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PERSONNEL TRAINING

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Compiled for ASNT by

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NDT Assistance

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

Published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711 Arlingate Lane
Columbus,OH 43228-0518

Copyright © 2006 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. All rights
reserved. ASNT is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information herein, and
published opinions or statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or
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IRRSP, Materials Evaluation®, NDT Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Handbook®,

The NDT Technician and <www.asnt.org> are trademarks of The American Society for
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ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of
nondestructive testing.

ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-153-5
ISBN-1O: 1-57117-153-3

Edited by Ann Spence

Printed in the United States of America

First printing August 2006

Second printing 08/08
Third printing 02/10
 Nondestructive Testing Training Program

Student Guide

I. Introduction to the Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide

The materials in this training package are designed to provide basic knowledge of the

fundamentals of magnetic particle testing. The training program that you are participating in

will contain the following classroom hours of instruction to present the information

suggested in the ASNT publication Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.

Level I training will include lectures on chapters 1 through 6, with an average of

approximately one hour per lesson. Level II training will include lectures on all 15 chapters

with an average of approximately one hour per lesson, with emphasis on chapters 7

through 15.

The student shall assume the responsibility for reading all assignments to include the

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book, additional reference materials

associated with the Student Guide, attend all lectures, and participate in classroom

discussions. Short exams will be administered after each lesson to provide the student with

an indicator of their progress and to stimulate study.

II. Contents of Training Package

Your training package will contain the following materials with specific instructions and

assignment to be given by the course instructor.

 1. Student Guide

A. Student Guide Introduction that will outline the purpose, content, and use of

training material.

B. Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book that will serve as the

major text for the training course.

C. Printed copy of the electronic lecture "Magnetic Particle Testing" consisting

of fifteen individual lessons on the fundamentals of magnetic particle testing.

The copy of the electronic lecture is identical to the presentation used by the

instructor during the lectures on each chapter. During the lecture the student

should use the Student Guide to make additional notes, and it will also be

valuable to study at a later date.

D. Quizzes. The instructor may elect to remove the quizzes from your packet

prior to starting the course and administer them as each lesson is completed. A

quiz will be furnished for each of the lessons in the training course.

2. Outline of Lessons and Related Reading Assignments

The reading assignments will be made by the instructor and will correlate with the lectures.

The Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book published by ASNT follows the

lessons/lectures in the training course in the following order.

Lesson 1 - Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing

Lesson 2 - Effects of Discontinuities on Materials

Lesson 3 - Magnetization

Lesson 4 - Principles of Demagnetization

Lesson 5 - Equipment

Lesson 6 - Discontinuities

Lesson 7 - Principles

Lesson 8 - Flux Fields

jj Personnel Training Puhlications
Lesson 9 - Magnetic Particles and Methods of Application

Lesson 10 - Magnetization by Means of Electric Current

Lesson 11 - Demagnetization

Lesson 12 - Equipment

Lesson 13 - Types of Discontinuities

Lesson 14 - Evaluation Techniques

Lesson 15 - Quality Control

III. Optional Reference Material

The following materials are available from ASNT and is suggested where the student wants

additional depth in the Magnetic Particle Testing Method.

1. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Volume 6. Magnetic Particle

Testing.

2. ASNT Level II Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing Method, second edition.

3. ASNT Level II! Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing Method, second edition.

4. Question & Answer Series: Supplement to Recommended Practice No.

SNT-TC-1A - Magnetic Particle Testing.

5. Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing by Carl Betz.

Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing iii

• Table of Contents

Nondestructive Testing Training Program: Student Guide j

Introduction to the Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide j
Contents of the Training Package j
Student Guide ji
Outline of Lessons and Related Assignments ji
Optional Reference Material jii
Table of Contents v

Lesson 1 - Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing 1

Introduction 1
Capabilities of Magnetic Particle Testing 1
Personnel Qualifications 1
Magnets and Magnetic Fields 2
Magnetic Fields 2
Law of Magnetism 3
Materials Influenced by Magnetic Fields 3
Characteristics of Magnetic Fields 3
Lesson 1 - Quiz 5

• Lesson 2 - Effects of Discontinuities on Materials 7

Surface Discontinuities .7
Scratches 7
Subsurface Discontinuities 7
Lesson 2 - Quiz 9

Lesson 3 - Magnetization 11
Circular Fields 11
Contact Plates 11
Prods 11
Discontinuity Detection 12
Longitudinal Field 12
Field Direction 12
Magnetization Methods 13
Test Materials 13
Wet Particles 13
Dry Particles 13
Longitudinal Magnetization 14
Field Strength 14
Lesson 3 - Quiz 17

Lesson 4 - Principles of Demagnetization 19

Introduction 19
Alternating Current Demagnetization 19

• Direct Current Demagnetization

Efficiency of Demagnetization
Reasons to Demagnetize
Lesson 4 - Quiz
19
20
20
23
v
 Lesson 5 - Equipment 25
Equipment Selection 25
Technical and Specification Requirements 25
Purpose of Test 25
Area Tested 26
Mobile Equipment 26
Stationary Equipment 26
Particles Used 27
Lesson 5 - Quiz 29

Lesson 6 - Discontinuities 31
Inherent Discontinuities 31
Processing Discontinuities 31
Inservice Discontinuities 32
Summary 32
Lesson 6 - Quiz 35

Lesson 7 - Principles 37
Theories 37
Techniques 38
Magnetic Field Theory 39
Magnetic Domains 39
Magnetic Poles .39
Magnetic Fields .40
Magnetized Ring .40
Bar Magnet 40
Effect of Materials on Electromagnetic Fields 040
Units of Measure for Magnetic Flux 040
Magnetic Hysteresis Al
Magnetic Permeability Al
Lesson 7 - Quiz 43

Lesson 8 - Flux Fields .45

Electric Current .45
Alternating Current .45
Direct Current .46
Half Wave Direct Current .46
Full Wave Direct Current .46
Three Phase Full Wave Direct Current '" .46
Lesson 8 - Quiz 49

Lesson 9 - Magnetic Particles and Methods of Application 51

Introduction 51
Current Level and Particle Application 51
Continuous Method 52
Dry Continuous Method 52
Wet Continuous Method 52
Residual Method 53
Field Direction 53
Magnetic Field Measurements 53
Circular Magnetization 54
Direct Contact 54
Central Conductor 54
Amperage ReqUirements 54
Sensitivity Level 54
Amperage 54
vi Personnel Training Publications
 ~~O~AAOOAA
""'""§f1,'1. f.~!!pe
Testing Media 55
Direct Contact Circular Magnetization 55
Coil Shot 55
Cable Wrap 55
Lesson 9 - Quiz 57

Lesson 10 - Magnetization by Means of Electric Current 61

Introduction 61
Circular Magnetization 61
Circular Magnetization of Solid Test Objects 61
Circular Magnetization with Prods 61
Circular Magnetization with Direct Contact Head 61
Circular Magnetization with Induced Current 62
Circular Magnetization of Hollow Test Objects 62
Longitudinal Magnetization 62
Coil Magnetization 62
Field Flow Magnetization 63
Yoke Magnetization 63
Combined Circular and Longitudinal Magnetization 63
Units of Measure and Terminology 63
Types of Magnetic Materials 64
Calculation of Magnetic Force Requirements 64
Prods 64
Yokes 64
Coils 65
Air Core Coil Longitudinal Magnetization 65
Fill Factor Coils 65
Interpretation of Indications 66
Relevant Indications 66
Nonrelevant Indications 66
False Indications 66
Lesson 10 - Quiz 69

Lesson 11 - Demagnetization 71
Purpose 71
Principles of Operation for Demagnetization 71
Reasons to Demagnetize 71
Justification for Demagnetizing 71
Reasons Not to Demagnetize 72
Demagnetization Methods 72
Heating Above Curie Point 72
Electromagnetic Demagnetization 72
Alternating Current Demagnetization 72
Direct Current Magnetization 72
Yoke Demagnetization 73
Demagnetization Practices 73
Lesson 11 - Quiz 75

Lesson 12 - Equipment 77
Stationary EqUipment 77
Portable Equipment 77
Dry Powder Test Equipment 77
Powder Selection 77
Powder Applications 77
Applicators 78
Wet Visible Test Equipment 78
Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing vii
 Particle Selection 78
Wet Fluorescent Method 78
Test Variables 78
Surface Preparation 79
Suspension Application 79
Water Problems 79
Suspension Preparation 79
Dry Powder Liquid Concentrate 79
Paste Concentrate 80
Water Baths 80
Fluorescent Background Check 80
Oil Based Media Contamination Check 80
Settling Test 80
Fluorescent Test Materials 80
Maintenance 80
Ultraviolet Radiation 81
Lesson 12 - Quiz 83

Lesson 13 - Types of Discontinuities 85

Inherent Discontinuities 85
Primary Processing Discontinuities 86
Secondary Processing Discontinuities 86
lnservice Discontinuities 87
Lesson 13 - Quiz 89

Lesson 14 - Evaluation Techniques 91

Reference Standards 91
System Evaluation 91
System Standardization 91
Parametric Evaluations 91
Technique Development 91
Reference Standards for System Evaluation 91
Standard Tool Steel Ring 92
Ring Standard Magnetic Fields 92
Limitations of the Ring Standard 92
Reference Standard Test Blocks 92
Electronic Reference Standards 93
Hall Effect Meters 93
Eddy Current Devices 93
Lesson 14 - Quiz 95

Lesson 15 - Quality Control 97

Introduction 97
New Materials 97
In-Use Materials 97
Material Contamination 97
Material Control Requirements 98
Use of Settling Test 98
Ultraviolet Radiation and Facilities 98
Ultraviolet Radiation Intensity Requirements 98
Ambient Light Measurements 98
Variables 98
Line Voltage Variations 98
Service and Aging Variations 99
Ultraviolet Lamp Hazards 99
Proper Procedure 99
viii Personnel Training Publications
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""'""§f1,'1. f.~!!pe
Variation in Technique 99
Selection of Current 100
Current Application Choices 100
Selection of Media 100
Selection of Technique 100
Field Orientation 101
Head Shot 101
Central Conductor 101
Longitudinal Field 101
Sensitivity Requirements 102
Lesson 15 - Quiz 1OS

Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing ix

 Lesson 1

Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing

INTRODUCTION

Magnetic particle testing is:

1. Cost effective.

2. Simple.

3. Fast.

4. The most reliable nondestructive testing method for detecting surface and near

surface discontinuities.

