INTRODUCTION:-

RESEARCH:

The word "research" is derived from the old French word "cerchier" meaning "to seek" or
"to search", The word "research" is composed of two syllables "re" and "search", "Re" means
again and "search" means to examine, to test, to try, to investigate, and to probe. Research means
to investigate again and again for new knowledge or to find answers to problems.

"Research is a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions and solve
problems". -Polit and Beck, 2010

"Research means looking carefully again for new or adapted knowledge".

-Taylor, Kermode, and Roberts, 2007

"Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem".

-Burns, 1994

"Research is a systematic, controlled, empi- rical, and critical investigation of hypothetical

propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena,

-Kerlinger, 1973

Research may be defined as the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled
observation that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles, theories, resulting in
prediction and possible ultimate control of events.

- (J. W. Best, 1969)

NURSING RESEARCH:

Nursing research is defined as the systematic, objective process of analyzing phenomena

important to nursing. It comprises of all studies relating to nursing practice, education,
administration, and the nurses themselves.
A systematic approach to gathering information for the purposes of answering questions and
solving problems in the pursuit of creating new knowledge about nursing practice, education,
and policy.

- (Hek and Moule, 2006).

Nursing research is a formal, systematic, rigorous, and intensive process used for solutions to
nursing problems or discovers and interprets new facts and trends in clinical practice, nursing
education, and nursing administration.

- (Waltz and Bausell, 2001).

Nursing research is a scientific process that validates and refines existing knowledge and
generates new knowledge that directly influences nursing practice.

- (Burns and Grooves, 1993).

Nursing research refers to the use of systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation
in attempting to discover or confirm facts that relate to specific problem or question about the
practice of nursing.

- (Schotfetdt, 1977).

Nursing research is a systematic study and assessment of nursing problems or phenomena,

finding ways to improve nursing practice and patient care through creative studies, initiating and
evaluating change, and taking action to make new knowledge useful in nursing.

- (Vreeland, 1963).

The ultimate purpose of nursing is to provide high-quality patient care. Clinical nursing practice
without research is based on tradition without empirical evidences. Research is needed to
evaluate the effectiveness of nursing treatment modalities, to determine the impact of nursing
care on the health of the patients, or to test theories. Nursing practices are undergoing
tremendous changes and challenges. In order to meet social challenges and needs, nursing
practice must be research based. The discipline of nursing is as concerned as other sciences are
with the use of the research process to generate new knowledge. It is accepted as the means
through which nursing science has evolved in the past and will continue to do so in the future.

BASIC RESEARCH TERMS ARE:

- ABSTRACT
- SAMPLE
- DATA
- VARIABLE
- CONCEPT
- OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
- VALIDITY
- ASSUMPTION
- POPULATION
- HYPOTHESES
- LIMITATIONS
- CONSTRUCT
- STUDY SETTING

ABSTRACT:

Abstract is a clear, concise summary that communicates the essential information about the
study. In research journals, it is usually located at the beginning of an article.

Characteristics of abstract: -

- It is a summary of the whole research

- Main purpose is to summarize the research (particularly the objective and the main
finding/conclusion).
- Has a maximum word limit.
- An abstract should briefly.
 - Re-establish the topic of the research.
- Give the research problem and/or main objective of the research (this usually comes
first).
- Indicate the methodology used.
- Present the main findings and conclusion.

DATA:

Data are facts or figures from which conclusions can be drawn. Data can be classified as
either numeric (quantitative) or nonnumeric (qualitative).

Quantitative data: It consists of values that indicate counts or measurements. It is further

classified into discrete or continuous data.

Discrete data: Discrete data are numeric data that have a finite number of possible values, it can
take only whole number equivalents. For example, pulse rate can take only whole number values
such as 72 beats/min, 80 beats/min, 95 beats/min and not fractional values.

Continuous data: Continuous data have infinite number of possible values, i.e. not limited to
whole number values; for example, age (1 year, 1 year and 6 months, 2 years, 2 years and 6
months), salary (₹ 11,000/-, ₹11,600/-, 12,700/-), weight (1.1 kg, 1.25 kg, 1.30 kg, etc.), and
height (3, 3'2", 3'3") are continuous variables (Flowchart 11.1).

