d ie iiiq ) 2 0

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
1. Know experimental facts of hydrogen spectrum.
2. Describe Bohr's postulates of hydrogen atom.
3. Explain hydrogen atom in terms of energy levels.
4. Describe de-Brogile’s interpretation of Bohr's orbits.
5. Understand excitation and ionization potentials.
6. Describe uncertainty regarding position of electron in the atom.
7. Understand the production, properties and uses of X-rays.
8. Describe the terms spontaneous emission, stimulated emission, metastable states
and population inversion.
9. Understand laser principle.
10 Describe the He-Ne gas laser.
11. Describe the application of laser including holography.

H h e branch of physics that deals with the investigation of wavelengths and intensities of
electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by atoms is called spectroscopy. It includes
the study of spectra produced by atoms. In general there are three types of spectra called (i)
continuous spectra, (ii) band spectra, and (in) discrete or line spectra.
Black body radiation spectrum, as descnbed in chapter 19 is an example of continuous
spectra: molecular spectra are the examples of band spectra while the atomic spectra,
which we shaU investigate in detail in this chapter, are examples of discrete or line spectra.
20.1 ATOMIC SPECTRA
When an atomic gas or vapour at much less than atmospheric pressure is suitably excited,
usually by passing an electric current through it. the emitted radiation has a spectrum, which
contains certain specific wavelengths only. An idealized arrangement for observing such
atomic spectra is shown in Fig. 20.1. Actual spectrometer uses diffraction grating for better
results.
The impression on the screen is in the form of lines if the slit in front of the source S is narrow
rectangle. It is for this reason that the spectrum is referred to as line spectrum.
The fact that the spectrum of any element contains wavelengths that exhibit definite
regularities was utilized in the second haIfof the 19* century in identifying different elements.

202
 Fig. 20.1 line *pec(rum of hydrooen

These regularities were classified into certain groups called

the spectral series. Th e first such series was identified by J .J
Balmer in 1885 in the spectrum of hydrogen. Th is series,
called the Balmer series, is shown in Fig.20.2. and is in the 1 I I I
visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. 2 * 5 1
Th e results obtained by Balmer were expressed in 1896 by
J .R Rydberg in the following mathematical form
Red BUe Blue Veto! W
(20.1) Gown
- = R.
Fig. 20.2

w here R „ is the R yd berg 's constant. Its value is

1.0974 x 1 0 'm ’. Since then many more series have been
discovered and proved helpful in predicting the arrangement
of the electrons in different atoms.

A t o m ic S p e c t r u m o f H y d r o g e n

T h e Balmer series contain wavelengths in the visible portion For Your Information
of the hydrogen spectrum. T h e spectral lines of hydrogen in Different type* o< epectr*
the ultraviolet and infrared regions fall into several other
series. In the ultraviolet region, the Lyman series contains the
wavelengths given by the formula
( » ) Ccnsnuou# ipecm xn

where n = 2 . 3 .4 ........ (b ) Line epecfrum

In the infrared region, three spectral series have been found

whose lines have the wavelengths specified by the formulae
(c ) Bend ipeOrum

203
 Paschon.series

(20.3)
F o r Y o u r In fo rm a tio n ■ f ) .......................

where n = 4 ,5 .6 ........
/ \ |*43
Brackett series

( 2 0 -4 )

where n = 5 . 6 .7 ........
Pfund series

•'i.w*;:m w d o n e '• i 'f T .'•!

^«ciT noQoft“r rt6 ,m ,.;TW9q« o«iJ m 288f n. ieml&8
T h e existence of these regularities m the hydrogen spectrum
together with simitar: regulanties In the spectra of more
complex elements, proposes a definite test for any theory of
atomic structure. '■**
- ---
20.2 BOHR'S
'•0S> ATOM
In order to explain the empirical results obtained by Rydberg.
NeSs Bohr, in 1913. formulated a model of hydrogen atom
utilizing classical physics and Planck's quantum theory Thfe
sem i classical theory is based 6n the followtag thrde
postulates:

P o s tu la te I: An electron, bound to the nucleus in an atom.

radiating. These o.b;ts 3rc called the discrete stationary

StatpspT^e.atOfn- • mini bns letomntiu erft
Baimef m o m i *j n Dm
P o s tu la te If: O nly those siationary drbits ard allbwed'for
s p e c tu m which orbital angular momentum is equal to an integral
. h .
I M U I V 'iV / l liV .,

P1B P B m vr =— (20.6)
2n
where n - 1 , 2 . 3 . . . . . . . and n is called the principal quantum
number, m and U a re the m ass and velocity of the orbiting
electron respectively, and h is Planck's constant.

