1.

Introduction

This guideline provides the minimum knowledge required when designing, selecting and
installing a solar water pumping system. When designing a solar pumping system, the designer
must match the individual components together. A solar water pumping system consists of
three major components: the solar array, pump controller and electric water pump (motor and
pump) as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Typical Solar Water Pumping Systems

Note:
Motor and pump are typically directly connected by one shaft and viewed as one unit, however
occasionally belts or gears may be used to interconnect the two shafts. In this guideline we will
use the words ‘water pump’ to describe the complete motor/pump assembly.
Unlike other design guidelines, this guideline does not cover how these three components are
sized and matched; this has already been undertaken by the solar water pump
manufacturers/suppliers. Design and selection of the correct solar water pumping system
mainly requires knowledge of the actual site including:
• Solar Irradiation;
• How much water is required to be pumped each day; and
• The total dynamic head.
The total dynamic head is calculated based on the vertical height (static head) that the water
must be pumped and the effective head caused by having to pump the design volume of water
per unit time (gallons/minute or litres/minute) through the actual length and diameter of the
pipe (frictional head) that is used to transport the water from the source to the final destination,
often a water tank.
A solar water pump manufacture/supplier will have tables or computer software which specify
the flow from the solar water pumping system for various heads and solar irradiation. The
“solar water pump designer” shall be capable of:
• Determining the solar irradiation for the site:

1
 • Determining the volume of water required on a specified time basis, typically daily;
• Measuring the static head;
• Measuring the length of pipe required;
• Selecting the appropriate type of pipe and its diameter;
• Calculating the total frictional losses (friction head) for the type, size and length of pipe
used.
• Calculate the total dynamic head for the site; and
• Using the manufacturers data sheets or software to select the most appropriate solar water
pumping system.
Notes:
1. Litres is used within the book however the number of US gallons will be shown in brackets.
There are 3.785 litres in a US gallon and 4.54 litres in an imperial gallon
2. IEC standards use a.c. and d.c. for alternating and direct current respectively while the
NEC uses ac and dc. This guideline uses ac and dc.

2
2. System Types and Configurations

There are many possible applications for solar water pumping, especially when considering
that the pump can be combined with energy storage or other types of generation to make it
more versatile. However, this guideline is related to solar only systems. These would typically
be used for supplying water for a village, an individual residence or a resort. Other potential
applications could be for agricultural irrigation or water for animals. In general battery storage
is not used, storage in the form of water tanks, often elevated to provide pressure for delivery,
takes the place of batteries in most of these systems.
A solar water pump theoretically consists of three key components: a pump control system that
may be just an on-off switch or may be a more complex electronic unit, a motor and the pump;
however, in practice they are considered as one unit and generally called the “water pump” or
in this guideline the “solar water pump”.
The different system configuration can be defined by:
• How the electric pump is powered (dc or ac);
• The mounting of the water pump (submerged, floating or on the surface);
• The type of the water pump (roto-dynamic or positive displacement)

2.1 How the electric pump is powered?

The solar water pump could be either a dc powered pump (Figure 2) or an ac power pump
(Figure 3).

Figure 2: DC powered pump

Figure 3: AC powered pump

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The “pump controller” in the dc powered pump system would typically include a maximum
power point tracker (MPPT) to ensure that the solar array is delivering power at its peak power
point.
The “pump controller” in the ac powered pump system would include an MPPT as well as a dc
to ac inverter in order to operate the ac electric motor which is part of the water pump. In larger
systems these should be three-phase inverters to operate three-phase motors.

2.2 Type of water pump systems

Three types of solar water pumping systems are available including:

• Borehole/well (submersible) pumps;
• Surface pumps; and
• Floating pumps.
It is assumed that the first two will be the most common in the Pacific and this guideline will
detail how to determine the dynamic head for these types of systems.
2.2.1 Borehole/Well Pump (Submersible Pump)
The most common water source in the Pacific is a borehole or well, fitted with a submersible
pump. Figure 4 shows a typical borehole pump system.

