

Branches in whorls, leaves light green narrow and elliptical, fruit small, inferior.
iii. Trees with spreading habit

Branches irregular, leaves dark green, broad and oval, fruits medium to large, superior.

iv. Trees with spreading habit

Inferior quality fruits.

Cultivars classification Based on fruit shape

i. Round.

ii. Oval.

Varietal identification

Cricket Ball

It is also known as Calcutta Large. The fruits are large and round in shape. Pulp is gritty, granular

and moderately sweet. The variety performs well in both arid and humid climate.

Kalipatti

It is a leading variety of Maharashtra, Gujarat and North Karnataka. Fruits are oval shaped, less

seeded with a sweet mellow flesh of excellent quality and mild flavour. Fruits appear singly.

CO 1

It is a hybrid developed by crossing Cricket Ball x Oval at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,

Coimbatore. This variety is superior to either of the parents. The fruits are long oval (egg shaped),

medium in size with a mean fruit weight of 125 g. The flesh is granular in texture and reddish brown in

colour, the taste being very sweet with a TSS of 18° brix.

CO 2

A clonal selection from Baramasi developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.

The tree is vigorous, conical, fruits are obovate to round with mean fruit weight ranging from 112 – 168 g.

The flesh is soft, juicy having a TSS of 23° brix.

CO 3

It is a hybrid derived from Cricket ball x Vavi Valasa. It registered an yield increase of 64.3% and

61.83% over female parent (Cricket ball) and male parent (Vavi Valasa) respectively. Fruits are rich in TSS

content (24.2° Brix) and sugars (Total sugars 10.8% and reducing sugars 8.2%). The single fruit weight is

132.5 g and the tree yields 1184 fruits weighing 156.94 kg.

PKM 1

A clonal selection from the variety Guthi developed at Horticultural College Periyakulam of Tamil

Nadu Agricultural University. The tree is dwarf in stature. Fruits are of two shapes viz., round and oval.

The skin is very thin and the pulp has a buttery consistency, very sweet with a TSS of 24° brix. High

yielder with medium size fruits, individual fruit weight ranging from 88 to 120 g.

PKM 2

It is a hybrid between Guthi and Kirthi Barthi developed at Horticultural College and Research

Institute, Periyakulam of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. A high yielder with an yield performance of

1500 to 2000 fruits per tree per year weighing 80 to 100 kg. Fruits are bigger in size and oblong to oval

shaped. The average fruit weight is 95 g. TSS ranges from 25 to 27° brix.

PKM 3

It is a hybrid between Guthi and Cricket ball. It has vertical growth habit and hence lends itself for

high density planting. Trees bear big sized fruits with oval shape and have cluster bearing habit. The fruit

yield is 14 tonnes per hectare.

PKM (Sa) 4

It is a clonal selection from PKM 1 developed at Horticultural College and Research Institute,

Periyakulam, high yielder (100.4 kg / tree / year) 138.29% increase over PKM 1. Fruits are spindle shaped

suitable for dry flakes production. Pulp attractive with light pinkish honey brown colour, crisp and sweet

flesh TSS 24 – 25° brix; less seeded (2 – 3 seeds / fruit).

PKM 5

It is a clonal selection from Virudhunagar developed at Horticultural College and Research

Institute, Periyakulam. An offseason bearer, putforth flowers during May and Crops during September.

DHS 1

A hybrid between Kalipatti and Cricket Ball. Tree is vigorous, bearing round to slightly oblong

fruits with high yield. The fruits are very sweet having a soft, granular and mellowing flesh with a TSS of

26° brix. The colour of the pulp is light orange. The mean fruit weight is 150 g.

DHS 2

A hybrid between Kalipatti and Cricket Ball. Tree is vigorous, bearing round fruits, sweet, TSS 23o

brix. The mean fruit weight is 180 g.

Pala

Pala is popular variety in Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu. The fruits are small to medium sized

and oval or egg shaped, with apex broadly pointed and are very sweet. The bearing is heavy and fruits are

borne in cluster. The fruit has thin skin and good flavour.

Kirthi Barthi

The fruits are small to medium sized and oval shaped. There are 4 – 6 ridges on the rind. Fruit

skin is rough, medium thick and buff coloured. Pulp is sweet. Fruit apex is rounded. The fruits are suitable

for long distance transport.