5. Able to detect discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials that are not open to the

surface.

6. An easier method in terms of cleaning than liquid penetrant testing.

CAPABILITIES OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

1. Will detect discontinuities through smeared metal.

2. The discontinuity does not have to be completely dry.

3. Discontinuities disrupt the magnetic flux field and small magnetic particles will

form a visual indication of the discontinuity.

Personnel Qualifications

1. ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.

2. ANSl/ASNTCP-189.

3. NAS 410.

1
 4. Each company performing nondestructive testing must have their own written

practice describing their training and certification requirements.

MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

1. Permanent magnets.

2. Directly induced by current flow.

a. Head shot.

b. Prods.

3. Indirectly induced with no electrical contact.

a. Central conductor.

b. Coil.

c. Yoke.

d. Wrapped Cables.

Magnetic Fields

1. Permanent magnets and longitudinally magnetized test objects have a north and

south pole.

2. Opposite poles attract each other.

3. Like poles repel each other.

4. Direct electrical contact creates a circular field.

5. A central conductor creates a circular field with no electrical contact.

6. A coil, yoke or wrapped cables create a longitudinal field with no electrical

contact.

7. A discontinuity will interfere with the magnetic field and form north and south

poles which will attract small magnetic particles applied.

2 Personnel Training Publications

 LAW OF MAGNETISM

1. Magnetic particle testing will not work on paramagnetic/diamagnetic materials.

2. Magnetic particle testing only works on ferromagnetic materials that are strongly

attracted to a magnet.

Materials Influenced by Magnetic Fields

1. Ferromagnetic are strongly attracted. (Commonly tested with magnetic particle

testing.)

2. Paramagnetic are weakly attracted materials. (Not tested with magnetic particle

testing.)

3. Diamagnetic are weakly repelled. (Not tested with magnetic particle testing.)

4. Nonferromagnetic are not attracted or repelled. (Not tested with magnetic particle

testing.)

CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

1. Magnetic lines of force are strongest and most dense at the poles.

2. Magnetic lines of force always seek the shortest path of least resistance which is

through metal.

3. Magnetic lines of force never cross each other.

4. Magnetic lines of force are called magnetic flux.

5. Magnetic lines of force only enter or leave the poles of a magnet.

6. A circular magnet with no irregularities has no poles.

7. Magnetic poles will attract magnetic particles.

Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing 3

Notes
•

•
• Lesson 1

Quiz

1. Magnetic particle testing will detect 5. Magnetic particle testing can be used on

discontinuities in: nonmagnetic materials.

a. Conductors of electricity. a. True

b. Ferromagnetic materials. b. False

c. Paramagnetic materials.
6. Ferromagnetic material is:
d. Diamagnetic materials.
a. Strongly attracted by a magnet.

2. Magnetic particle testing can be used to b. Capable of being magnetized.

reveal surface discontinuities. c. Both a and b.

•
a. True d. Not capable of being magnetized.

b. False
7. Nonferromagnetic materials are strongly

3. A magnetic field exists within and attracted to magnetic fields.

around a permanent magnet. a. True

a. True b. False

b. False
8. A material is easily magnetized if it is:

4. Some discontinuities too small to be a. Paramagnetic.

seen without magnification can be seen b. Diamagnetic.

with the unaided eye during magnetic c. Ferromagnetic.

particle testing. d. Nonferromagnetic.

a. True
9. Diamagnetic materials are weakly
b. False
repelled by a magnetic field .

• a.

b.
True

False
5
 10. Magnetic lines of force (magnetic flux):

a. Never cross each other.

b. Are most dense at the poles.

c. Will travel in the path of least

resistance.

d. All of the above.

11. Magnetic particle testing is often used

on paramagnetic materials.

a. True

b. False

12. Horseshoe magnets have north and

south poles.

a. True

b. False

13. A uniform circular test object with a

strong internal magnetic field will have

strong, easily detected external north

and south poles.

a. True

b. False

14. The shape of a magnet always dictates

where the poles are located.

a. True

b. False

6 Personnel Trainin{? Publications

 Lesson 2

Effects of Discontinuities on Materials

SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES

1. If linear and 90° from the magnetic field direction, discontinuities will form poles

and a leakage field that will attract magnetic particles and form a visible

indication.

2. Surface discontinuity indications are sharp and well defined.

SCRATCHES

Scratches sometimes attract particles in a very strong field, and the field strength may have

to be reduced to verify there is no deeper discontinuity present.

SUBSURFACE DISCONTINUITIES

I. Subsurface discontinuities are broad and fuzzy and more easily blown or rinsed

away than a deep surface indication.

2. Subsurface discontinuities are more difficult to detect unless larger than 0.15 cm

(0.06 in.) and especially if over 0.15 cm (0.06 in.) deep when direct current must

be used.

7
Notes
 Lesson 2

Quiz

1. Surface discontinuities that disrupt the 4. Wet fluorescent techniques will produce

flow of magnetic flux lines will attract indications that are easiest to see.

magnetic particles and form a broad and a. True

fuzzy indication. b. False

a. True
5. The size, orientation and composition of
b. False
subsurface discontinuities does not

2. Cracks exhibit metal grain plastic affect evaluation capabilities.

tearing that lowers the ability of this a. True

discontinuity to repeatably attract b. False

magnetic particles in a uniform manner

for a given crack size.

a. True

b. False

3. Magnetic particle testing uses induced

alternating field techniques as the

primary method to test ferromagnetic

objects.

a. True

b. False

9
 Lesson 3

Magnetization

CIRCULAR FIELDS

1. Through direct magnetization, circular fields are created when current is passed

through a test object (head shot or prods), but these techniques can cause arc

burns.

2. Through indirect magnetization, circular fields are created when a central

conductor or other indirect induction is used (no damage possible from arc burns).

3. The magnetic field direction is always 90 0 from the current flow unless distorted

due to the test object shape or the interaction from the two fields created.

Contact Plates

Stationary unit direct contact copper pads for contact head shot must be clean, with no

fraying and a firm contact maintained to prevent burning or arcing.

Prods

1. Prods must have clean and firm contact.

2. Daily maintenance of contacts should be done.

3. Prods are not used much because of the danger of arc burns.

4. Heavy bulky equipment with few advantages over the yoke method for surface

discontinuities.

11
 Discontinuity Detection

A discontinuity that is 45 to 90° from the magnetic field direction will disrupt the magnetic

field and will create new poles. These poles will attract small particles and form an

indication if an adequate magnetic field is used for testing.

Longitudinal Field

1. Formed with a coil or solenoid, usually five turns.

2. Wrapped cables using three to seven wraps.

3. Yoke.

4. Transverse discontinuities will be detected if the proper magnetizing force is used

and verified.

5. The magnetic field strength is increased with increased amperage.

6. The magnetic field strength increases with the number of turns in the coil or

number of wraps around the test object.

Field Direction

1. The field direction is 90° from current flow for direct current flow through the test

object.

2. The field direction is 90° from the current flow through wrapped cables of a

solenoid.

3. Odd shaped test objects will have distorted field direction that require verification

of proper field strength and direction in certain locations.

12 Personnel Training Publications

 MAGNETIZATION METHODS

The following determines the test parameters to be followed by the technique supplied to the

Level I or Level II technician.

1. The service intended for the test object, and what discontinuities are acceptable for

that service.

2. The sequence of operations including field strength and direction verification and

demagnetization requirements.

3. The method to be used, including current type, direction, required field strength

and direction.

4. Alloy and shape.

S. Type of current required.

TEST MATERIALS

Wet Particles

Suspended in an oil or water carrier controlled for wettability, corrosion and anti-foaming.

Dry Particles

1. Come in various colors for contrast and different sizes and shapes to form

indications better.

2. The method and type of particles, application will be in the work instruction.

Student Guide: Maf;netic Particle Testing 13

 1.

2.
LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION

Longitudinal fields are created with wrapped cables or a coil.

Field direction will always be 90° to current flow, except for distorted fields in odd
•
shaped test objects.

Field Strength

1. Field strength will always be maximum at the surface of test objects, and also

maximum at the surface closest to the conductor that induced the field.