204
Postulate III: Whenever an electron makes a transition,
that is. jumps from high energy state E , to a lower energy
state E . a photon of energy h f\s emitted so that

h'= ^ r £ (20-7)
where f = c/X is the frequency of tttfera&ation emitted. O o You K n ow ?
de -B ro glie's Interpretation o f B oh r's Orbits
H«*um w m ri W Svn
At the time ol ftxmn ation of Bohr**.theory, therewas no v trig w a r a t a x y before it w st
justification for the fist two postulates,,yhile Postulate III had oocovwedonoartn
some roots in P a c k 's thesis. Later on wtth the development
of de Broglie's hypothesis, some justification could be seen in
Postulate 11esnxosstnedbelow. "oec. Unw ,r. n o - no

£ 0 0 I0 0 0 * _ -

(a)

F ig . 2 0 .3 S ta f c o n v y w n v o f o r n *
o n a iln n g

Consider a string of length t as shown in Fig. 20.3 (a). If this is

put into stationary vibrations, we musfhave I = n>. where n is
an integer. Suppose that the string is bent into circle of radius
r. as demonstrated for n = 3 and n = 6 in Fig. 20.3 (b) and (c).
sothat':
I = 2 r.r= n>.
2xr
or X=~ iT (20.8),,

Frppxjte Broglie's hypothesis

? h nh
” p mv
grit ni noitoele edl to ^ ^p^#if> letot erij sirIuoIro won au i
HlHfbnR 3 >1 vB>fnrnvi >n t„ orlt a ,3 .Jicho 3rto8
nh e ' U ygiene leitnmou

Postulate II. 2? yA |+'\.vm ^ = U ♦ .3 .X r 3

20fiC
 Q uantized Radii
Consider a hydrogen atom in vv+nch electron moving with velocity
v. is in stationary circular orbit of radius r„. From Eq. (20.6),

v. x z - P- — ■ (20.9)
2 *m r„
For this electron to stay in the circular orbit, shown in
m vl
Fig. 20.4, the centripetal force Fc = — “ is provided by the
keJ f°
Coulomb's force F , *— y , where e is the magnitude of charge

on electron as well as on the hydrogen nucleus consisting of

a single proton. Thus.

( 20 . 10 )
'• rl
where constant k is equal to — 5— .
4xc0
Fo r Your Information After substituting for v, from Eq . 20.9, we have

(20” )
h2
where r, = ,, j = 0.053 nm
4s2 kme2
This agrees with the experimentally measured values and is
called the first Bohr orbit radius of the hydrogen atom. Thus
according to Bohr's theory, the radii of different stationary
orbits of the electrons in the hydrogen atom are given by
r,® r,.4r„9r,,16r,........

th e W B o w t x l r> the hyd rog e n

Substituting the value of r, from Eq. 20.11 in Eq. 20.9, the
a lo m h a s a r a d u s r , * 5 3 > l O ' m speed of electron in the nth orbit is
T h e se c o nd a n d t v d B o h r oTOd*
h a v e ra d u r , « 4 « , a n d r , = 9 r. 2*ke2
v .= — — (20.12)
r«pect«eV nh
Q uantized Energies
Let us now calculate the total energy E. of the electron in the
Bohr orbit; E„ is the sum of the kinetic energy K.E. and the
potential energy U. i.e..