Baramasi

It is a popular variety in West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The fruits are medium in size and

roundish.

Dwarapudi

The fruits resemble those of Cricket Ball, but smaller in size. It is popular in Andhra Pradesh.

Fruits have a sweet pulp and are in great demand.

Propagation

At present, sapota is commercially propagated by vegetative methods such as air layering or

gootee layering, grafting and budding. Air layering is a popular method of propagating sapota in western

India, while in other parts of India grafting and budding are practised. Recently attempts have been made to

multiply this plant through tissue culture also. The Sapota is not usually propagated from seed as the plant

raised from seed grows very slowly, takes longer time to fruit and does not inherit the true characteristics of

the parent tree. It is therefore, commercially propagated by vegetative methods such as air - layering and

inarch - grafting. Air layering is a popular method of propagation in Wes India. In other parts of India,

inarch-grafting is generally practiced. Inarching or approach grafting is the commercial method of

propagation in sapota. Inarching should be done during the growing period when the tree is in active sap

flow or active growth, various rootstocks, such as sapota seedling, khirni (Pala or rayan) and mahua

seedlings are used. Of all the rootstocks, Pala (Manilkara hexandra) has been found to be the most

suitable. It is the most compatible rootstock and grafts successful and good quality. However, poor

germination of Khirni seeds is limiting its rapid multiplication. Instead of sowing the seeds in pot-mixture or

red earth or FYM, they have to be sown in pure sand under partial shade. By this about 76 per cent of the

seeds will be able to germinate in 43 days. The rootstocks are raised in tube pots. The scion remains

attached to the parent tree till the union is complete and if the scion branches are high; the stock plants are

placed on bamboo platforms or any such other device.

Name of the rootstocks Demerits

Mahua (Madhuca latifolia) Rootstock tends to overgrow scion, causes it to die back, fruits are

also poor in quality.

Mee tree (Bassia longifolia) Exhibits incompatibility by over growing the scion, pronounced

distortion at the graft union and the grafts die prematurely.

 Sapota seedlings Grafts are slow in growth

Manilkara elengi Grafts not successful

Grafting time/period:

 Approach grafting during: February (Jan-March).

 Soft wood grafting during: May-July.

 Air layering using 10,000PPM (1BA+NAA) gives good rooting.

Planting

Pits of 1 m3 are dug and filled with top soil mixed with 10 kg of FYM, 1 kg of neem cakeand 100 g

of lindane 1.3%. Grafts are planted in the centre of the pit with ball of earth intact. The graft joint must be at

least 15 cm above the ground level. The plants are staked to avoid bending or damage of graft joint.

Spacing

8 x 8 m. High density planting 8 x 4 m.

High density planting (HDP)

 Normal spacing - 8 x 8 m (156 trees/ha) - productivity is low.

 HDP - to increase productivity

 HDP trial in kalipatti variety - 5 x 5m - highest yield.

 Identification of dwarf rootstock and managemant - HDP.

 Yield of sapota Cv. Kalipatti (6 years)

 HDP (5 x 5m) - 13.6 t/ha.

 Normal (10 x10m) - 5.05 t/ha.

 Yield of PKM 1 (8 x4m) - 18.00 t/ha (HC & RI, PKM).

Manuring

Sapota is rarely fertilized but the following fertilizers are recommended for maximizing the yield.
 Age N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha FYM (kg/tree)

I year 30 30 50 10

Annual increase 30 30 50 10

For bearing trees 150 150 250 50

Manures and fertilizers may be applied in September - October, 45 cm away from the trunk upto

the leaf drip and incorporated. Manuring should be done in 2 spilt doses coinciding with the monsoons.

Bearing Habit

 Flowering of Sapota occurs in two seasons, July – November and February – March

 Flowers are borne in past season shoot

 Flowers are protogynous in nature

 Since it is a cross pollinated crop, pollination is effected by wind

 Application of NAA at 300 ppm at flowering stage and pea stage enhances fruit retention.

Irrigation

Irrigate copiously immediately after planting and on the third day and once in 10 days after words

till the graft establishes. Sapota can tolerate drought to some extent but irrigations help in improving the

yield. Regular irrigations should be given from planting till the plant establishes well. Later irrigations may

be according to need and soil and weather conditions. Insufficient irrigations result in dropping of flowers.

Drip irrigation can be more useful. Hardy tree - can be grown in black cotton soils - rainfed condition.