2. Discontinuities formed by longitudinal fields will be transverse to the test object

length.

14 Personnel Training Publications

•
• Notes

•
Notes
 Lesson 3

Quiz

]. A circular magnetic field is created in a 5. Where current flows through the test

test object when current is passed object, magnetization is said to be

through the test object. circular.

a. True a. True

b. False b. False

2. Prod magnetization is most effective 6. Magnetic field density remains the same

when the prods are spaced 2.5 to 5 cm regardless of the size or shape of the

(l to 2 in.) a test object. test object.

a. True a. True

b. False b. False

3. The skin effect is when the 7. The right hand rule demonstrates that

magnetization current frequency the magnetic field direction is parallel

decreases while the depth of penetration to the current direction.

Increases. a. True

a. True b. False

b. False
8. The magnetic field created by a head

4. A central conductor induces indirect shot or central conductor is uniform for

magnetization and creates a circular the entire length of the test object.

magnetic field. a. True

a. True b. False

b. False

17
 9. Discontinuities such as surface breaking 15. Wrapping several turns of cable around

irregularities are commonly discovered a test object or placing a test object

by circular fields. inside a coil creates a longitudinal

a. True magnetic field.

b. False a. True

b. False
10. Prods are often used to test welds.

a. True 16. A coil is a nonmagnetic conductor.

b. False a. True

b. False
11. Coils can accommodate test objects of

multiple shapes.

a. True

b. False

12. The field in a current carrying coil is the

force needed to successfully

demagnetize a test object within the

coil.

a. True

b. False

13. A yoke is a temporary horseshoe

magnet.

a. True

b. False

14. The magnetic field produced by a yoke

lies entirely within the test object.

a. True

b. False
18 Personnel Training Publications
 Lesson 4

Principles of Demagnetization

INTRODUCTION

1. Ferrous materials usually retain some residual magnetic field after the magnetizing

current is removed.

2. Hard, alloy or high carbon steels usually have a higher residual field.

ALTERNATING CURRENT DEMAGNETIZATION

A simple and fast process uses an alternating coil to reduce residual magnetism to ideally

zero but less than 2 or 3 G by remagnetizing a test object. Then the technician reduces the

field strength to zero by increasing the distance from the energized alternating current in the

coil, which is usually a 10 s process.

DIRECT CURRENT DEMAGNETIZATION

1. Some stationary bench units have a reversing step down demagnetizing coil

which, theoretically, will demagnetize deeper fields induced with direct current

better than the alternating current coils.

2. With either alternating current or direct current, the initial magnetic field strength

in the coil must first initially be stronger than the residual field present.

3. The demagnetizing force must reverse which is normal for alternating current coils

and controlled by circuits for direct current coils.

4. The demagnetizing force must be reduced, usually by distance from the alternating

current coil and an amperage step down circuit for direct current.

19
 5. Demagnetization may be aided by vibrations or by striking with a hammer during

current reversal and step down.

6. Residual field strength is measured with a pocket size field indicator that measures

low field strength (0 to 10 G).

Efficiency of Demagnetization

1. Demagnetization can only be measured accurately if the last field induced was a

longitudinal field.

2. It is very difficult to measure or detect if a round test object has a residual circular

field.

3. The requirements for demagnetization will be specified in the specification,

technique sheet, procedure or work order.

Reasons to Demagnetize

1. Difficulty in postcleaning.

2. Interference with welding due to arc blow.

3. Causes chips to cling to the test object during machining.

4. Inservice is in a moving test object. Particles attracted to the field can cause wear.

5. Interference with nearby instruments that work on magnetic principles.

6. Difficulty if the test object needs to be magnetized in a different direction at a

lower magnetization force.

7. Demagnetization is usually not required for assemblies of low carbon steel with

low retentivity, if the material is heat treated above its curie temperature or

magnetized in another direction at the same or higher amperage.

20 Personnel Training Publications

Notes
Notes
 Lesson 4

Quiz

1. Residual magnetism is the magnetic 5. Demagnetization is usually not required

field strength retained by the material or necessary if the test object is to be

after the magnetizing current is turned heat treated above its curie point after

off. the magnetic particle test.

a. True a. True

b. False b. False

2. Direct current demagnetization is 6. Requirements for demagnetization are

usually more effective than alternating normally stated in the specification or

current demagnetization. work instruction.

a. True a. True

b. False b. False

3. Ferrous materials do not retain residual

magnetism after the magnetizing current

is shut off.

a. True

b. False

4. A direct current coil is the most

common and convenient method of

demagnetizing a test object.

a. True

b. False

23
 Lesson 5

Equipment

EQUIPMENT SELECTION

Considerations include the cost versus the purpose of the test.

Technical and Specification Requirements

1. Wet or dry method.

2. Automation or manual.

3. Demagnetization requirements.

4. Solution capacity for wet methods.

5. Electricity, air and water supply requirements.

6. Accessories required.

7. Indication, recording and reporting requirement.

8. Technician training and certification requirements.

9. Mobile or stationary equipment.

Purpose of Test

1. Verify construction and service expectations were correct.

2. The equipment used will be specified in the work instruction for a Level I or II.

3. If the test is required by a national standard a specification, procedure or

technique, approval by a Level III may be required for the technician to follow.

25
 Area Tested

1. The area tested will be in accordance with customer and contract requirements, and

a Level III approved written instruction wi11 normally be provided for the Level I

or Level II technician.

2. Level I personnel may operate equipment with direct supervision of a Level II

or Level III personnel.

MOBILE EQUIPMENT

1. Mobile equipment can be moved around a shop and usual1y moved in a truck.

2. Provides about 3000 to 4000 A, and can be a power supply for prods or

wrapped cables.

3. The power supply is usually 220 or 440 V and may provide either alternating or

direct magnetizing current.

STATIONARY EQUIPMENT

I. Stationary horizontal wet units have two adjustable contact heads that can be used

for direct magnetization (head shots), or central conductor indirect magnetization

and a coil (which is normally five turns of cable).

2. The unit has a tank, pump and agitation and circulation system for the wet solution

used for testing, and a nozzle for wetting the test object.

3. The unit has amperage controls, current timers, an air or hydraulic cylinder for

clamping test objects, and usually supplied with three phase 220 or 440 V. It may

provide either low voltage alternating or direct current at high current for

magnetization.

26 Personnel Training Publications

 PARTICLES USED

]. The particles must have high permeability to be strongly attracted to magnetic

leakage fields, have a low residual field and must be tested for standard

performance prior to use.

2. Dry powder or suspended in a liquid.

3. Visible or fluorescent.

4. Visible comes in various colors for contrast.

Sfudenl Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing 27

Notes
•

•
•
Lesson 5

Quiz

1. Equipment may be portable or 5. Stationary testing equipment is usually

stationary. fixed, and usually requires 220 or 440 V

a. True power supply.

b. False a. True

b. False
2. Level I personnel may accept or reject

test objects. 6. Magnetic particles may be in the form

a. True of a dry powder, or they may be

b. False suspended in a liquid carrier.

•
a. True
3. Under the direction of Level II or Level
b. False
III personnel, Level I personnel may

operate magnetic particle test 7. The magnetic particles should have a

equipment. high residual field.

a. True a. True

b. False b. False

4. Mobile equipment may be rolled around

a shop to various work stations, and

usually requires 220 or 440 V power

supply.

a. True

b. False

• 29
 Lesson 6

Discontinuities

INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES

Inherent discontinuities are formed during the initial melting and solidification process.

1. Ingot pipe is caused by shrinkage at the top of the ingot.

2. Ingot crack can form anytime during solidification or cooling metal.

3. Nonmetallic inclusions are slag pickets, alloy, segregation or foreign material.

4. Blowholes are caused by gas pockets escaping the molten metal. Blowholes in

casting may be caused when moisture in the mold flashing turns into steam and

blowing into the molten metal occurs.

PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES

Additional processing can cause discontinuities or change the shape of inherent

discontinuities.

1. Seams are in rolled bar.

2. Laminations are in rolled plate.

3. Cupping is in cold drawn material.

4. Cooling cracks are caused during cooling.

5. Forging flakes are caused by cooling and hydrogen embrittlement.

6. Forging bursts are caused by improper forging temperatures.

7. Forging laps are caused by metal folded over during forging.

8. Forging flash line tears are caused by improper trimming or stress build-up.

9. Casting cold shuts are caused by molten metal flowing together but not fusing

together.

10. Casting hot tears and shrinkage are caused by unequal cooling and stress build-up.
31
 11. Weld lack of fusion and lack of penetration are caused by improper weld joint

preparation or welder technique.

12. Weld heat affected zone cracks can be caused by improper preheat, heat input

during welding, post weld cooling or incorrect filler material.

13. Weld crater cracks are caused by improper technique for stopping the weld.

14. Machine grinding cracks are caused by overheating.

15. Machine tears are caused by dull tools or excessive depth of cut.

16. Cracks can be caused by a multitude of reasons at any stage during manufacturing

including residual stress, improper heating and cooling or improper hydrogen

control.

INSERVICE DISCONTINUITIES

1. The most common inservice discontinuities are fatigue cracks and corrosion.

2. Cracks are usually at or near the surface and propagate longer and deeper. They

may also start as internal cracks and propagate longer and toward the surface.