£ , = K.E. ♦ U = ^ mv/ + j ............ <20-13)

206
B y rearranging E q. (20.10). we get
1 , ke2
- m v‘ ■ -— (20.14)
2 2r„
D o You Know ?
ke2 ke2 ke2
then C B — ■- (20.15)
* 2 r0 r„ 2 T v * , rti a ,1 - ■- - - - - k.K ll* --—------- ^ -
in * v ia *
•mourn 01 «n «rg * * atwre as frae
B y substituting the value of r, from E q. (20.11). we have alacfroni may have any amount o>
•nargy
1 ( 2x* kW ) E.
J= (2016)
2 r 2 k 2m a4
where E„= ' ^ * constant = 13.6 eV
which is the energy required to completely remove an electron
from the first Bohr orbit. Th is is called ionization energy. Th e
ionization energy may be provided to the electron by coftsion
with an oxtemal electron. Th e minimum potential through
which this external electron should be accelerated so that it
can supply the requisite ionization energy is known as
ionization potential. Thus for n = 1. 2. 3......... we get the
allowed energy levels of a hydrogen atom to be

......
4 9 16
Th e experimentally measured value of the binding energy of
the electron in the hydrogen atom is in perfect agreement
with the value predicted by Bohr theory.
Normally the electron in the hydrogen atom is in the lowest
energy state corresponding to n = 1 and this state is called
the ground state or normal state. W hen it is in higher orbit, it is
said to be in the excited state. Th e atom m ay be exited by
collision with externally accelerated electron. T h e potential
through which an electron should be accelerated so that, on
collision it can lift the electron in the atom from its ground
state to some higher state, is known as excitation potential.

H y d ro g e n E m is s io n S p e c tru m
Th e results derived above for the energy levels along with
Postulate III can be used to arrive at the expression for the
wavelength of the hydrogen spectrum. Suppose that the
electron in the hydrogen atom is in the excited state n with

207
 energy £, and makes a W»sWorttfe(^kM»W
energyr£(.wtiere
£ £,<£,. then f
D o You Know? o s )'
h / = £ .^ = Vm S
Phcaon m uM h M onc*yy « u c « y
•qua* to t r * o iv »ig y O4lareoco h M i :**e , m§ & 3 neriJ
bcfooon too»hf$a (of.jwwttiooo
o l a n atom but « n f f t t w * m
greater that t l » rMwx.Oft tf*T*fa«ai ('DgniiutiradueyS
canaxctothegasatorr* hence a' 6rt,'“ - J l j «*

^ubs^uting for f = c/>. and rearranging

1 eiertw
cw p K M e l

. xlools oe vomo- ^
C(aV) tta
ySberg conslantgiven by the equation ^

- 02$ , ,.1.tv o - ^ ^ u f 0974x10'mu ’ . ..... (2 0 .1 #

■03$ h rrworul «*i ytftd?* n u l l .. iJviuptn •>’ 9 1
•OM
whlklV ’^gfees wotl With the latest medsur&J vStoe for
hydrogen atom. Hj ' " ’’ n" •’< '■••‘*Ygv "*eb
Eq. 20.17 reduces to the emptrical result denved by Rydberg
and given by Eq 20.1. provided that we substitute p = 2 and
05 gnprgyleveis c o n e s g p q ^ g ^
HI . . •fit toitoolo erU
Example 20.1: Findtftui Speed of the electron'IfHhtfW&r
fojr. nop. tfyrt ydl • «rii yllKrmoU
Solution:1'1^ •*! t • ' - n o : , *>6le Y0**>f*
The s i ^ f c u h d ^ E b '. ( ^ . 1 2 )w i t h n = 1. is v b" w 0
y«t t»tix:> t»j> yum m o lt. -trtT mnd Ol bit-
v,,n .?5jfcTs2y!j 1^.Aw,<1crNm>c *) l (1.6' 1 0 ^ 0 * llo
tto led1k b o lt v t 6 .6 3 * 1 0 tf\ l* M
bnuoi( V,*2.19x10‘ rhs-' ! mo it noteilioo
.l*Mlrv
2 0 .3 IN N E R S H E L L T R A N S I T I O N S
F «g .2 0 .3 E w j i (oral i * / a C H A R A C T E R I S T I C X -R A Y S
the fryijrogon «lo>«
ol olcctrons m the hydrogen, qr o l ^ r , ^
ienvpsion of spectral lines iptlipjofowi^ri
of electromagnetic specbumdue. |o,
small w iqpie transition levels. .. Arji\Q

20«r.
In h e a v y atom s, the electrons are assum ed to be arranged in
concentric shells labeled a s K . L . M. N . O etc.. the K shell
being closest to the nucleus, the L shell next, and s o on
(F ig . 2 0 .6 ). T h e inner shell electrons are tightly b o u nd and
large am o unt of en ergy is required for their displacem ent
from their norm al en ergy levels. After excitation, w h e n an
atom returns to its normal state, photons of larger e n e rg y are
emitted. T h u s transition of inner shell electrons in heavy
atom s g ive s rise to the em ission of high energy photons o r X -
rays. T h e s e X -ra y s consist of series of specific w avelengths
o r frequencies a n d hence are called characteristic X -ra y s .
T h e stud y o f characteristic X -ra y s spectra has played a very
important role in the study of atom ic structure and the
periodic table of elements.