Varietal evaluation at RRS, Aruppukottai - PKM 1 & CO 2 - rainfed condition. Excess irrigation - flower, fruit

shedding and misshapen fruits. Watering - 6 - 12 days in winter & regularly in summer. Drip irrigation - 20 -

30 l/day/tree – TNAU.

Intercropping
 Sapota has long pre - bearing age and till the trees cover the entire area with their canopy,

intercrops such as legumes and short duration vegetables or fruit crops like papaya and banana can be

grown.

Training and Pruning

All the growths that appear on the rootstock below the graft or bud joint must be removed. After 3

– 4 years from planting, the lower most branches upto a height of 60 – 90 cm may be remove as with an

advance in age, lowermost branches, if left undisturbed may weigh down to ground and become unfruitful.

Similarly over shaded and crowded branches are also removed periodically to permit adequate sunlight and

air circulation.

Recently, it has been established that center opening of the grownup trees above 3 – 4 tires of

scaffold branches is beneficial to get higher yield with quality fruits. Similarly, pruning of side branches by

retaining 1/2 – 2/3 length encourages new growth, flowering and yield.

Flowering and fruiting

Sapota starts bearing small crops from the second or third year of planting but economical yield

can be obtained from sixth or seventh year onwards. Under south Indian conditions, flowers appear almost

throughout the year in several flushes at shorter intervals out of which two distinct season of profuse

flowering viz July to November and again February to March is generally observed. Fruit setting is a

problem in an isolated tree as self- unfruitfulness and protogynous condition exist and the pollination is

effected by wind.

Use of growth regulators

Overcome by foliar spraying of growth regulators.Highest fruit set and retention in sapota Cv.

Cricket Ball - 100 ppm SADH before anthesis and 1 month after flower opening. CCC@4000ppm at FBD

(Fruit Bud Differentiation) - increase the number of flowers/shoot.Pruning and Paclobutrazol in Cv. Kalipatti
at 5 x 5 spacing - beneficial up to 13 years.Mixed planting of different cultivars is recommended.NAA (100-

300 ppm) during flowering and again 15 day’s intervals increases the fruit set and the yield.

Harvest

Climacteric fruit - judging of maturity is difficult.It takes seven months from fruit set to

maturity.Maturity can be judged by certain external symptoms.

Maturity index

 Fruits at full maturity develop a dull orange or potato colour.

 On scratching, the fruit shows a yellow streak in a mature fruit.

 Brown scaly material disappears from the fruit surface.

 The milky latex is reduced in mature fruit.

 The dried spine like stigma at the tip of the fruit falls or drops off easily when touched.

 The mature fruits are harvested with the stalk intact, by giving a twist.

Yield

It depends upon several factors on an average, 12-25 tonnes of fruits/ha /year can be harvested.

Yield start from 3rd year of planting. 7 year old tree - 700 fruits/tree/year. 10 year old tree - 1000

fruits/tree/year.

Ripening and storage

Fruits ripen after harvest in about 4-13 days depending upon cultivar. Ripening can be hastened by

treating with ethrel (250-750ppm). The fruits are ripen by keeping the fruits in an air tight chamber with.

5000 ppm Ethrel + 10 g NaOH pellets. Between 12-140C fruits ripen slowly and keep well for about 5

weeks, ripe fruits can be stored at 2-30C and 85-90% R.H. for 6 weeks and firm fruits for 8 weeks at 3 to

50C and 85-95% R.H.

Plant Protection
Insect Pests

 Leaf webber - Spraying Phosalone 2 ml/lit

 Hairy caterpillars - Spraying Chloropyriphos or Quinalphos or Phosalone 2 ml/lit of water.

 Bud worm – Spraying Phosalone 2 ml/lit or Phosphamidon 2 ml/lit or Quinalphos 2 ml/lit or

Carbaryl @1 g/lit or Neem Seed Kernel Extract 5 %

Diseases

Sooty mould

 Sooty mould can be controlled by spraying starch solution.

 Required concentration can be prepared by boiling 1 kg maida or starch with 5 lit of water.

 After cooling, dilute the solution with 20 litres of water.

 Avoid spraying during cloudy weather.