3. Cracks can happen as a single cycle fatigue crack or from multiple cycles.

SUMMARY

1. Magnetic particle testing is used to detect surface and some slightly subsurface

discontinuities as early in the manufacturing process as possible.

2. Some specifications require half wave or full wave rectified current for

manufacturing tests. Alternating current may be used for inservice tests.

32 Personnel Training Publications

Notes
Notes
 Lesson 6

Quiz

1. There are two discontinuities categories: 6. Inservice cracking may result in

inherent and processing. cracking and corrosion.

a. True a. True

b. False b. False

2. Inherent discontinuities include ingot

pipe, ingot cracks, nonmetallic

inclusions and blowholes.

a. True

b. False

3. Seams in bar stock and laminations in

plate are inservice discontinuities.

a. True

b. False

4. Forging bursts and laps are processing

discontinuities.

a. True

b. False

5. Cold shuts, hot tears, and shrinkage are

common casting discontinuities.

a. True

b. False

35
 Lesson 7

Principles

THEORIES

1. Magnetic particle testing will reveal surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities

in ferromagnetic materials.

2. Other nondestructive testing methods, usually liquid penetrant or eddy current

testing, must be used to test materials not strongly attracted to a magnet.

3. Magnetic particle testing may be used for raw material, in-process during

manufacturing to prevent further manufacturing expense for test objects containing

discontinuities, and to repair internal discontinuities such as cracks at the root of a

weld.

4. Final product testing is used on the final test objects to prevent test objects with

discontinuities from entering service.

5. Maintenance tests are used for inservice discontinuities that may have been

formed by overloading or fatigue cycles.

6. Magnetic particle testing is based on the principle that magnetic flux lines will be

disrupted by a discontinuity, and this distortion will cause some of the magnetic

flux lines to exit and reenter the test object forming poles at the discontinuity. This

is called magnetic flux leakage and will attract fine magnetic particles that form an

indication outline of the discontinuity.

The magnetic particle test consists of six basic operations.

1. Clean the surface to be tested.

2. Establish a suitable magnetic flux in two directions at 90° in the test object axis.

3. Apply magnetic particles in either a dry powder or a liquid suspension.

37
 4. Test the object for discontinuities under suitable lighting conditions.

5. Interpret and evaluate the test indications.

6. Demagnetize, if necessary.

TECHNIQUES

Level II technicians will be provided with a standard written procedure or technique for each

particular magnetic particle test. The technique will depend on the following factors.

1. Specification and contract requirements.

2. Type of discontinuity.

3. The material type, shape and size.

4. The magnetic particle testing equipment available.

5. The type and amount of electric current to be used for magnetization. Alternating

current has several advantages for surface and very near (less than 0.15 cm

[0.06 in.]) surface discontinuities. The rapid current reversal and skin effect

provides better particle mobility to the discontinuity flux leakage site. This is less

pronounced in the wet method because particles may be rinsed away by the liquid

flow.

6. The direction of the current flow and the resulting magnetic field direction

obtained using these currents.

7. The kind of magnetic particles to be used.

8. How the testing media is applied.

38 Personnel Training Publications

 MAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

Magnetic Domains

I. Materials that can be magnetized have submicroscopic regions called magnetic

domains that will have positive and negative polarity at opposite ends if

magnetized.

2. If a material is not magnetized, the magnetic domains are randomly aligned.

3. When the material is subjected to an indirectly induced magnetic external magnetic

field or if current is passed directly through the test object the magnetic domains

align themselves and form a north and south pole in the test object.

Magnetic Poles

Magnets will have two or more opposite polarity poles, calJed north and south poles. These

poles are where the magnetic lines of force leave or enter the magnet. These lines of force

have the following important properties.

I. They form continuous loops that are never broken.

2. They never cross one another.

3. Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles.

4. They seek the path of least magnetic resistance or reluctance in completing their

loop which is the shortest distance through metal.

5. If a bar magnet is broken or cracked new magnetic poles are formed. Unlike poles

attract and like poles repel each other.

5IUdent Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing 39

 Magnetic Fields

1. Magnets or magnetized test objects only attract ferromagnetic materials at their

poles or flux leakage sites such as discontinuities.

•
2. Magnetic lines of force prefer to travel through magnetic material rather than air.

Magnetized Ring

1. There will be no poles to attract magnetic particles if a uniform ring contains a

circular magnetic field.

2. A crack 90° from the magnetic field direction will create poles and an external flux

leakage field that will attract magnetic particles and form an indication.

Bar Magnet

1.

2.
If a horseshoe magnet is straightened to a bar magnet, it illustrates a longitudinally

magnetized bar.

A transverse machined notch or crack in a longitudinally magnetized bar will cause

•
new poles with a flux leakage field that will attract particles.

EFFECT OF MATERIALS ON ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Materials with high permeability (soft or low carbon steel) will have a stronger magnetic

field strength at a given magnetizing force than material with lower permeability (high

carbon or hard material).

Units of Measure for Magnetic Flux

Magnetic flux density is the number of lines passing transversely through a unit area (gauss) .

40 Personnel Training Publications

•
 Magnetic Hysteresis

• A magnetic hysteresis loop or curve is a graph that plots magnetizing force and magnetic

field strength.

Magnetic Permeability

1. Permeability is how easily a material can be magnetized. More specifically, it the

ratio between the flux density and the magnetizing force.

2. Magnetic properties and hysteresis loops vary between materials, material

conditions, shape, chemical composition, microstructure and grain size .

• Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing 41

Notes
 Lesson 7

Quiz

1. A magnetic flux leakage field can be 4. A test object must be strongly attracted

caused by magnetic lines of force leaving to a magnet for magnetic particle testing

or entering a test object where their path to detect discontinuities.

is blocked or disrupted by a a. True

discontinuity. b. False

a. True
5. Lines of force form continuous loops
b. False
that are never broken.

2. Magnetic particle testing can be used to a. True

test: b. False

a. Starting material before it is used

6. Materials with low permeability will
for parts.
have a stronger magnetic field.
b. Finished test objects before they go
a. True
into service.
b. False
c. Periodic maintenance tests.

d. All of the above. 7. Magnetic lines of force form continuous

loops, never cross each other, density

3. Magnetizable objects are classified as
decreases with increasing distance from
nonferromagnetic.
the poles, and they seek the path of
a. True
least resistance.
b. False
a. True

b. False

43
 8. A magnetic field is made up of flux

lines within and around a magnetized

object.

a. True

b. False

9. A uniform circular ring that contains a

circular magnetic field will:

a. Have easily detected north and

south poles.

b. Have one strong pole.

c. Have no external poles.

10. The relationship between magnetic field

strength and flux density is linear for

ferromagnetic materials.

a. True

b. False

11. Permeability is the ease with which a

material can be magnetized.

a. True

b. False

12. A hysteresis curve is a graph that plots

magnetizing force and magnetic field

strength.

a. True

b. False

44 Personnel Training Publications

 Lesson 8

Flux Fields

ELECTRIC CURRENT

Three types of current used for magnetic particle testing.

1. Alternating current.

2. Full wave direct current.

3. Half wave direct current.

Alternating Current

1. Is best for surface and very near surface discontinuities, and full or half wave

direct current is used for deeper subsurface discontinuities.

2. Is readily commercially available and relatively inexpensive to transform to low

voltage, high amperage magnetizing current and rectify to half wave and full wave

direct current.

3. Standard United States alternating current alternates at cycles 60 times per second

or 60 Hz. (One cycle is 1 Hz.)

4. Alternating current is recommended for detection of surface discontinuities, which

comprise the majority of service induced discontinuities. Small subsurface

discontinuities greater than 0.3 cm (0.125 in.) deep are difficult or impossible to

detect and are usually found with ultrasonic or radiographic testing.

45
 Direct Current

1. Pure direct current is only obtained from batteries or generators and is seldom

used.
•
2. Half wave and full wave direct current will penetrate deeper in the test object than

alternating current.

Half Wave Direct Current

1. Half wave rectifiers block the negative current flow and creates a pulsing current.

2. Provides the greatest sensitivity for detecting discontinuities that are below the

surface.

Full Wave Direct Current

•
Full wave rectifiers block the negative current flow and inverts it so the number of positive

pulses is doubled.

Three Phase Full Wave Direct Current

Commercial electric power can be provided as three phase alternating current, with each

phase providing part of the total current. All three phases are inverted and rectified to

produce the desired current, but the current draw and electric bill may be reduced by nearly

half.

46 Personnel Training Publications

•
• Notes

•
Notes
 Lesson 8

Quiz

1. The standard available current in the 5. The three most common types of

United States is 60 cycles per second, electric current used for magnetic

which is: particle testing are alternating current,

a. 60 kHz. direct current, and full wave rectified

b. 60 ohms. current.

c. 60 Hz. a. True

d. 60 cy. b. False

2. Pure direct current is obtained from 6. Alternating current is the preferred

batteries or generators. current for detecting subsurface

a. True discontinuities.

b. False a. True

b. False
3. Rectified alternating current is

sometimes referred to as direct current 7. Half wave direct current has the greatest

in magnetic particle testing. sensitivity for detecting subsurface

a. True discontinuities.

b. False a. True

b. False
4. A half wave rectifier:

a. Reverses the current flow. 8. Three-phase full wave direct current has

b. Reverses half the current flow. all the advantages of single-phase full

c. Allows current to flow only in wave current.

one direction. a. True

d. Changes the amperage in a circuit. b. False

49
 Lesson 9

Magnetic Particles and Methods of Application

INTRODUCTION

1. Particles used are a combination of iron and iron oxide with high permeability and

low retentivity so strongly attracted to discontinuity magnetic leakage fields but

not attracted to surrounding base material.