Figure 4: Borehole pump system

In these systems the solar water pump is located within the borehole or well. These pumps are
generally available for 100 mm (4 inch) and 150 mm (6 inch) boreholes. The solar array is
typically located near the top of the borehole/well and the water is generally pumped to a
storage tank. The pump controller is typically located at the solar array. The pump and pump
controller are interconnected using waterproof cables.

2.2.2 Surface Pump

These systems are typically used in shallow wells or boreholes and also lakes, rivers and any
open water source that is near or on the surface. The solar water pump is located above the

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water level and a suction pipe is used for drawing the water from the water source as is shown
in Figure 5. In the Pacific they could be installed beside rivers and streams, though flooding
may be a serious problem. It is not anticipated that there will be many sites associated with
dams built specifically for the pumping system though that may be the case for some larger
irrigation water supplies.
2.2.3 Floating Pump
If the water source is a large dam or large open well, then a floating pump may be installed. In
these systems the water pump component is mounted within a floating device such that the
pump inlet is located within the water source. These systems remove any requirement for a
suction pipe and the problems that can be associated with them, though a floating pump does
usually require a flexible outlet pipe due to changes in the level of the water over time.

Figure 5: Surface pump system

Figure 6: Floating pump system

The solar array is located on land near the pump and the water is typically pumped to a storage
tank (or water troughs) located well away from the actual water source. The pump controller is
typically located near the solar array with the pump and pump controller interconnected using
waterproof cables.

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2.3 Types of pumps
There are two main types of pumps
1. Roto-dynamic pumps (the most common being centrifugal pumps), and
2. Positive displacement pumps (e.g. diaphragm pumps)
Both types of pumps can form part of the water pumping systems described in section 2.2.
2.3.1 Roto-Dynamic
These types of pumps transfer the energy of the pump to the water by a rotating component of
the pump (i.e. an impeller, propeller or rotor). Figure 7 shows how roto-dynamic pumps can be
classified further.

Figure 7: Classification of roto-dynamic pumps

Detailing the operation of each of these types of pumps is outside the scope of this guideline. A
detailed training course would focus on explaining the various types of pumps and their
relative advantages and disadvantages.
2.3.2 Positive Displacement
Positive displacement pumps work by drawing a known amount of water into a chamber, and
then pushing it out again through the mechanical action of the pumping elements. Pressure
actuated valves ensure that the water flows only in the right direction.
Figure 8 shows how positive displacement pumps can be further classified.

Figure 8: Classifications of positive displacement pumps

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2.4 Designing and Selecting Solar Water Pumping System (Summary)

The steps in designing and selecting solar water pumping system are summarised as follows:
i. During a site visit:
a. Determine the water source and, based on the characteristics of the water source and
the water’s end usage, select the appropriate solar water pumping system to be
installed.
b. Determine the daily or weekly water requirement and verify that the water resource
availability over the long term can meet the requirements.
c. Determine where the solar array will be located.
d. Determine where the water pump will be located.
e. Determine the length of cables required between the solar array, pump controller and
water pump.
f. Determine where and how the water will be stored.
g. Measure the static head for the site.
h. Measure the total distance from the water source to the final location of the water.
i. Determine and measure any land irregularities (hills, ditches, etc.) that the piping
system must traverse.
ii. Determine the solar irradiation for the selected site on an annual and a monthly basis.
iii. Select the size and type of the water pipe to be used to transfer the water from the source to
its storage tank or its final destination if there is no storage tank.
iv. Make an estimate of the expected dynamic head and select a possible solar water pumping
system using either manufacturers’ tables or an appropriate computer program, accounting
for available solar irradiation. This will then provide information on the maximum flow
rate.
v. Use the estimated maximum flow rate and calculate the frictional losses (flow friction
head) and determine the dynamic head.
vi. Choose a type of pump consistent with the quality of the water being pumped and the
overall characteristics of the site (especially the particulate content of the water such as
mud or coral sand).
vii. With the final calculated dynamic head finalise the selection of the solar water pumping
system from either manufacturer’s tables or a computer program.