 PINEAPPLE

Botanical name: Ananas comosus (Syn. A. sativus),

Chromosome No. : 2n = 50

Family:Bromeliaceae

Origin: American continent, probably Brazil and Paraguay

The pineapple is said to have been introduced into India as early as 1548. It is one of the

commercially important fruit crops of India. It is one of the choicest fruit all over the world because of its

pleasant taste and flavour. It is an herbaceous perennial. Throughout the length of the stem it is surrounded

thickly with leaves. From the axilsof the basal leaves, branches with closely arranged leaves arise, which

are capable of reproduction of new plants. These are called ‘suckers’. Just below the inflorescence, from

the peduncle (fruit stalk) small branches with close stem with densely arranged leaved found above the

inflorescence is called ‘crown’.

Nutritive value

Pineapple is a good source of vitamin A and B and fairly rich in vitamin C and minerals like

calcium, magnesium, potassium and iron. It is also a source of bromelin, a digestive enzyme.

Climate and soil

Pineapple adapts well to sub – tropical regions to tropical regions having humid climate (75-78%).

It performs well in places receiving an annual rainfall ranging from 100 – 150 cm. it requires an optimum

temperature range of 210 C to 230 C. it can be grown upto an elevation of1100 meters from sea level.

The pineapple plant comes up well in all types of soil except heavy clay soil. It does not tolerate

water stagnation and soil should be well – drained. Throughout the tropical regions, pineapple is cultivated

in the red or reddish brown laterite soils. The soils contain considerable amount of iron- oxides which help

to develop the redcolour. The pH of the soil should be 5.5 to 6.

Varieties
 Important varieties which are grown in India are Giant Kew, Queen and Mauritius.

Cultivars or Varieties : Types Queen, Kew and Mauritius

Queen

The plants are dwarf and dense with more number of side slips and suckers, leaves areserrated.

Each fruit weights on an average 1 kg. The eyes are deep and the fruits develop golden yellow colour as

they ripe. The fruits are more juicy and fleshy, and can be stored for longer periods. But they are not

sutiable for canning.

Varieties

Jaldhup and Lakhat.

Kew

The fruits of this group are highly suitable for canning. Fruits are oblong tapering slightlytowards

the crown. Fruits weight 1.5 - 2.0 kg. Suitable for canning.

Mauritius

Yellow Mauritius fruits are intermediate in size, yellow in colour oblong in shape and fairin taste.

Flesh is with more fibre. The crown will be big with thorns. In Red Mauritius the fruits will be broader at

base and slightly narrow towards the tip. Fruits are red in colour.

Cayenne: It is a canning variety.

Singapore Spanish: Canning variety

Red Spanish: It is a table variety.

Abacus: Table variety

Propagation

Pineapples can be propagated by almost all the parts except the fruits. Suckers, slips and crowns

can be used, but the slips and suckers and found superior as planting materials in comparison to crowns.
Pineapple is propagated vegetatively through suckers (which startdeveloping from the axillary buds of the

basal leaves) or slips (the sprouts grow from the buds on the inflorescence axil or fruitstalk below the fruits)

or crowns (above the fruit). The slips and suckers are found to be superior as planting materials

incomparison to crowns. The use of sucker (about 400-500 g weight facilitate the harvesting 15-18 months

after planting, while the slips will take 20-22 months. The crowns if used will take 24-25 months for first

harvest. Hence it is recommended to go in for use of suckers. At the time of planting, the basal leaf scales

should be removed properly and then dipped in 0.025% mehtyl dematon and 0.2% copper oxychloride to

prevent mealy bugs and stem rot. Recently the dormant buds in the crowns have been successfully used in

tissue culture for rapid multiplication of planting material.

Preparation of field and Planting

The field should be ploughed to a depth of 30-40 cm to have a fine tilth. The field is laid out into

trenches alternating with mounds for planting of pineapple. The depth of the trench should be about 22-30

cm. in hilly areas, the trenches are to be made across the slope.

Single-row system

This method is recommended where labour is scarce and weeds are abundant. This system is very

much useful for rations. In this system, rows are set at 60 cm apart and plants are set in rows at 30cm

spacing. The main disadvantages are the lack of support afforded to the plants which may topple over

especially due to the weight of the fruit. Direct sun rays may also cause ‘sunscald’ or sunburn on fruit.