2. Particles are small (0.0005 to 0.015 cm or 0.0002 to 0.006 in.), and some are round

or sliver shaped to promote attraction and mobility.

3. Particles may be applied dry or in a wet media and with various high contrast with

the test object surface. The wet media can be spray can mixes, or oil or water

suspensions. Water requires wetting and anti-corrosive additives, and both must be

monitored for particle concentration.

4. Particles may be used with visible light and various colors or fluorescent that give

better contrast with the dark backgrounds in ultraviolet testing areas.

5. Particles may be applied by hand applicators, semi or fully automated systems.

Indications are more readily seen if the application is very light to eliminate

confusing background.

Current Level and Particle Application

1. There are two methods of processing: continuous and residual. Normally the

continuous method is required by specification, and the residual is used for

interpretation of indications.

2. The dry powder application should be very light while the current is applied so

that indications wiJI be seen.

51
 3. The wet solution should be applied and the flow diverted at the instant the current

is applied so that the indications are not rinsed away.

4. The test object should be positioned so gravity flow of the liquid during the current

application will form indications.

5. The current is normally applied in 0.5 to I s increments with at least two current

shots.

6. Some indications are slower to form, but usually 5 to 30 s is adequate for special

techniques.

CONTINUOUS METHOD

1. The continuous method is usually required because it is the most sensitive. Usually

field strength of greater than 30 G is easily obtained.

2. The timing of the diversion of flow and current application is critical for the wet

continuous method. The test object is wetted so the liquid is draining and the flow

is diverted at the instant the current is applied, and then another shot of current is

applied to attract more particles.

Dry Continuous Method

The dry continuous method requires the current to remain on while the dry powder is lightly

applied to the test area. Excess powder is gently blown off when the current is applied.

Wet Continuous Method

A common, standard wet continuous method requires that the test object is wetted with

solution, the flow diverted, two shots of proper magnetizing current (0.5 s each) are applied

in rapid succession, and indications are evaluated by looking at the residually held indication

or by remagnetizing the area.

52 Personnel Training Publications

 RESIDUAL METHOD

1. The residual method may sometimes be allowed for test objects with high

retentivity.

2. The residual method is also always used during testing of hard to see areas, such

as when using a central conductor.

3. Test objects should not be allowed to rub against each other when magnetized

because of nonrelevant magnetic writing indications.

4. The residual method (wet or dry) will not have the sensitivity for small

discontinuities as the continuous method.

Field Direction

1. Discontinuities located in the direction of current flow have the highest probability

of detection.

2. Discontinuities perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force have the highest

probabi I ity of detection.

3. It is critical to establish a magnetic field in two 90° directions in all areas of the

test objects, and to use the proper current to detect discontinuities.

Magnetic Field Measurements

1. The calculation and measurement of magnetic field strength is complicated, and

for this reason a technique is normally not approved until an actual test object or a

mock-up of the test object is manufactured.

2. Magnetic field measurements and direction verification require a combination of

the pie gage, system verification with the tool steel ring, and certain other

manufactured notched shims or blocks.

Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing 53

 CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION

Circular magnetic fields are used to detect suspected discontinuities that are perpendicular to

the circular magnetic field direction.

Direct Contact

A head shot, prods or other means of passing current through a test object will create a

circular field, but there is a danger of arc strikes or burns where the current contact is made.

Central Conductor

A central conductor will produce a circular field with no danger of burning or ruining the test

object.

Amperage Requirements

1. Amperage requirements will be specified in the written procedure or technique

sheet, verified with a pie gage, shims or artificial block, or measured with a Hall

effect gauss meter or a combination of these.

2. A rule of thumb for an amperage starting point is 300 to 800 A/in. of test object

diameter with 1000 A/in. usually giving saturation.

SENSITIVITY LEVEL

Amperage

Higher amperage gives better sensitivity, so use as high an amperage as possible without

getting nonrelevant indications or a confusing background.

54 Personnel Training Publications

Testing Media

The proper preparation, maintenance and application technique of the media is critical to

obtain good sensitivity.

Direct Contact Circular Magnetization

1. A rule of thumb for an amperage starting point is 300 to 800 A/in. of test object

outside diameter, with 1000 Alin. usually giving saturation.

2. Test objects will require rotation to obtain 100% testing and magnetization in

2 to 90° directions, usually using both circular and longitudinal magnetic fields or

a specially developed technique.

Coil Shot

Placing a test object inside a coil is the usual way to longitudinally magnetize the test object.

The effective field will only allow testing for a distance of about 15 to 23 cm (6 to 9 in.) on

either side of the coil.

Cable Wrap

Flexible insulated copper cable can be wrapped around a test object using three to seven

turns, and connected to a mobile or portable magnetic particle unit to induce a longitudinal

field.

Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing ss

Notes
 Lesson 9

Quiz

1. Magnetic particles should have: 4. When viewed under ultraviolet

a. High permeability and low radiation, fluorescent magnetic particles

retentivity. are much easier to see because of the

b. Low permeability and high brightness against the dark backgrounds

retentivity. in the ultraviolet testing areas.

c. High permeability and high a. True

retentivity. b. False

d. Low coercive force and high

5. Most specifications require the residual
residual.
method, which is more sensitive than

2. Magnetic particle formulations contain the continuous method.

a range of sizes and shapes from round a. True

to sliver shape to increase mobility and b. False

sensitivity.
6. Lower amperage gives better sensitivity.
a. True
a. True
b. False
b. False

3. Magnetic particles are available in dry

7. A central conductor will produce a
power or in wet solutions in either
circular field with no danger of burning
water or oil.
or ruining the test object.
a. True
a. True
b. False
b. False

57
 8. After the solution is applied to the test 12. Magnetic flux or field strength may be

object during the wet continuous verified with a Hall effect gauss meter,

method, the current is normally only a pie gage or an artificial discontinuity

required to be on for: similar to the discontinuity typically

a. 0.5 s. encountered.

b. 2 s. a. True

c. During the entire test. b. False

d. Solution is applied after the current

13. A circular magnetic field is generated in
is turned off.
a test object whenever current is passed

9. The residual method is useful during through the test object or current is

interpretation of indications but may not passed through a conductor passing

detect small discontinuities. through a test object.

a. True a. True

b. False b. False

10. For maximum detection, a discontinuity 14. A longitudinal field is generated in a

should be at a right angle to the test object by placing it in a coil, or by

magnetic lines of force. wrapping cables (three to seven turns)

a. True around a test object.

b. False a. True

b. False
11. The magnetic field direction for circular

magnetization is: 15. Satisfactory amperage for circular direct

a. Parallel to the current flow. magnetization may be as high as

b. Perpendicular to the current 1000 A/in. of diameter.

flow. a. True

b. False

58 Personnel Training Publications

16. Placing a test object inside a coil will

longitudinally magnetize the test object.

a. True

b. False

17. When using a coil, the test object may

be laid on the bottom side inside the

coil where the field is strongest.

a. True

b. False

18. Coil inductance is the ratio of the total

flux and the current.

a. True

b. False

Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing S9

 Lesson 10

Magnetization by Means of Electric Current

INTRODUCTION

Electric current is used to directly or indirectly create a magnetic field in two 90° directions

in a test object to detect discontinuities occurring in any direction.

CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION

1. A current passing through a wire or bar creates a circular magnetic field in and

around the bar at a right angle to the direction of current flow.

2. Discontinuities are detected best when they are 90° to the magnetic field direction.

Circular Magnetization of Solid Test Objects

May be direct magnetization by use of prod or contact plate head shot, or indirect

magnetization by use of a central conductor.

Circular Magnetization with Prods

1. Danger of arc burns.

2. Normally only used if large, subsurface discontinuities are a concern.

Circular Magnetization with Direct Contact Head

1. Danger of arc bums.

2. Indirect techniques are used when possible on finished machined test objects.

3. Test objects often require two or more contact (head) shots to get 100% circular

testing.

61
 Circular Magnetization with Induced Current

Special techniques and equipment can be used to induce current that creates circular

magnetic fields.

Circular Magnetization of Hollow Test Objects

1. A central conductor through a hollow test object or a hole in the test object will

create a circular field with no danger of arc burns.

2. Special techniques may be written and approved by a Level III to use cables

running through large test objects.

LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION

1. A current passing through a coil or cables wrapped around a test object will induce

a longitudinal magnetic field.

2. There is no danger of arc burns.

COIL MAGNETIZATION

1. Most coils are five turns of cable.

2. When a ferromagnetic test object is placed inside a coil, a longitudinal field is

induced and will detect transverse discontinuities (90 0 to the magnetic field

direction).

3. To induce a uniform longitudinal field the length of the test object must be at least

twice (or ideally three times) the diameter.

4. For round or odd shaped test objects that don't have this length-to-diameter ratio, a

special technique will have to be prepared and approved by a Level III.