P r o d u c tio n o f X -r a y s
IW9h«n*ry,r
Fig. 2 0 .7 show s an arrangem ent of producing X -ra y s . It
consists of a high va c u u m tube called X -ra y tube. W h e n Pig. JO «
the cathode is heated by the filament F. it emits electrons
w hich are accelerated towards the anode T. If V is the

potential difference between C a n d T the kinetic e n e rg y K E

with w hich the oloctron strike the target is g ive n by

K .E . = V e .............. (2 0 .1 9 )
S u p p o s e that these fast m oving electrons of en ergy Vo stnke
a target m ad e of tungsten o r a n y other h eavy elem ent. It is
possible that in collision, the electrons in the innermost
shells, such as K or L . will be knocked out. S u p p o s e that one
of the electrons in the K shell is rem oved, thereby producing
a va ca n cy o r hole in that shell. T h e electron from the L shell

209
 jumps to occupy the hole in the K shell, thereby emitting a
photon of energy h called the K. X-ray given by
h ............. (20.20)
It is also possible that the electron from the M shell might also
jump to occupy the hole in the K shell. The photons emitted
are K , X-ray with energies
h f» = E „ -E , (20.21)
these photons give rise to K , X-ray and soon. ■
The photons emitted in such transitions i.e.. inner shell
transitions are called characteristic X-rays, becauso their
onergies depend upon the type of target material.
Th e holes created in the L and M shells are occupied by
transitions of electrons from higher states creating more
X-rays. Th e characteristic X-rays appear as discrete lines on
a continuous spectrum as shown in Fig. 20.8.
Wavatongtn (nrn)
T h e C o n tin u o u s X -ra y S p e c tru m
no 20*
Th e continuous spectrum is due to an effect known as
bremsstrahluno or braking radiation When the fast moving
electrons bomoard the target, they are suddenly slowed
down on impact with tf\p target. W e know that an accelerating
charge emits electromagnetic radiation. Hence, these
impacting electrons emit radiation as they are strongly
decelerated by the target. Since the rate of deceleration is so
large, the emitted radiation correspond to short wavelength
and so the bremsstrahlung is in the X-ray region. In the case
when the electrons lose all their kinetic energy in the first
collision, the entire kinetic energy appears as a X-ray photon
of energy h f ^ . i.e..
K.E. = h / L
The wavelength in Fig. 20.8 corresponds to frequency
f ^ . Other electrons do not lose all thoir energy in the first
collision. They may suffer a number of collisions before
coming to rest. This will give rise to photons of smaller energy
or X-rays of longer wavelength. Thus the continuous
spectrum is obtained due to deceleration of impacting
electrons.
P ro p e rtie s a n d U s e s o f X -ra y s
X-rays have many practical applications in medicine and
industry. Because X-rays can penetrate several centimetres

210
into a solid matter, s o they can be used to visualize the
interiors of the m aterials opa qu e to ordinary light, such as
fractured bones or defects in structural steel. T h e object to be
visualized is placed betw een an X -ra y source and a large
sheet of photographic film; the darkening of the film is
proportional to the radiation exposure. A crack or air bubble
allows greater am ount of X -ra y s to pass. Th is appears a s a
dark area on the photographic film. S h ado w of bones
appears lighter than the surrounding flesh. It is due to the fact
that bones contain greate r proportions of elem ents with high
atom ic num ber and so they absorb greater am ount of
incident X -ra y s than flesh. In flesh, light elements like carbon,
h ydrogen and o x yg en predom inate. T h e s e elem ents allow
greater am ount of incident X -ra y s to pass through them.