Qualitative data: Qualitative data is consists of non-numeric values that can be placed into
categories, commonly termed as a categorical data.

The types of data greatly affect the choice of analysis method. To carry out an analysis, the
Variables have to be quantified by providing Values and a suitable scale. There are four levels of
measurements on a continuum of discrete and continuous scale.

SAMPLE:

A sample is a limited part of a population whose properties are studied to gain informa- tion
about the whole.

- (Webster, 1985).
Sample is a group of people, objects, or elements that are taken from a larger population for
participation in a study. In research studies, individuals are usually mentioned as subjects or
participants.

The selected sample should be representative of the entire population. By studying the sample
the researcher generalizes the results to the population from which the sample has been chosen.

Characteristics of a good sample design:

1. Representativeness

2. sample size

3. Unbiased
4. No substitution and
incompleteness
5. Feasible

6. Generalizability

POPULATION:

Population is the aggregation of individuals or objects that possesses similar characteristics

defined by the researcher. It includes target and accessible population.

Target population: It is the entire group of people or objects meeting a set of criteria established
by the researcher for which he wishes to generalize the study findings. For example, in "a study
to assess the biopsychosocial problems of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients in
India", the target population would be all the HIV patients in India.

Accessible population: Accessible population is also known as the study population is the
subset of the target population to which the researcher has reasonable access for selection of
subjects to the research study. They may be limited to an institution, city, region, state or a
country. In the above example, accessible population will be all the HIV patients taking
treatment at a selected district hospital.

In research studies, it is not possible to study an entire population as studying it in its entirety is
very time consuming, costly, and requires more resources. Therefore, a subset of subjects which
is representative of a given population is selected which is termed as sampling. It is the process
of choosing a set of people, incidents, or behaviors from a ample population for conducting the
study.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES OR METHODS:-

Sampling techniques or methods outline the strategies used to obtain samples for studies.
Commonly the sampling techniques are classified into two types, viz. probability (random) or
nonprobability (nonrandom) sampling techniques or methods.

Probability Sampling Techniques or Methods:

In probability (random) sampling technique, elements are randomly selected from a given
population. In this method, every member of the available population has an equal and
independent chance of being selected for the sample. Independence is ensured when the selection
of one subject has no effect on the selection of other subjects, i.e. each member of the population
has exactly the same chance as the other of being in the sample. Probability sampling methods
are designed to increase representativeness and decrease systematic bias. Use of such sampling
methods in quantitative research studies improves the validity of study findings. When bias is
eliminated, the results of the research may be generalized from the sample to the whole of the
population because the sample represents the population (Frey et al. 2000). Availability of
sampling frame is the single most important criterion in determining whether probability
sampling can be used.

Types of Probability Sampling Techniques:

The four most commonly used probability sampling methods are:

(1) simple random, (2) stratified random, (3) systematic, and (4) cluster.
Nonprobability Sampling Techniques or Methods: -

In nonprobability sampling, every element of a population does not have an opportunity or

equal chance to be selected for a study sample. In this method, the elements are chosen by
choice, not by chance, which restricts the generalizability of the study findings.

Nonprobability sampling methods are useful when the total population is unknown or is not
available. For example, where the study defines population as women in menopause it is difficult
to find a list of names from any single source.

Generally, it is believed that use of nonprobability sampling methods is more likely to produce a
biased sample than probability sampling methods. Nurse researchers must keep in mind that the
sample must fit the purpose of the study and best represent the population rather than one that
uses the most sophisticated sampling technique.

The four nonprobability sampling methods used most frequently in nursing research are:

(1) convenience sampling, (2) quota sampling, (3) purposive sampling, and (4) network
sampling.

VARIABLE:

A variable is a characteristic, event, or response that represents the elements of the research
question in a detectable way.

- (Waltz, Strickland, and Ling, 2004).

Variable is a factor that can be controlled or changed in an experiment.

- (Wong, 2014).

In quantitative studies, concepts are usually referred to as variables. A variable is something that
varies. It refers to measurable characteristics of people, things, and situations that can change or
vary, e.g. pulse rate, anxiety level, and degree of pain. These are characteristics of people that
can vary from one person to another and also have different values along a continuum.
 Some variables are inherent characteristics of people such as age, blood type, or weight, but
sometimes the researcher creates a variable for conducting the study, e.g. nursing intervention to
reduce pain, various relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety, etc.