Double row system

Trenches are dug at 90 cm interval and in the mounds two rows are set 60 cm interval and the

plants are set at 25-30 cm intervals in the two rows exactly opposite in zig zag manner. Double row planting

permits high density planting. Trials conducted in many countries including India reveal that dense planting

results in

1. High yields without affecting the size or quality of the fruit,

 2. Overlapping of the basal leaves provides shade and reduces evaporation loss as well as weed

growth.

3. The leaves tend to twist and grow upright which provide the fruit a natural covering to prevent

sunscald and hence results in uniformly coloured and lustrous fruits.

High density planting

High density planting, besides increasing the yield, is associated with other advantageslike less

weed infestation, protection to fruits from sun-burn and increased production ofsuckers and slips per unit

area, and non-lodging of plants. A plant density of 63,000 plants/ha (22.5 cm x 60 cm x 75 cm) has been

found ideal in sub-tropical and mild humid areas of Bangalore. In hot and humid areas of Kerala,

Karnatakaand West Bengal, a plant density of 53,000 plants/ha (25 cm x 60 cm x 90 cm) performs well. In

rainfed, highly fertile and hilly areas, like north-eastern states, a plant density of 43,000 plants/ha (30 cm x

60 cm x 90 cm) has been recommended. The yields recorded under highdensity planting are in the range

of 70-105 tonnes/ha. The increase in yield per unit area is in the order of 45-85 tonnes/ha. In nutshell,

adoption of high-density planting does not hamper fruit size, quality and canning recovery.
Ratoon

Desuckering should be done immediately after harvest leaving only one sucker on themother plant.

All the slips should be removed. The plants should be sufficiently fertilized and earthing up is done so as to

provide good anchorage for the ratoon crop. In high density planting, ratoon can be taken successfully for

2-3 years and in traditional system for 4-5 years. At Hessaraghatta, rate of rationing was compared in

traditional and high-density planting of 55,555 plants/ha. In this, 2 successive ratoon crops harvested at 12

monthly intervals amounted to 50.7 and 53.8% of the plant crop yield. The yield of the first and second

ratoon crops is to an extent of 50-60% and 40% of the plant-crop in Hawaii and Australia

Manures and Fertilizers

FYM 40-50 t/ha. N 16 g, P 4 g and K 12 g/plant in two equal splits at 6th and 12th month after

planting. Apply as foliar spray 0.5%-1.0% sulphate of Zinc and Ferrous solutions at 15 days interval to

overcome the deficiencies in the early crop phase.

Earthing up

It is a very important operation in pineapple cultivation. This operation gives betteranchorage to the

plants. Earthing up should be done following each application of fertilizers and also after weeding, hoeing

and harvesting crops. This becomes more important for ratoon crop.

Flowering and crop regulation

Pineapple plants generally produce flowers after 12 months when they produce about 35-40 leaves

and the fruits take 4 ½ - 5 ½ months to ripen. Under normal conditions, only 40-50% of the population

comes to flowering.

To have uniform flowering apply the following when the crop attains 35 – 40 leaf stage. NAA 10

ppm + 2 % urea (20 g in 1 lit of water) @ 50 ml/plant poured into crown or 2 % urea + 0.04 % Sodium

carbonate + 20 ppm Ethephon (ethrel) @ 50 ml/plant poured into the crown. To increase the size of the
fruit, 200 – 300 ppm NAA should be sprayed after fruit formation. To avoid calcium induced Iron chlorosis

adequate shade should be given.

Harvesting

Fruits can be harvested from 18 to 24 months. The fruit is ready for harvest when the dark green

colour becomes lighter and the deep seated eyes become shallow.Slight colour change at the base of the

fruit indicates maturity.

Fruits should be harvested when fully matured for canning purpose and also for distant markets.

But for table purpose, the fruits are picked after they develop a golden yellow colour.

Yield

The yield from a plant population of 35000 - 40000 per ha is about 40-50 tones and that from a

plant population of 43000-50000 per ha normally varies from 50 to 60 tonnes. Yield of 60-70 t/ha is possible

with still higher population of about 63000 per ha.

 LITCHI (OR) LYCHEE

It is a native fruit of warm subtropic zone of China having juice of excellent quality. The fruits are a

rich source of sugar (6-20%), protein 0.7% abd faurkt rucg ub fat (0.3%), minerals like calcium (10mg)

phosphorus (35mg) and vitamins like vitamin C (64mg), vitamin B1 (0..2mg), B2 (0.03 mg and B3 (0.1 mg)

per 100g.