C A T -S c a n n e r

In the recent past, several vastly improved X -ra y techniques

have been d e ve lope d. O n e w idely used system is
c o m p u te rize d axial to m o g ra p h y;* the c o rre s p o n d in g
instrument is called C A T-S c a n n e r. T h e X -ra y source
produces a thin fan-shaped be am that is detected on the
opposite side of the subject by an array of several hundred
detectors in a line. E a c h detector m easures absorption of
X -ra y along a thin line through the subject. T h e entire
apparatus is rotated around the subject in the plane of the
beam during a few seconds. T h e changing reactions of the
detector are recorded digitally; a com puter processes this
information and reconstructs a picture of different densities
o v e r a n entire cro ss section o f the subject. Density
differences of the order of one percent can be detected with
C A T -S c a n s . Tu m o rs , a n d other anom alies m uch too small to
be seen with older techniques can be detected.

B io l o g i c a l E f f e c ts o f X - r a y s 'mCAT*c*nning«T*nned'Out’ aiT»y
oT X-f*y baam* * araetod Wough
tbo coOont from a nurobaf or dtfarant
X -ra y s cause d a m a g e to living tissue. A s X -ra y photons are
odontabons
absorbed in tissues, th e y break m olecular bonds a n d create
highly reactive free radicals (s u c h as H and O H ), w hich in
turn can disturb the m olecular structure of the proteins and
especially the genetic material. Young and rapidly growing
c e lls a re p a r tic u la r ly s u s c e p t ib le ; h e n c e
X -ra y s are useful for selective destruction of can cer cells. O n
the other hand a cell m a y be dam aged by radiation but
survive, continue dividing a n d produce generation of
defective cells. T h u s X -ra y s can cause cancer. E v e n when
the organism itself s h o w s no apparent dam age, excessive

211
 radiation exposure can cause changes in their productivt
system that will affect the organism 's offspring.

20.4 U N C E R T A IN T Y W ITH IN T H E A TO M
O n e of the characteristics of dua l nature of matter is <
fundamental limitation in the a ccu ra cy of the simultaneou:
m easurem ent of the position and m om entum of a particle.

H eisenberg show ed that this is g ive n by the equation

ApAx> —
2k
VH H ow ever, these limitations are significant in the realm o
L *
atom. O n e interesting question is w hether electrons art
present in atom ic nu- iei. A ? the typical nuclei <: > 'oss than

<t» 10 m e diameter, for an electron to be confined within s u th

nucleus, the uncertainty in its position is of the order of 10 '* n
(• ) T h is tw c w Jim o n i-o ru f C A T s ca n
o ( a b ra m ro v o a ls a la rg e r t r a c r a n t * T h e corresponding uncertainty in the electron's momentum ■
tu m o r (c o lo re d c u p l e ) . ( b ) T h r e o - h
d r r e n s c o a l C A T s c a n s a re n o » Apt* —
a ^ a A a U o a n d this a x a m p lo re v e s ts a n AX
a ra c h n c M c y s t ( co lo re d y e a o w )
w B v n a sfcul. I n both p h o to g ra p h s the 6 .6 3 x 1 0 -* Js
c o lo rs a re artificial h a v n g b e e n 'T « ' * 6 . 6 3 x 1 0 * kg m s '
c o m p u t e r g e n e r a t e d t o a i d in 10 m
d s t n g u n h m g t n M o m c a l features.

As A p = m Av
6 .6 3 x 1 0 * kg m s
H ence Av = J r 7 .3 x 1 0 wm s '
9.11 x 1 0 "JI kg

H e n ce , for the electron to be confined to a nucleus, its speec

w ould have to be greater than 10' m s i.e.. greater than the
speed of light. B ecau se this is impossible, w c m ust conclude
that an electron c a n never be found inside of a nucleus. Bui
can a n electron reside inside the atom ? T o find this, w e again
calculate the speed of an electron and if it turns to be less
than the speed of light, w e have reasonable expectation of
finding the electron within the atom but outside the nucleus.
T h e radius of the hydrogen atom is about 5 x 1 0 '' m . Applying
the uncertainty principle to the m om entum of electron in the
atom w e have
h
Ap* —
^ AX

As Ap = m w

h
Therefore, Av=
m \x

212
:o r an atom a x is g iven a s 5 x 10 ” m
_ 6 .6 3 x 1 0 ^ Js
T lU S AV s
£ .1 1 x 1 0 J1k g x 5 x 1 0 ’ ’ m

= 1 .4 6 x 1 0 'm s ’

"his speed of the electron is less than the speed of light,

hereforo. it can exist in the atom but outside the nucleus.