Number of variables that can be measured is unlimited. The complexity of the study
increases with the increase in number of variables and longer is the time required for data
collection and statistical analysis.

Depending upon the number of variables, the study can be univariate (one variable),
bivariate (two variables), or multivariate (multiple variables).Some variables are concrete and
clear such as gender, type of blood group, type of residence, etc. while others are abstract and
vague such as anxiety, depression, attitudes, etc.

Variables can be classified into many types.

1. Independent and Dependent Variables:

The independent (manipulative) variable is the stimulus or activity that is applied to
the experimental situation by the researcher to measure its effects on the dependent variable.
It is the antecedent and the presumed effect on the dependent variable.
In experimental research, the independent variable is believed to be the cause or influence,
and is manipulated by the researcher to assess its effect on the dependent variable, e.g. in a
study to evaluate the efficacy of relaxation on anxiety among adolescent girls, relaxation is
the independent variable because the researcher manipulates this variable by providing it to
experimental group subjects and withholds it for control group subjects so as to assess the
effect of this variable on reducing anxiety (dependent variable).
In nonexperimental research, the independent variable is not manipulated and is
assumed to have occurred naturally before or during the study, e.g. in a study to assess the
relationship between gender and somatic symptoms, the gender cannot be manipulated and
is observed and measured as it naturally happens.
Dependent (criterion) variable is one that is affected by the independent variable. It is the
presumed effect or outcome that varies with a change in the independent variable.
 2. Active and Attribute Variables: Active variables are created by the researcher. They
can also be independent variables, e.g. in a study concerning effectiveness of relaxation

in reducing anxiety among children, relaxation method is the active independent variable as it is
created by the researcher. It can be tailored based on the anxiety level.

Attribute variables are characteristics of the study subjects, which cannot be manipulated, e.g.
gender, age, color of eyes, skin color, etc. These variables can also be independent variables with
limitation In a study to examine the presence of the mother in decreasing the anxiety level of a
hospitalized child during a painful procedure, age cannot be changed, but we can study anxiety at
different age levels. "An active variable in one study could be an attribute variable in another
study". Another example is that of the relationship between gender and somatic symptoms where
the gender cannot be changed or manipulated, but somatic symptoms between male and female
depressive patients can be studied.

3. Extraneous and Demographic Variables:

Variables that may affect research outcomes but have no relevance to the study are termed as

extraneous variables. Extraneous variables confuse or confound the relationship between

dependent and independent variables.

Demographic variables are characteristics of the subjects in the study. Also called as
sample characteristics these determine the sample representativeness of the population of
interest.

These demographic variables cannot be manipulated and are used to describe the study group.
These variables also explain their relationship with the dependent variables. Age, gender,
educational level, marital status, and religion are some examples of demographic variables.

CONCEPT:

Refers to a mental idea of a phenomenon. Concepts are words or terms that symbolize some
aspects of reality. E.g.. Love, pain.
CONSTRUCT:

Is a highly abstract & complex phenomenon (concept) which is denoted by a made up or

constructed term.

A construct term is used to indicate a phenomenon that cannot be directly observed but must be
inferred by certain concrete or less abstract indicators of the phenomenon. E.g. self esteem.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION:

Refers to the way in which the researcher defines the variables under investigation. Operational
definition are stated in such way by the investigator specifying how the study variables will be
measured in the actual research situation.

VALIDITY:-

Validity is the second important criterion for evaluating a quantitative instrument. It is defined as
the extent to which a concept is accurately measured. It also refers to the degree or extent to
which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure.

Reliability and validity are not independent qualities of an instrument. Although validity is an
important characteristic of an instrument, reliability is necessary before validity can be
considered. An instrument that is not reliable cannot be valid.