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3 Site Visit
The designer shall obtain all the information as specified in this section either during the site
visit or during follow up visits if required.
3.1 The type of solar water pumping system to be installed.
The type of solar water pumping system: borehole/well (submerged), floating or surface will
depend on the water source. If the source is a borehole (proposed or existing) or deep well,
then a submersible pump that fits the borehole or well should be selected. If the water source is
a river, then a surface pump should usually be selected. If the water resource is a shallow well,
pond or lake, then either a surface or floating pump may be selected.
During the site visit the designer selects the pumping system that is most suitable for the site.
If the system will be for a borehole then the designer must obtain information on the diameter
and depth of the borehole. Diameters of boreholes are typically 100 mm (4 inch) diameter or
150 mm (6 inch) diameter but they can be greater.
3.2 Determine the daily or weekly water requirement.
The amount of water required each day or week will depend on the actual application. If the
water is being used within a village, household or a resort then data should be available on the
amount of water required per person in the village, household or resort. This information could
be obtained from the relevant government departments or could already be known by the
client. The designer might need to have an ongoing consultation with the client and
government departments to determine what is the actual daily volume of water required.
As an example, the World Health Organisation (WHO) states that a person requires, as a
minimum, 20 litres (5.3 US gallons) per day. If the site includes showers, washing machines
etc. then the water usage would increase accordingly.
If the water is required for agricultural use, then the client should know their water
requirements or again it may be available from relevant government departments.
3.2.1 Verifying water resource: borehole or well pump
When a borehole/well is created, the person preparing the borehole/well should undertake tests
to determine the maximum flow possible from the borehole or well. The designer must obtain
this information from either the client or the person/company who developed the water source.
If this information is not obtained further tests must be done to obtain the maximum flow
possible. This information is generally provided in litres per minute or cubic metres per hour
(or gallons per minute). When selecting the solar water pumping system, the designer shall
ensure that the system does not have a maximum flow rate greater than the borehole can
provide.

8
The volume of water pumped by a solar water pumping system varies throughout the day
because the available solar power (irradiance) varies throughout the day. This results in the
maximum flow rate possible from the borehole pump only being achieved when the solar
power (irradiance) is at its highest value during the day and also means that there will be no
water pumped after sunset and before sunrise. There may be times, because of this maximum
flow rate possible from the borehole and the fact that the solar water pumping system can only
provide a specified total volume of water over a day, that a system cannot be selected to meet
the total daily water volume required. If this occurs the designer may need to include batteries
to allow the water to be pumped more slowly and more evenly over more hours of the day. If
the borehole is close to having the capacity to deliver the needed water during the day, another
alternative could be selecting an oversized solar water pumping system that intentionally has a
maximum flow rate greater than that being provided by the borehole. During the periods of
lower solar power (irradiance) the system will be pumping less than the maximum flow rate of
the borehole but still more than the possible flow from a smaller pump. For the periods when
the available solar power results in a pumped flow rate greater than that possible from the
borehole, the designer can include in the system installation a set of water sensors which turn
the water pump off when the water falls below the level of the intake of the pump. It will
restart when the source refills. The designer shall design the sensors such that there is not an
excessively rapid cycling of the pump. Also arranging the solar modules so half face east and
half face west will make the water delivery more even over the day by lowering the noon-time
pumping rate but increasing the morning and afternoon rates.
3.2.2 Verifying water resource: surface pump.
If the water resource is a flowing stream, then the designers should try to determine if any
government department has data on the flow rates for the stream. This will help to determine if
there is a sufficient flow the year around for the required volume of water to be removed daily.
As with the borehole/well pump, arranging half the modules to face east and half to face west
will result in a more even rate of pumping over the day. If the pumping rate is still too high,
then battery storage may be necessary to extend the time the pump will operate. Ideally the
designer should only design and install a system when it is known that the stream can provide
that volume of water on a daily basis. The client should be informed that if the stream level
lowers due to the pumping then the amount of pumping will have to be reduced.
If the water resource is a lake or pond (or even a dam), then the designer should obtain
information on the total volume of water in the source. The designer should then estimate how
many days or weeks storage there is in the source and inform the client. The designer should