>0.5 L A S E R
aser is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated
•mission of Radiation. A s the nam e indicates, lasers are
tsed for producing an intense, m onochrom atic, and
midirectional coherent be am of visible light. To understand
i e w orking of a laser, term s s u c h as stimulated em ission and
■opulation inversion m ust be understood.

p o n t a n e o u s a n d S t im u la t e d E m i s s i o n s

Consider a sam ple o f free atom s s o m e of w hich are in the

round state with e n e rg y E , and so m e in the excited state E t
s show n m Fig. 20.9. T h e photons of e n e rg y h f * £ , - E . are
icident on this sam ple. T h e s e incident photons can interact

■if
nth atom s in two different w ays. In Fig. 20 .9 (a ) the incident

iJ
h oto n is absorbed by a n atom in the ground state E . . thereby
•aving the atom in the excited state £ ,. T h is process is called <•> Induced i b to ip M n

timulated o r induced absorption. O n c e in the excited state,

E,
no things can happen to the atom , (i) It m ay de cay by
pontanoous em ission as sh ow n in Fig. 20 .9 (b ). in which the
tom emits a photon of e n e rg y h f = E s - E , in an y arbitrary (b) Sponl*ocoo» *mi»»ion
irection.
O £-
h e other alternative for the atom in the excited state E , is to It -v u v - J = S k=
E.
e c a y by stimulated o r induced em ission as show n in
ig.20.9 (c ). In this case the incident photon of energy <«) Induced em ission
f = E , - £ . induces the atom to d e c a y b y emitting a photon
Fig 20.9
lat travols in the direction of the incident photon. F o r each
icident photon w e will have two photons going in the sam e
irection thus w e have accom plished two things: a n amplified
s well as a unidirectional coherent beam . Fro m a practical
oint this is possible on ly if there is m ore stimulated or
Kluced em ission than spontaneous em ission. T h is can be
chieved as described in the next section.

213
 P o p u la t io n I n v e r s io n a n d L a s e r A c t i o n

Let us consider a sim ple case ot a material w ho se atom s can

reside in three different states a s s h ow n in Fig. 20.10 . state

-to*#

N, > « ,
. IV* 69*3 nm

— *

-V \ / V —
O p O c t lp u m p M g O p 0 c « l(* f n p * » w d )
------------------------ N.
e.
Fl*. 20.10

£ , w hich is g round state; the excited state £ ,. in which the

atom s can reside only for 10* s and the metastable state £
in w hich the atom s can reside for - 1 0 ’ s. m uch longer thar
ILarger anotgy) 10* s. A metastable state is an excited state in which ar
gxcited electron is unusually stable and from w hich the
• C K '^ O O O O O - electron spontaneously falls to low er state only aftei
(Sm*l*< e n v y ji
relatively longer time. T h e transition from o r to this state are
Nom ul populMlon
difficult a s com p are d to other excited states. H e n ce , insleac
A normal p o p U t e o n O f M o m c of direct excitation to this state, the electrons are excited tc
•norgy itata. «w> m o r a atsm c in Bw
tow«r «fw yy Mat* E. man in m*
higher level for spontaneous fall to metastable state. A lso le
us a ssu m e that the incident photons of e n e rg y h f = £ , - £
raise the atom from the ground state £ . to the excited state £ ,
E, (J O O O O V O O but the excited atom s do not de cay back to £ ,. T h u s the onh
alternative for the atom s in the excited state £ , is to decai
spontaneously to state £ .. the atom s reach state E , mucf
PopwlMton lnv**»ioo faster than they leave state £ ,. T h is eventually leads to th<
situation that the state £ , contains m ore atom s than state £ ,
A p o p u to te n n v o r t lo n . in w f n t f it h a
haghar e n e r g y u a t o h a t a greener
T h is s itu a tio n is k n o w n a s p o p u la tio n in v e rs io n
p op u la tio n th a n lh a k x r o r o n o rg y
O n c e the population inversion has been reached, the lasinj
action of a laser is simple to achieve. T h e atom s in th«
metastable state E , are bom barded by photons of energy
h f = £ , - £ ,. resulting in an induced om ission, giving ar
intense, coherent be am in the direction of the inciden
photon.