The fruits can be canned, made into squash,pickles, and wine or dried to form litchi nut. The tree is

a medium large evergreen one with more branches. The fruits are borne in bunches. Each fruit is a one

seeded nut, the pericarp is the skin, which has papillate projection like strawberry. The fleshy aril

surrounding the seed is the edible portion, which separates easily from seed and skin. China, Taiwan,

Thailand, India,South Africa, Australia and Madagascar are the main litchi growing countries.

Climatic and soil requirements:

A warm subtropical climate is ideal for the growth and flowering in litchi. The winter should be cool

as well as dry and devoid of frost (minimum temperature 150C). This should be followed by fairly long hot

(16-22oC) climate with light rainfall during flowering and then by high temperature during fruitset (18-24o)

with medium humidity.

During harvest the temperature should be around 24-28oC with bright sunlight and high relative
humidity. During new flush, the temperature should be 28-30oC with high RH and heavy rainfall. An alluvial
soil with good drainage and easy access to the water table is the best for the growth of litchi. The plants
have a low ability to transport water from roots to leaves. The soil pH should be around 5.5.

CULTIVARS:

Haak Yip:
 The fruit is heart shaped each weighing 20-22g, skin is thin, soft and purplish red. Flesh has an

excellent aroma and is sweet in taste. It separates easily from flesh. It is the commercial cultivar of

Thailand, Taiwan and China.

Taiso:

The fruits are eggshaped each weighing 22-26g, bright red skin changing to dull red at maturity,
flesh is sweet. It is the commercial cultivar of Australia, Queensland and South Africa (Where it is known as
Mauritius).

Waichee:

Fruit are small (16-18g) round with deep red skin. It possesses soft flesh with abundant sweet
juice. It is cultivated in China and Australia.

Rose secented:

Fruits are oblong conical with deep rose pink skin, pulp grayish white. The aril has a delicate rosy
flavour. It is an important cultivar of India.

Muzaffarput:

The fruits are deep orange to pink with medium juicy sweet pulp. It is grown in India.

Bombai:

Fruit is heart shaped, 15-20g in weight usually with another under-developed fruit attached to stalk.
Tubercles are carmine red with uranium green interspace. It is an important commercial cultiver of West
Bengal.

China:

Fruits are globose with a blend of nasturtium red and marigold orange. Fruits are large, 25-27g
having a sweet flesh with good juice and pleasant aroma. It is also one of the important cultivars of India.
Propagation and planting

To avoid the high variability and long juvenile period, seed propagation is not recommended.

Semihard and hard wood cuttings of 15-20cm length which were previously ringed while attached to mother

plant and then treated with 10000 ppm of IBA and Ferulic acid will root easily.

Air layering done during spring and early summer season is commercially used. Stooling, apical

grafting, approach grafting, approach grafting and shield budding are other methods of propagation. The

land should be prepared thoroughly by ploughing and leveling. A windbreak should be established around

the litchi orchard using eucaluptus, casuarinas, jamun preferably before one year of establishment of litchi

orchard.

Pits of 1 M x M 1M x1 M are dug, allowed for a week, filled with 25kg FYM +2 kg of bone meal and

300g of muriate of potash +1 basket of soil from litchi orchard containing mycorrhizal fungi., The spacing

recommended is 10 M x 10 M . If the soil is not fertile and the climate is comparatively dry, the spacing can

be reduced to 8 M x 8 M. The young plants should be staked.

Irrigation and manuring:

Frequent irrigation is necessary so as to maintain the adequate soil moisture for proper

establishment of young plans. If there is moisture stress the plants will not establish. Manurial requirement

of lithchi is as follows. N (g) P (g) K (g/tree) 6 years & above (600: 200: 250) For bearing trees also there

should not be any moisture stress in soil.

Training and interculture:

Branches with narrow crotches should be removed. Terminal buds in long branching cultivars

should be removed to encourage branching. However intensive removal of vegetative growth should be
avoided as otherwise it will delay the next season flowering. Sorghum stubble, wheat straw, groundnut

shells can be used as mulch to conserve soil moisture.

Flowering, harvest and yield:

Litchi trees vegetatively propagated come to flower at the age for 3 –5 years. The new flush arising

in spring end in inflorescence. Fruits are harvested after full maturity and ripening on the tree itself. Fruits

are harvested as bunches, precooled and then stored at 0 oC to 1oC.