However, an instrument can be reliable without being valid. A few examples which underline the
concepts of reliability and validity are: An alarm clock which rings at 6 am while it is actually set
for 5.30 am. Here the clock is very reliable as it regularly rings at the same time every morning,
i.e. 6 am. However, it is not valid as it is not ringing at the preferred time, i.e. 5.30 am. In the
said scenario if the clock rings at various times every morning then it is not considered reliable
too.
Types of validity:-

ASSUMPTIONS:

 Assumptions are overt and/or innate beliefs held by the researcher about phenomenon
that is accepted as truth without proof or empirical evidence.
 An assumption is a realistic expectation, i.e. something that we believe to be true but no
adequate evidence exists to support this belief. In a research study, assumptions are out of
researcher's control; however, if they disappear the study would become irrelevant.
 Assumptions often are embedded (unrecognized) in thinking and behavior and
uncovering these assumptions require introspection and a strong knowledge basis in
research.
 In science, hypothesis and assumptions are concepts that are similar in nature. Hypothesis
is an argument put forward to explain a phenomenon. Anything taken for granted is an
assumption, and a hypothesis is at best a working assumption.

Uses of Assumptions:

 Assumptions influence the logic of the study, development, and implementation of the
research process.
 Assumptions provide a basis to develop theories and research instruments
 It helps in the objective examination of the phenomenon under study
 It allows for a more vigorous study

Sources of Assumptions

 Universally accepted truths

 Theories
 Nursing practice
 Previous research studies

Types of Assumptions

The four different types of assumptions are:

1. Universal assumptions: These are universal truths accepted by majority of the

population. These assumptions help us to explain the world around us, e.g. man is a bio
psychosocial being.
2. Empirical based assumptions: These assumptions are derived from previous research
studies. These may be developed to conduct a study, e.g. prevalence of communicable
diseases is more common among rural people when compared to urban people.
3. Theoretical based assumptions: These assumptions are associated with a specific
theory. For example, major assumptions of Orem's theory of nursing are:
• Self-care is a requirement for every person

• Universal self-care involves meeting basic human needs

• Health-deviation self-care is related to disease or injury

4. Research assumptions:These are beliefs about the research itself. These are embedded
in methodology and statistical analysis--
Methodology assumptions:The researcher during survey assumes that the
subjects will answer truthfully. While choosing a sample, the researcher assumes
that the sample is representative of the population of which inference is to be
made. Researchers usually assume that subjects will answer the survey questions
sincerely and to the best of their knowledge. It is also assumed that data
collection instruments are valid and reliable based upon their previous use.
 Statistical analysis assumptions: Statistical models in quantitative research
designs are accompanied with assumptions. These assumptions generally refer to
the characteristics of the data (qualitative and quantitative), distribution of data
(normal distribution or not), correlational trends, and variable type (nominal,
ordinal, interval, or ratio level variable).

HYPOTHESIS:-

Once the objectives have been written, the variables defined and the study population
determined, it is necessary to refine the written objectives into a set of written testable
hypothesis.

 A hypothesis is a declarative statement, which explains the relationship betweentwo or

more variables that predicts a solution to the research problem.
 The hypothesis translates the research problem into a clear explanation or prediction of
the expected results.
 It is the basis for scientific investigation and plays an important role in the research
process.
 Hypothesis and theories are reciprocal to each other. A verified hypothesis becomes the
basis for theory and theory in turn serves as a source for hypothesis generation.

Definitions

A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables."

-Kerlinger, 1973

"Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between an independent
and dependent variable."

-Creswell, 1994
"A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative explanation of the research problem, a possible
outcome of the research, or an educated guess about the research outcome."

-Sarantakos, 1993

"A hypothesis is a statement or explanation that is suggested by knowledge or observation but

has not yet been proved or disproved."

-Macleod Clark J and Hockey L, 1979

"A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, and an educated conjecture. 1 It

provides a tentative explanation for a phenomenon under investigation."

-Leedy and Ormrod, 2001

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis:

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis:

Simple Clear Relevant Testable Verifiable

Simple:

 The hypothesis should be written in the form of a declarative statement by using present
tense in simple and under standable terms.
 It should be limited to a single relationship between two variables so as to add clarity in
terms of understanding the intended relationship and the conclusions that follow data
analysis.
 It is neither too specific nor too general.
Clear

 A clearly stated hypothesis includes the variables, population, and proposed outcomes for
the study.
 A good hypothesis should have a clearly defined independent variable to ensure accurate
and consistent implementation of the intervention. The dependent variable must be
clearly defined to ensure accurate measurement.