9
also find information on how the lake, pond or dam is filled and whether this will affect the
amount of water that can be pumped daily.
3.3 Determine where the solar array will be located
The solar array should be located as close as is practical to the solar water pump, however it
should be located where it is not shaded through the hours of 8am to 4pm. Section 5 provides
more information on determining the available solar irradiation. If the system is shaded
sometimes during the day, then the calculated available irradiation shall allow for the effect of
the shading. Note that shading will vary, sometimes dramatically, due to the movement of the
sun toward the north and south over a year’s time and from east to west over the day.
The worst case shading condition should be the one used for the calculation. For solar water
pump systems, the solar array is typically provided with ground mounted stationary frames or
frames that track the sun in two or three dimensions. It is recommended that because of
cyclones and maintenance problems, that only stationary ground mounted arrays should be
selected for systems in the Pacific Islands.
If the system being installed is a surface system and the water resource is a stream, then the
solar array should be located above the known maximum flood levels of the river or protected
against damage due to flooding.
3.4 Determine where the pump will be located.
The type of water pump is based on the water resource which helps determine the preferred
location of the water pump.
3.4.1 Location of Borehole or Well Pump
When the borehole was installed the person drilling the borehole or digging the well should
have determined the total depth of the borehole/well, the static water level and drawdown level
(refer Figure 10). When water is being pumped the water level in the borehole or well will drop
from the static level to the drawdown level. It will then stay at this level for a specified flow
rate (litres per second or gallons per minute) The designer shall obtain this information either
during the site visit or by contacting the borehole driller or well digger after the site visit.
The designer shall then determine the depth of the borehole or well pump and the bottom. The
pump intake should be a minimum of 1 metre (39 inches) above the bottom of the borehole or
well and the top of the pump shall be below the drawdown level by at least 1 metre (39 inches).
3.4.2 Location of Surface Pump
Surface pumps have a specified maximum suction head. This is typically no greater than 8
metres (26.3 feet) but often only from 6.5 metres (21.3 feet) to 7.5 metres (24.6 feet). This
suction head includes the static head plus the frictional head of the selected suction pipe (refer

10
section 7.5). The designer shall locate the pump so that the actual suction head is lower than
the maximums specified by the manufacturer.
If possible, the surface pump shall be located above the known flooding level of the river and
intake structures built to resist damage due to flood conditions. If not, the client should be
informed and told what to do in the event of a flood.
3.5 Determining length of cables required.
Cables are required to connect the solar array to the pump controller, and the pump controller
to the pump motor. Typically, the pump controller will be located on or near the solar array
frame. Therefore, the distance between the array and the pump controller is often known by the
manufacturer/supplier, however this distance should be clarified while at the site.
The critical distance is that between the pump controller and the pump. This must be
determined during the site visit so the correct size cables are selected to avoid voltage drop
issues and that the correct length of cable is either supplied with the complete system or
obtained prior to system installation.
For surface mounted pumps the length of cable shall be dependent on the location of the solar
array/pump controller and solar water pump. Determine how the cable will be installed
between the pump controller and the pump to avoid the risk of mechanical or local fauna (e.g.
rat) damage. For borehole/well pumps the length of cable will be dependent on the location of
the solar array/pump controller and the borehole/well and plus the depth that the pump will be
located below the ground level.
3.6 Determine where and how the water will be stored.
In consultation with the client, the designer shall determine where the pumped water will be
stored. This is required in order to determine the static head and the length of the water pipe
used to transfer the water from the source to the point of storage. For this guideline and for
simplicity it assumed that the water will be stored in a storage tank. It is acknowledged that if
the system is to be used for irrigation a storage tank might not exist. In the case of stock
watering systems, the drinking troughs may be considered all or part of the storage.
The advantage of a storage tank is that it can be used to store excess water on the days when
the solar energy (irradiance) is greater than the value used in selecting the solar water pumping
system. This excess water can then be available on the days (and nights) that the solar
irradiance is less than the value used in selecting the solar water pumping system. Basically,
the storage tank is an energy storage system much like a battery. The reliability of the water
supply will increase with the size of the storage tank. For installations requiring high reliability
of supply, at least 5 days of storage should be provided in order to have water available even
during a week of cloudy weather.