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T h e emitted photons m ust be confined in the a ssem b ly long
e n ough to stimulate further em ission from other excited
atom s. T h is is achioved by using mirrors at the tw o ends of
the assem bly. O n e end is m ade totally reflecting, and the
other end is partially transparent to allow the laser beam to
e scap e (F ig .20.11). A s the photons m ove back and forth
betw een the reflecting m irrors they continue to stimulate
other excited atom s to em it photons. A s the process
continues the num ber of photons multiply, and the resulting
radiation is. therefore, m uch m ore intense and coherent than
light from ordinary sources.

H e li u m •N e o n L a s e r

It is a m ost com m on type of lasers used in physics

laboratories. Its discharge tube is filled with 8 5 % helium and
1 5 % neon g a s . T h e neon is the lasing o r active m ediu m in this
tube. B y chance, helium and neon h avo nearly identical
metastable states, respectively located 20.61 e V and
2 0 .66 e V level. T h o high voltage electric discharge excites
the electrons in so m e of the helium atom s to the 20.61 oV
state. In this laser, population inversion in neon is achieved
b y direct collisions with sam e en ergy electrons o f helium
atom s. T h u s excited helium atom s collide with neon atoms,
e a ch transferring its o w n 20.61 e V of en ergy to an electron in
the neon atom along with 0.0 5 e V of K .E . from the moving
atom . A s a result, tho electrons in neon atom s are raised to
the 2 0 .66 e V state. In this w ay. a population inversion is
sustained in the neon g a s relative to an e n e rg y level of
18.70 eV. S pontaneous em ission from neon a tom s initiate
laser action and stimulated em ission ca u s e s electrons in the
neon to dro p from 2 0 .66 e V to the 18.70 e V level and red
laser light of w avelength 6 32 .8 nm corresponding to 1.96 eV
e n e rg y is generated (Fig , 20.12).

U s e s o f L a s e r in M e d i c in e a n d I n d u s t r y

1. La s e r b e am s are used as surgical tool for ’ welding’

detached retinas.
2. T h e narrow intense beam of lasor c a n be used to
destroy tissue in a localized area. Tin y organelles
with a living cell have been destroyed b y using laser
to study how the a b se n c e of that organelle affects the
behavior of the cell.
3. Finely focused be am of laser has be e n used to
destroy can cero us and pre-cance rou s cell.
 T h e heat 0/ the laser seals off capillaries a n d lymph
Do You Know? vessels to prevent spread of the disease.
T h e intense heat produ ced in small are a by a laser
boam is also used for welding and m achining metals
a n d for drilling tiny holes in hard materials.
T h e precise straightness of a laser be am is also
useful to surveyors for lining up equipm ent especially
in inaccessible locations.
It is potential e n e rg y source for inducing fusion
reactions.
It c a n be used for telecomm unication along optical
Th # h e U j n w w o n laaar boam » b o n g
u M d to O a g n o M i t m m o » * » e y* . fibres.
Th * u m oI tosor te c h n o lo g y in the
f * M o f ophtha frn ctog y n w O *% p < * * j Laser be am c a n bo used to generate three-
dim ensional im ages of objects in a process called
holography.

W h e n an atom ic g a s or vapours at less than atm ospheric pressure is suitably

exa te d . usually by passing electric current through it. the emitted radiation has a
spectrum w hich contains certain specific w avelenghts only.

Postulates of B oh r's m odel of hydrogen atom are:

A n electron, bound to tho nucleus in an atom , c a n m ove around the nucleus in

certain circular orbits without radiating. T h e s e orbits are caBed the discreto
stationary states of the atom.
O n ly those stationary states are allowed for w hich orbital angular m om entum is

equal to an integral multiple of h i.e., m v r =

W h e n e ve r an electron m akos a transition, i.e., ju m p s from high en ergy state E , to a

lower en ergy state E ,. a photon of en ergy h /is emitted so that h/= E . - E „.