Testable

 Variables included in the hypothesis should lend themselves to observation, empirically

tested by direct or indirect measures.

Verifiable

 It should be verified in practical terms.

 It is considered valuable even if proven false.

Purposes

 Provides a bridge between theory and practice by allowing theoretical propositions to be

examined in the real world. Hypothesis sometimes follows directly from a theoretical
framework and tests these hypotheses in the realworld. The validity of the theory is never
examined directly. The worth of the theory can only be evaluated through hypothesis
testing.
 Provides the reader with a perceptive of the researchers expectations of study before the
actual data collection process begins.
 By stating the anticipated results, it stimulates the researcher's thinking process in the
right direction.
 Provides direction for research methodology, sampling method, data collection, analysis
process, and interpretation of findings.
 Provides an understanding of the predictable study results to the researcher.
 Links the dependent and independent variables.
 Support or Reject Hypothesis

 Hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved, but can only be supported or not supported.
 Even if a hypothesis is not supported by the data, it can lead to further investigations.
Negative and positive findings are equally important and act as a guiding factor for
future research in that field.
 If a hypothesis is continually supported, it may eventually evolve into a theory.
 A theory that is continually validated over time by a growing body of data, becomes a
law.

Sources of Hypothesis

Hypotheses can be derived from various sources. The major ones include examining the
theory, personal experience, imagination and thinking, observation of phenomenon, reviewing
research literature or previous research findings, customs, and beliefs.

 Theory: Theory explains all the facts related to a problem. It is one of the main sources of
hypothesis generation. Logical deduction from theory or conceptual framework leads to new
hypothesis.

Through a deductive approach, these hypotheses are drawn from theory for testing. The
following hypothesis has been deduced from operant conditioning theory.

o Chronic mentally ill patients who are appreciated by the nursing personnel for self-care
activities require less assistance in activities than patients who are not appreciated.
o Children who were ignored by nursing personnel for their temper tantrums exhibit less
temper tantrums in the future than children who were not ignored for such behavior.
 Personal experience: On the basis of personal experience, the researcher uses his intellect to
generate a good hypothesis. Nurses can derive many hypotheses from clinical experience.
Greater the researcher's experience higher is the degree of formation.
 Imagination and thinking: Personal ideas and thinking capabilities of the researcher would
lead to greater number of hypothesis formulation as well as control over the problem.
 Observation: The collection of previous and current facts related to a problem lead to the
formulation of a good hypothesis. The nurse researchers observe events in practice and
identify relationships among these events, which become the basis for formulating hypothesis.
 Reviewing the research literature or previous research findings: Reviewing the previous
literature and combining the findings from different studies can be used to generate
hypothesis. The findings of the previous studies and continuity of research in the same field
are an important source of hypothesis. For example, previous research has shown that stress
can impact the immune system. So, a researcher might state a specific hypothesis as: "People
with high stress levels are more likely to catch a common cold after being exposed to the virus
than people who have low stress levels"
 Customs and beliefs: Researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or folk wisdom.
"Birds of the same feather flock together" is one example of folk wisdom. Based on this folk
wisdom, the researcher might pose a specific hypothesis that "people tend to select partners
who are similar to them in interests and educational level",

Types of hypothesis:

 Simple vs Complex Hypothesis

 Associative vs Causal Hypothesis
 Directional vs Non-directional Hypothesis.
 Null vs Research Hypothesis.

Formulation of Hypothesis:

The hypothesis is formulated before the study is actually conducted;it flows from the research
question, literature review and theoretical framework. Hypotheses are usually formulated in
quantitative research studies the quasi-experimental and experimental studies should be directed
by hypothesis some correlational studies focus on predicting relationships and may include
hypothesis Researchers employ inductive and deductive reasoning on available theory and
knowledge to formulate a hypothesis. It is better that one hypothesis contains only a single
prediction about relationships of study variables. The following are the criteria for writing a
hypothesis:
  Written in declarative sentence: Hypothesis presents an answer or tentative solution to the
problem and is written in the form of a sentence.
 Written in present tense: Hypothesis is tested in the present and so should be written in
the present tense, e.g. there is a positive relationship between the level of depression and
suicidal attempts among depressive patients.
 Contain the population: The population needs to be specifically identified in the
hypothesis, just as it is in the problem statement.
 Contain the variables: The variables may be made clearer in the hypothesis.
 Based on research problem: It should be relevant to the research problem and purpose of
the study.
 Empirically testable: A well-stated hypothesis has to be testable. Variables included in
the hypothesis lend themselves to observation, measurement, and analysis.