62 Personnel Traininl? Publications

 FIELD FLOW MAGNETIZATION

1. Special equipment and qualified techniques may use the magnetic flow technique

that puts the test object as a part of the electromagnetic circuit.

2. A reference standard containing known artificial discontinuities should be placed at

the center and ends of the test object to verify adequate field strength along its

entire length.

YOKE MAGNETIZATION

I. Hand-held portable yokes can be used to induce a longitudinal field in a test object

or weld.

2. Yokes are required to have specified lifting force and tested with dead weight

checks.

3. When used for odd shaped test objects, a pie gage or other magnetic penetrameter

should be used to verify field direction and strength.

Combined Circular and Longitudinal Magnetization

It is essential and critical that test objects are magnetized in two 90° directions in order to

detect discontinuities in any direction.

U nits of Measure and Terminology

Each magnetic particle testing procedure and technique must specify which units of

measurement are to be used and how the measurement is accomplished.

Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing 63

 TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

1. Diamagnetic materials have permeability slightly less than that of a vacuum and

may be slightly repelled by a magnet.

2. Paramagnetic materials have permeability slightly greater than air and may be

slightly attracted to a magnet.

3. Ferromagnetic materials have permeability much greater than air and are strongly

attracted to a magnet and may retain a residual field after the magnetic force is

removed.

CALCULATION OF MAGNETIC FORCE REQUIREMENTS

Prods

1. A good rule of thumb for prod testing is 90 to 125 A/in. of prod spacing, use a prod

spacing of 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 in.) if practical, and only test a width of one-quarter

of the prod spacing.

2. The magnetic field strength and direction must be verified with a pie gage, shim or

other artificial discontinuity at the edges and center of the area being tested.

Yokes

The yoke field strength is usually verified periodically by dead weight lifting power. The

field strength and direction induced in a test object should be verified with a pie gage, shim

or other artificial discontinuity at the edges and center of the area being tested.

64 Personnel Training Publications

Coils

1. When test objects are placed in a coil, the induced magnetizing force is calculated

using ampere turns (number of turns or wraps of cable times the amperage passed

through the coil). A Hall effect meter measures the resulting longitudinal magnetic

field strength resulting in the test object in gauss or tesla.

2. Do not relate ampere turns to magnetic field strength unless this has been

approved. Magnetic field strength must be verified on the test object.

3. Formulas have been written and rules governing what the conditions must be so

that mathematical calculations may be used to determine a starting point for

amperage.

4. The actual resulting magnetic field must be verified by test objects with artificial

discontinuities, a Hall effect meter, pie gage, shims or other approved devices.

Air Core Coil Longitudinal Magnetization

1. When a long test object is placed in a multi-turn coil (usually five turns) and a

current is passed through the coil, a longitudinal field is produced parallel to the

axis of the coil.

2. If the proper amperage is selected the magnetic field will be strong enough to

test a section about equal to the radius of the coil on each side of the coil.

Fill Factor Coils

1. Coils have been designated as low, intermediate and high fill factor coils. This and

other rules were developed so formulas could be written to obtain a starting point

for amperage for different test object/coil situations.

2.· A low fill factor coil is when the cross-sectional area is ten or more times the

cross-sectional area of the test object.

3. An intermediate fill factor coil is when the cross-sectional area is more than two

and less than ten times the cross-sectional area of the test object.
Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing 65
 ~'~l~!!pe
4. High fill factor coil is when cable wraps are used or the cross-sectional area is less

then two times the cross-sectional area of the test object (including hollow

portions).

INTERPRETATION OF INDICATIONS

All indications must be interpreted to verify that a false or nonrelevant indication is not

hiding or covering a relevant indication. This may require lowering amperage and

re-verifying adequate field strength for that area.

Relevant Indications

Are produced by magnetic leakage fields caused by discontinuities.

Nonrelevant Indications

Are caused by magnetic leakage fields that are not discontinuities and may be excessive

amperage, changes in section, changes in permeability or magnetic writing.

False Indications

Are not the result of magnetic leakage fields and may be particles held by gravity or foreign

material on the test object.

66 Personnel Training Publications

Notes
Notes
 Lesson 10

Quiz

1. The magnetic lines of flux induced by 4. An indirect method of inducing a

current flow are: circular magnetic field is with a:

a. In the same direction as current a. Coil.

flow. b. Yoke.

b. Varies with the type of current. c. Central conductor.

c. In the same direction as the grain d. Head shot.

of the material.
5. An indirect method of inducing a
d. At 90° to the current direction.
longitudinal magnetic field is with a:

2. A circular field induced by a current a. Coil.

flow though a test object creates a field b. Prod unit.

both in the test object and in the air c. Central conductor.

surrounding the test object. d. Head shot.

a. True
6. A long, uniform, hollow test object
b. False
magnetized with a central conductor:

3. Prods may be used to induce a a. Will have a north and south pole at

longitudinal magnetic field. each end.

a. True b. Will have a north and south pole at

b. False random locations.

c. Will have a north and south pole at

opposite sides of the circumference.

d. Will have no external poles.

69
 7. In order to induce a uniform 10. The mathematically calculated starting

longitudinal field in a coil, the test magnetizing force to use for a test

object must have a length-to-diameter object with a length-to-diameter ratio of

ratio of at least: five, held close to the side of a low fill

a. 2. factor five turn coil is:

b. 4. a. 9000 A turns.

c. 6. b. 1800 A.

d. 15. c. 4500 A.

d. both a and b.
8. When a ring or wheel is placed inside a
e. none of the above.
coil, radial or transverse discontinuities

can be detected if the test object is 11. An intermediate fill factor coil/test

rotated 90 0 and repositioned in the coil object combination is when the cross-

at least twice. sectional area of the coil is greater than

a. True two and less than 10 times the cross-

b. False sectional area of the test object.

a. True
9. The only type of material that can be
b. False
tested by magnetic particle testing is:

a. Diamagnetic. 12. The cross-sectional area ratio of a 20 in.

b. Paramagnetic. coil and a 5 in. test object is:

c. Ferromagnetic. a. 2.

d. All of the above. b. 4.

c. 10.

d. 16.

70 Personnel Training Publications

 Lesson 11

Demagnetization

PURPOSE

The purpose of demagnetization is to demagnetize to less than +/-3 G after required tests,

which is required by most specifications and is normally easily accomplished. Some highly

retentive, odd shaped test objects or distorted fields may require special techniques.

. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION FOR DEMAGNETIZATION

The simplest method is to pass the test object through an alternating coil that will magnetize

the test object to a higher level than the residual field. Then, by reducing the magnetizing

force by increasing the distance from the coil or by reducing the amperage, the residual field

will be reduced to less than 3 G.

Reasons to Demagnetize

The reason to demagnetize is to ensure the residual field will not interfere with further

manufacturing operations or have a detrimental effect during service. A residual magnetic

field does not have any detrimental physical effects on the test object.

Justification for Demagnetizing

1. The residual field may interfere with nearby instruments that work on magnetic

principles.

2. The residual field may cause difficulty in post cleaning. Magnetic media from the

test object can interfere with plating or painting operations.

71
 3. The residual field can attract chips during machining or interfere with welding

operations because of arc blow.

4. The residual field can attract particles in a moving test object and cause wear.

Reasons Not to Demagnetize

1. If the test object is to be heat treated above its curie temperature.

2. Welded assemblies that have low retentivity usually don't have a residual field

high enough to require demagnetization.

DEMAGNETIZATION METHODS

Heating Above Curie Point

Heating above the curie point (650 to 870°C [1200 to 1600 OF] for ferrous alloys) causes the

material to lose all magnetism characteristics, and upon cooling they are ferromagnetic again

and have no residual magnetism.

Electromagnetic Demagnetization

Accomplished by creating a slightly higher magnetic field than the residual and gradually

reducing the magnetic force and residual to nearly zero.

Alternating Current Demagnetization

Is normally the easiest, fastest and most effective, and normally a 2 to 5 s operation.

Direct Current Magnetization

Some stationary units have a reversing demagnetization circuit that will reverse and lower

the direct current and lower the residual. These units are better than alternating current for

demagnetizing deeply direct current induced residual fields.

72 Personnel Training Publicarions

Yoke Demagnetization

An alternating current yoke can be used to demagnetize by simply magnetizing the test

object by close proximity with the yoke energized and moving the test object away from the

yoke.

Demagnetization Practices

1. The Earth's magnetic field usually does not interfere with shop demagnetizations.

2. If long test objects are stored with their axis north and south, they will pick up a

residual field over a period of months.

3. Striking a test object or vibrating it during demagnetization will aid the process for

test objects that standard demagnetization has proven difficult.

Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing 73

Notes
•

•
• Lesson 11

Quiz

1. A simple method of demagnetization of 4. Demagnetization is always required in

small test objects is by: low carbon materials.

a. Passing them through an a. True

alternating current coil. b. False

b. Passing them through a direct

5. If a test object has a residual field and is
current coil.
heat treated above the curie temperature
c. Placing them with the principal
it will:
axis east to west.
a. Require demagnetization after heat
d. Placing them with the principal

•
treatment.
axis north to south .
b. Require demagnetization before

2. Demagnetization requirements are heat treatment.

normally in the specification and c. Have a higher residual field after

company work instructions. heat treatment.

a. True d. Have no residual field after heat

b. False treatment.