T h e transition of electrons in the h ydrogen or other light elem ents result in the
em ission of spectral lines in the infrared, visible o r ultraviolet region of
electromagnetic spectrum due to sm all en ergy differences in the transition levels.

T h e X -ra y s emitted in inner shell transitions a re called characteristic X -rays,

because their en ergy depends upon the type o f target material.

T h e X -ra y s that are emitted in all directions and with a continuous range of
frequencies aro know n as continuous X -rays.

Laser is the acronym for Light Amplification b y Stimulated Em ission of Radiation

216
• The incident photon absorbed by an atom in the ground state thereby leaving
the atom in the excited state £, is called stimulated or induced absorption.

• Spontaneous or induced emission is that in which the atom emits a photon of energy
h f * E 3- E , in any arbitrary direction.

• Stimulated or induced emission is that in which the incident photon of energy h f = £ ,- £F,
induces the atom to decay by emitting a photon that travels in the direction of the
incident photon. For each incident photon, we will have two photons going in the same
direction giving rise to an amplified as well as a unidirectional coherent beam.

M 'I * H M M
20.1 Bohr's theory of hydrogen atom is based upon sevoral assumptions. Do any of these
assumptions contradict classical physics?

20.2 What is meant by a lino spectrum? Explain, how line spectrum can be used for the
identification of elements?
20 3 Can the electron in the ground state of hydrogen absorb a photon of energy
13.6 eV and greater than 13.6 oV?
20.4 How can the spectrum of hydrogen contain so many lines when hydrogen contains
one electron?
20 .5 Is energy conserved when an atom emits a photon of light?
20.6 Explain why a glowing gas gives only certain wavelengths of light and why that gas is
capable of absorbing the same wavelengths? Give a reason why it is transparent to
other wavelengths?
20.7 What do we mean when we say that the atom is excited?
20 8 Can X-rays be reflected, refracted, diffracted and polarized just like any other
waves? Explain.
20.9 What are the advantages of lasers over ordinary light?
20.10 Explain why laser action could not occur without population inversion between
atomic levels?

o n ™
20.1 A hydrogen atoms is in its ground state (n = 1). Using Bohr’s theory, calculate
(a) the radius of the orbit, (b) the linear momentum of the electron, (c ) the angular
momentum of the electron (d) the kinetic enorgy (e ) the potential energy, and
(f)the total enorgy.
[Ans: (a ) 0.529 x 1 0 '5m (b) 1.99 x 1 0 " kg ms ’ (c ) 1.05 x 10 * kg m V
(d ) 13.6 eV (e) - 27.2 eV (0 -13.6 eV)

217
20.2 W hat are the energies in e V of quanta of wavelength? /. = 400. 500 and 700 nm.
(Ans: 3.10 eV. 2.49 eV. 1.77 eV )
20.3 A n electron jumps from a level E = -3 .5 x 10 ” J to £, = -1.20 x 10 ” J . W hat is the
wavelength of the emitted light? (Ans: 234 nm )
,20.4 Find the wavelength of the spectral Nne corresponding to the transition in hydrogen
from n ■ 6 state to n = 3 state?
(Asn: 1094 nm )
20.5 Compute the shortest wavelength radiation in the Balmer series? W hat value of n
must be used? (Ans: 364.5 n m .n = oo)
20.6 Calculate the longest wavelength of radiation for the Paschen series.
(Ans: 1875 nm)
20.7 Electrons in an X-ray tube are accelerated through a potential difference of
3000 V. If these electrons were slowed down in a target, what will be the minimum
wavelength of X-rays produced? (A ns: 4.14 x 1 0 "'m )
20.8 Th e wavelength of K X -ray from copper is 1.377 x 10 ” m W hat is the energy
difference between the two levels from which this transition results?
(A ns: 9.03 keV)

20 9 Atungsten target is struck by electrons that have been accelerated from rest through
40 kV potential difference. Find the shortest wavelength of the bremsstrahlung
radiation emitted. (A ns: 0.31 x 10 m)
20.10 Th e orbital electron of a hydrogen atom m oves with a speed of 5.456 x 10' m s ’.
(a ) Find the value of the quantum number n associated with this electron.
(b ) Calculate the radius of this orbit
(c ) Find the energy of the electron in this orbit.
(A ns: n = 4. r, • 0.846 nm: E , = -0.85 e V )

218