LIMITATIONS:

Limitations are restrictions or shortcomings in a study, usually beyond the researcher's control
that may decrease the credibility and generalizability of the findings.

Limitations are weaknesses related to decisions made in a study regarding sampling technique,
data collection strategy, instrument used, population chosen (in terms of accessibility), time, and
resources.All the studies have some inherent limitations and such limitations that might influence
the results should invariably be mentioned in the research report.

Limitations are generally described in the discussion section so that the interpretation of results
is done with the knowledge of potential impact on the limiting factors.

Limitations should be better covered and their discussion typically encouraged when the
conclusions of a study are formulated and recommendations made for future research. Otherwise
it could lead to an important loss of context for the scientific literature.

Various points to be considered while stating limitations include-statistical analysis, nature of

data collection, instruments utilized, sample, time constraints, etc.

There are two types of limitations:

 - Theoretical and
- Methodological

Theoretical limitations:- Theoretical limitations are restrict the abstract generalization of the
findings, which are reflected in the conceptual and operational definitions of the variables and
the study framework. Theoretical limitations might include, research question, objectives,
variables or hypothesis that lack a clear link to a relationship (or proposition) expressed in the
study framework.

Methodological limitations :- Methodological limitations can limit the generalizability of the

findings. These might include weak design, single setting, unrepresentative sample, limited
control over treatment implementation, measuring instruments limited reliability and validity,
limited control over data collection, and improper use of statistical analyses.

Importance of Stating Limitations:

- Limitations help the reader to get an accurate sense of what the study results indicate and
how widely results can be generalized.
- May be useful for readers as they acknowledge the possible shortcomings while
interpreting the study results.
- Evidence generated by the research study is strengthened by identifying limitations.

DELIMITATIONS:

Delimitations are choices made by the researcher, which should be mentioned.

Theydescribe the boundaries set for the study and explain the things not being done,
literature "not being reviewed, the population not being studied, and the methodological
procedures not being used.

 Delimitations are factors that affect the study over which the researcher generally
does have some degree of control.
 Delimitations describe the scope of the study or choices made by the researcher.
They depict the boundaries of the study and state what the study will include or
exclude.
  Delimitations state the extent to which the study may be generalized in the field of
practice, and also how these delimitations affect issues of external validity.
 Delimitations frequently include limits on the sample selection and technique,
extent of the geographic area from which data are collected, use of tools in data
collection, and time frame for the study.
 Delimitations of the study are generally described in the introductory chapter of
the thesis or dissertation and at times in the discussion chapter also. Delimitations
need tobe described in detail and reasons explained for not considering certain
parameters in the study. The researcher should mention impact of delimitation in
relation to overall findings and conclusions of the study.

Uses of Delimitations

 Setting of delimitations and validating them facilitate the researcher in

maintaining objectivity in the study.
 Delimitations aid the researcher in reconstructing a study and advance future
research on the same topic.
 Delimitations offer the scope for a researcher to conclude the findings and
determining a study's reliability or external validity.
Conclusion:

Basic research terms is an important research method because it exposes researchers to

varying dimensions within a field of study. This proves useful, not only for improving
scholarship and the general knowledge-base, but for solving problems as is the concern of
applied research.

When carrying out basic research, the investigator adopts one or more qualitative and
quantitative observation methods which includes case studies, experiments and observation.
These data collection methods help the researcher to gather the most valid and relevant
information for the research.
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2. Sharma SK. “Nursing Research & Statistics.” 4th ed. New Delhi: ELSEVIER Publishers;
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3. Basavanthappa BT. “Nursing Research and Statistics.” 3rd ed. New Delhi: JAYPEE
Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd; 2014. P. 50

4. Rentala Sreevani “BASICS IN NURSING RESEARCH AND BIOSTATISTICS.” first

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