3. Specifications normally require 6. The coercive force must be calculated

demagnetization to an absolute value of before each demagnetization.

less than 2 G. a. True

a. True b. False

b. False

• 75
 7. The magnetic field strength at the start

of the demagnetization cycle must be

less than the residual magnetic field

strength.

a. True

b. False

8. A test object too large to fit in a coil

that has a residual field may be

demagnetized by:

a. Left sitting east and west for five

days so it will lose its residual

field.

b. Wrapped with cables with an

alternating current run through

the cables and amperage reduced

from a high current to zero.

c. Wrapped with cables with a direct

current run through the cables and

amperage reduced from a high

current to zero.

d. All of the above.

76 Personnel Training Publications

 Lesson 12

Equipment

STATIONARY EQUIPMENT

1. Mechanized equipment.

2. Semiautomatic equipment.

3. Fully automatic equipment.

PORTABLE EQUIPMENT

1. Yoke break or lift test.

DRY POWDER TEST EQUIPMENT

1. Primarily used for the testing of welds and castings.

2. Powder color choice is dependent upon which powder will provide the best

contrast.

Powder Selection

1. Gray powder.

2. Black powder.

3. Red powder.

4. Yellow powder.

Powder Applications

1. Powder should reach the surface as a thin cloud.

2. Do not apply too much powder.

77
 Applicators

1.

2.
Squeeze bottle.

Powder gun or blower.

•
WET VISIBLE TEST EQUIPMENT

1. Pastes have been replaced by dry powder concentrates.

2. Powders are much easier to use.

3. Powders must be added to the agitated bath.

Particle Selection

1. Black powder concentrate.

2. Red powder concentrate.

3.

4.

5.
Suspension characteristics.

Particles.

Media.
•
WET FLUORESCENT METHOD

When exposed to ultraviolet radiation, fluorescent dye coated magnetic particles glow.

Indications are easily seen.

Test Variables

1. Bath strength.

2. Type of current to be used.

3. Current/suspension application.

78
4. Lighting conditions.

Personnel Training Publications

•
 Surface Preparation

• 1.

2.
Dust, rust, loose scale and oil or grease should be removed.

Paint and plated coatings over 0.01 cm (0.005 in.) thick should be stripped.

Suspension Application

1. Prepared bath is available in aerosol cans.

2. Aerosol containers should be checked for residual magnetism. Demagnetize if

necessary.

3. Bath strength and immersion time effect the size of the indication.

Water Problems

1. Potable tap water is suitable for use.

• 2.

3.
Wetting agent, rust inhibitors and other water conditioners must be used with water

baths.

Wet baths should be carefully controlled.

Suspension Preparation

1. The agitation system must be tested to ensure cleanliness.

2. Fill the tank with oil or water.

3. Magnetic particles are then added.

4. The fluorescent dye separation check should be performed.

DRY POWDER LIQUID CONCENTRATE

1. Pour the required amount of powdered concentrate into the bath liquid in the tank.

• 2. Check bath strength with settling test.

Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing 79

 Paste Concentrate

Paste must be weighed instead of measured.

Water Baths

1. Antifreeze cannot be used.

2. Detergents cause foaming of the bath.

3. Circulation systems must avoid air entrapment.

Fluorescent Background Check

Must be performed on media used in fluorescent magnetic particle testing.

Oil Based Media Contamination Check

Should be performed on bulk media before formulating the test bath.

Settling Test

Easily performed at the testing unit with a centrifuge tube.

FLUORESCENT TEST MATERIALS

Supplied primarily as a dry concentrate.

Maintenance

1. Separation of fluorescent pigment from the magnetic particles must be monitored.

2. Accumulation of magnetic dust or dirt in the bath must be monitored.

3. Accumulation of fluorescent oils and greases must be monitored.

80 Personnel Training Publications

 ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION

1. Ultraviolet lamps should be energized for at least 15 min before the test is

performed.

2. The three common sources to generate ultraviolet radiation are:

a. carbon arc systems;

b. low pressure fluorescent bulbs; and

c. high pressure arc bulbs.

Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing 81

Notes
 Lesson 12

Quiz

1. Small, hand-carried portable units 4. Magnetic particle testing should be

usually use standard 110 V alternating performed after painting or other

current sources, and mobile or coatings if possible.

stationary units may require 220 or a. True

440 V alternating current sources. b. False

a. True
5. Maintenance magnetic particle tests
b. False
may be performed through thin coatings

2. Small, hand-carried portable units will (less than 0.003 in.) using a yoke.

usually supply up to about 1000 A low a. True

voltage alternating current or half wave b. False

direct magnetizing current.

6. The Level II technician will have a
a. True
standard company procedure or
b. False
technique that specifies the type of

3. Mobile or stationary units will usually suspension and particles and may select

supply up to about 4000 A low voltage a good allowable color contrast with the

alternating or half wave direct test object background.

magnetizing current. a. True

a. True b. False

b. False

83
 7. If wet suspensions are used from

portable containers, they should be

checked for particle concentrations

before use and the solution must be

agitated thoroughly before each use.

a. True

b. False

8. The wet suspension concentration

should be 0.1 to 0.4 mU100L for

visible and 1.2 to 2.4 mUIOO mL for

fluorescent.

a. True

b. False

84 Personnel Training Publications

 Lesson 13

Types of Discontinuities

INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES

1. Formed during the initial melting and solidification of an ingot or casting.

2. Cold shuts are caused in a casting when metal splashes or flows together but

doesn't completely fuse together.

3. Ingot pipe is caused by shrinkage at the top of the ingot, or can form in the riser in

a casting. This top area of the ingot (called the hot top or casting riser) is nonnally

chopped off and recycled.

4. Unequal cooling and stress build-up cause casting hot tears and shrinkage

especially between thick and thin section changes that are near 90°. These are

linear indications that may appear to look like a wide crack or void.

5. Blowholes in the ingot are caused by gas pockets escaping, and in a casting may

be moisture from the mold blowing into the molten metal.

6. Porosity is trapped gas pockets in the cooling metal and may occur in the ingot,

casting or in a weld.

7. Nonmetallic inclusions are slag pockets, alloy segregation or foreign material.

After rolling or fonning, they are often linear with the grain direction and detected

by magnetic particle as a change in permeability.

8. Inclusions in ferrous alloys are usually oxides, sulfides or silicates introduced in

the original ingot.

9.· Alloy segregation occurs because alloy elements have cohesion and sometimes

group together instead of alloying uniformly in the ingot or casting and may show

with magnetic particle testing as a change in permeability.

8S
 l.

2.
Seams.

Laminations.
PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES

•
3. Stringers.

4. Cupping.

5. Cooling cracks.

6. Forged and rolled laps.

7. Internal and external bursts.

8. Hydrogen flakes.

9. Welding discontinuities.

a. Cold cracking.

b. Hot cracking.

•
c. Lamellar tearing.

d. Lack of fusion.

e. Lack of penetration.

f. Porosity.

g. Inclusions.

h. Undercut.

1. Overlap.

SECONDARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES

l. Cracks.

2. Heat treating and quench cracks.

3. Pickling cracks.

4. Machining tears.

86
5. Plating cracks.

Personnel Training Publications

•
• 1.

2.
Fatigue cracking.

Creep cracking.
INSERVICE DISCONTINUITIES

3. Stress corrosion cracking.

4. Hydrogen cracking .

• Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing 87

Notes
 Lesson 13

Quiz

1. Inherent discontinuities are: 4. An example of a processing

a. Just a property of the alloy of discontinuity that is the result of an

metal. inherent discontinuity changing shape

b. All removed by cropping. during rolling is a:

c. Formed when molten metal a. Cooling crack.

solidifies. b. Burst.

d. Discontinuities that exist inside the c. Lap.

material below the surface. d. Lamination.

2. Discontinuities are: 5. A common processing indication in

a. Always defects and usually rolled bar stock is:

rejected. a. Seam.

b. Are either acceptable or rejected. b. Lap.

c. Are either relevant or nonrelevant. c. Hot tear.

d. Discontinuities that cause the test d. Cold shut.

object to fail.
6. A burst may be found in a:

3. Level II magnetic particle technicians a. Casting.

should always be able to evaluate if an b. Forging.

indiction is relevant, false or c. Ingot.

nonrelevant, and if it is rounded or d. Weld.

Ii hear.

a. True

b. False

89
 7. A common discontinuity in a weld or 12. A slag inclusion in a weld is normally

casting that is difficult to detect by found in a weld crater.

magnetic particle testing is: a. True

a. A crack. b. False

b. Porosity.

c. Shrinkage.

d. Lamination.

8. Cracks may occur at any stage of

manufacturing.

a. True

b. False

9. A weld discontinuity that always occurs

at the root of a weld is:

a. Lack of fusion.

b. Slag inclusions.

c. Lack of penetration.

d. Undercut.

10. Fatigue cracking is always caused by a

single overloading.

a. True

b. False

11. Hydrogen will cause porosity if present

during heat treating or welding.

a. True

b. False

90 Personnel Traininf? Publications

 Lesson 14

Evaluation Techniques

REFERENCE STANDARDS

Rules of thumb are okay for a starting point, but monitoring must be used to verify 100%

correct testing and field strength.

SYSTEM EVALUATION

Standard test objects with known discontinuities can be used to check system performance.

System Standardization

Consistent sensitivity can also be verified for the whole system by using known defect

standards.

Parametric Evaluations

Evaluation of magnetic particles and test object variables are used to generate or modify

testing procedures and techniques.

Technique Development

1. Proof of adequate field strength and 100% coverage of the test object.

2. No confusing nonrelevant indications from excessive magnetization.

3. Instruction sheet for other technicians for the same or similar test objects.

Reference Standards for System Evaluation

Specifications require specific periodic checks to verify proper system performance.

91
 1.
STANDARD TOOL STEEL RING

The ring is placed on a central conductor, and three or more different amperages

are passed through the central conductor to create a uniform circular field.
•
2. The side drilled holes that show on the outside surface are recorded and used as a

standard to check the system performance.

Ring Standard Magnetic Fields

If the test is conducted the same each time, the circular field in the ring will show subsurface

indications from the side drilled holes. If the results are not the same there could be a

problem with the suspension or particles, the ring or with the magnetizing equipment.

Limitations of the Ring Standard

When a new ring is purchased, it should be tested to verify it produces the indications

required by the specification. If new magnetizing equipment or particles are purchased, the

results with the ring standard should be verified.

•
REFERENCE STANDARD TEST BLOCKS

There are several reference blocks that can be used for information on system and

verification of suspension and particle performance for additional information. The system

performance checks specified in the contract referenced specifications would still have to be

performed. Some of these reference blocks include the following.

1. Split prism test block.

2. Magnetized test block.

92 Personnel Training Publications

•
• Hall Effect Meters
ELECTRONIC REFERENCE STANDARDS

1. A Hall effect meter measures the number of magnetic flux lines at 90 0 from the

test object. A probe often requires a plastic fixture to take the readings at the right

orientation.

2. The Hall effect meter may be used when the current is energized and will measure

flux densities for the magnetizing field strength in the 20 to 60 Granges.

Eddy Current Devices

May be used for special cases to measure magnetic saturation points if qualified techniques

are developed .

• Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing 93

Notes
 Lesson 14

Quiz

1. Before magnetic particle testing, a 5. The standard tool steel ring is used to

reference standard should be used to verify:

verify the operation of a testing system. a. That the sensitivity is satisfactory

a. True for a particular part.

b. False b. That subsurface indications will be

detected.
2. A technician can rely solely on
c. That the suspension and
empirical rules for establishing
fluorescence is satisfactory.
magnetic particle testing procedures.
d. That the system is working.
a. True

b. False 6. Which of the following are reference

standard test blocks?

3. A daily system performance check
a. Split prism test blocks.
should include:
b. Magnetized test blocks.
a. Suspension pump pressure.
c. Flux leakage test blocks.
b. Line voltage.
d. Both a. and b.
c. Head shot pressure.
e. None of the above.
d. A standard test object with
f. All of the above.
known discontinuities.

7. Hall effect meters measure magnetic

4. Reference standards are used to regulate
flux lines.
field strength to avoid excess flux while
a. True
achieving accurate indications.
b. False
a. True

b. False

95
 Lesson 15

Quality Control

INTRODUCTION

Properly trained technicians using proper material, techniques and procedures correctly will

find all discontinuities that are possible to be detected.

New Materials

New materials are manufactured in accordance with AMS specifications. Ifmanufacturers

instructions for storage are followed, materials should not degrade except by contamination

from poor storage.

In-Use Materials

1. In-use procedures are controlled by the company. Contamination from poor storage

and work practices is the most common degradation.

2. Materials used in open tanks are most often contaminated from improperly

precleaned test objects or from allowing grinding operations near the tanks.

MATERIAL CONTAMINATION

1. Evaporation losses.

2. Heat degradation.

3. Process degradation .

• 97
 MATERIAL CONTROL REQUIREMENTS

New materials are checked prior to use and must also pass all the tests used for the in-use

materials.

USE OF SETTLING TEST

Performed for new mixtures of solutions and before each use.

ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION AND FACILITIES

Ultraviolet radiation used for fluorescent testing is filtered so the wavelength range from 320

to 400 nm (usually 365 nm) is used. This wavelength will emit visible light when it strikes

the fluorescent dye used for testing as a yellow-green color with a wavelength of 510 to

550 nm.

ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION INTENSITY REQUIREMENTS

Ultraviolet radiation intensity used for testing must be a minimum of 1000 Jl W/cm 2

measured at 38 em (15 in.).

Ambient Light Measurements

1. The ambient visible light in a fluorescent testing booth should be a maximum

20 Ix (2 ftc).

2. The testing booth should have dark walls, and technicians should not wear light

clothing which will increase the ambient light level.

VARIABLES

Line Voltage Variations

Constant voltage above 110 V is best for power supply.

98 Personnel Training Publications

 Service and Aging Variations

Intensity is normally measured with a light meter dajly or weekly because the lamps lose

intensity as they age. Turning the light off and on reduces the bulb life.

Ultraviolet Lamp Hazards

1. The bulbs become very hot.

2. Ultravjolet protective goggles are sold by ultraviolet radjation bulb manufactures.

3. Company safety requirements should be followed.

PROPER PROCEDURE

1. National and international standards specify the basic requirements to accomplish

magnetic particle testing.

2. The design engineer is responsible for referencjng the proper procedure and

acceptance criteria for new test objects and assemblies.

3. For required maintenance, the owner of the test object or assembly is responsible

for specifying the procedure and acceptance crjteria.

4. All required magnetic particle testing requires a Level II certified technician

personal observation sjgnature.

Variation in Technique

1. Type and amount of current used.

2. Type of particles and method of application.

3. Sequence of tests.

4.· Direction of current and magnetic field.

5. Sensitivity verification method .

• 6. The actual equipment used.

Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing 99

 Selection of Current

New test objects usually require half or full wave direct current to detect subsurface

discontinuities, and may also use alternating for better surface sensitivity.

Current Application Choices

1. Determine whether direct induction may ruin the test object. Finished machined

test objects may require only indirect induction.

2. The amount of current to start the test may be determined by experience or formula

guidelines.

3. The proper current values will be verified for each area of the test object using a

pie gage, notched shims or a Hall effect meter. The current raised or lowered to

ensure an adequate magnetic field strength to detect discontinuities in al1 areas of

the test object.

Selection of Media

1. Choose the wet or dry powder media.

2. Choose the color or fluorescent media for best contrast.

Selection of Technique

1. The continuous method must be used for required tests unless the residual method

is authorized in writing.

2. The residual method should only be used as and aid in test indications detected

with the continuous method, and for information tests of materials with high

retentivity.

100 Personnel Training Publications

 Field Orientation

1. Tests require magnetization in at least two directions at 90° so discontinuities in all

orientations will be detected. The rule of thumb should always be to magnetize in

two directions.

2. Information tests to no specification may be done to only detect transverse

discontinuities.

Head Shot

1. Establishing a circular field using a direct contact (head shot) 1000 A/in. of

outside diameter will normally create an adequate field (and may be too high for

odd shaped test objects). Starting current levels are adjusted up or down, and the

magnetic field strength verified by the Level II.

2. Caution must be used to avoid arc strikes or burning the test object.

3. Indirect induction is normally used on finished machined surfaces.

Central Conductor

1. The strongest field will be next to the central conductor, so normally the test object

will hang on the central conductor.

2. The larger the central conductor, the more circumference of the test object that can

be tested.

Longitudinal Field

1. Ampere turns = 45 000 divided by the length divided by the diameter. Then the
ampere turns divided by the number of turns in the coil will give the starting

amperage.

2. The strongest field will be inside the coil right at the inside surface of the coil.

• Student Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing 101

 Sensitivity Requirements

Optimum sensitivity will be alternating current for fine surface discontinuities, wet

fluorescent for indication visibility and the continuous method.

102 Personnel Training Publications

•
 Notes

•
Notes

•
 Lesson 15

Quiz

]. Properly trained technicians using 5. Ultraviolet radiation intensity used for

proper materials, techniques and testing must be a minimum of

procedures correctly will find all 1000 JiW/cm 2 measured at ]5 in.

discontinuities that are possible to be a. True

detected. b. False

a. True
6. The ultraviolet radiation intensity is
b. False
normally measured with a light meter

2. If manufacturers' instructions for hourly because the lamps lose intensity

storage are followed, materials should as they age.

not degrade except by contamination. a. True

a. True b. False

b. False
7. Too much current will produce

3. New materials do not have to be nonrelevant indications or excessive

checked prior to use. background.

a. True a. True

b. False b. False

4. The settling test is performed once for

new mixtures of solutions, and does not

need to be performed before each use

thereafter.

• a.

b.
True

False

105
 8. New test objects usually require half or

full wave direct current to detect

subsurface discontinuities and may also

use alternating for better surface

sensiti vity.

a. True

b. False

9. Companies that perform magnetic

particle testing in accordance with

ASTM specifications are not required to

have written approved procedures that

detail the equipment they use and the

techniques used to satisfy the national

standards.

a. True

b. False

10. The residual method should only be

used as and aid in evaluating indications

detected with the continuous method,

and for information tests of materials

with high retentivity.

a. True

b. False

106 Personnel Training Publications

•