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3.7 Measure the static head for the site.
The static head is the vertical distance between the point where the pump obtains the water and
the point where the pump discharges the water.

Figure 9: Total static head of a solar water pumping system

Figure 10: Static Head for submersible water pump.

During the site visit the designer shall determine the static head. How this is determined will
vary whether the water source is a borehole/well using a submersible pump or a river or lake
and using a surface pump. Note that the upper limit of the head measurement is the height of
the maximum level of the outlet pipe and the lower limit of the head measurement is the
drawdown level of the water (the level of the water at mid-day when the pump is operating at

12
its maximum flow rate). The pump must be capable of exceeding this static head if any water is
to be delivered from the outlet pipe into the storage tank.
3.7.1 Calculating Static Head- Borehole/Well Pump
Figure 10 shows the static head for a submersible borehole pump. It is the vertical distance
between the drawdown level and the highest point in the output pipe.
This can be specified as: Static head = Drawdown level + Static water level + Lift from surface
Note that Lift from surface level describes the distance from the pump location on the surface
to the maximum elevation of the delivery pipe.
3.7.2 Calculating Static Head- Surface Pump
Figure 11 shows the static head for a surface level pump. It includes the total vertical distance
between the water level of the river (or dam) and the top level of the piping into the storage
tank. This can be specified as:
Static head = Suction lift + Lift from surface level
Lift from surface level describes the distance from the pump location on the surface to the
maximum elevation of the delivery pipe.

Figure 11: Static Head for Surface Level Pump

3.8 Measure the distance between water source and the location where water is pumped.
The designer shall determine the total distance between the water resource and the location
where the pumped water is stored. This distance is required for determining the length of water
pipe required to move the water from the source to the storage tank. It is also used to determine

13
the diameter of the water pipe required and frictional losses (frictional head) and ultimately the
water pump and solar array rating.
Note that the suction lift distance is limited by the type of pump being used and must be
measured separately.
3.8.1 Borehole/Well Pump
For the borehole/well pump the depth of the water pump in the borehole/well determines the
length of pipe between the pump and the surface. The designer shall measure the distance
between the top of the borehole/well to the storage tank. Hence the total length of water pipe
required is: Distance from top of submersible pump to top of borehole/well + distance between
borehole/well and the outlet at the storage tank.
3.8.2 Surface Pump
For the surface pump there will be two water pipes:
• The suction water pipe; and
• The discharge water pipe.
The lengths of both of these pipes need to be determined individually.
The designers shall measure the physical distance between the water surface at the inlet level
and the location of the surface pump. This distance is to determine the length of the suction
pipe and hence for calculating the frictional losses (refer section 7) of this pipe. As stated in
section 4.4.2, the designer shall install so that the total suction head is less than the maximum
specified by the manufacturer. The suction head = suction lift + the frictional head.
The designer shall measure the total length of the discharge pipe from the surface pump to the
outlet at the storage tank. The two pipes: suction and discharge will be used in determining the
total dynamic head for the site.

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4 Solar Irradiation
Solar data obtained from ground mounted instruments near the site that have collected at least
three and preferably more than five years of solar data should be the first choice for estimating
the solar energy input at the site. Such data may be available from various local sources;
typically, the national meteorological or agricultural departments.
Solar irradiation (energy) is typically provided as kWh/m 2, however, it can also be stated as
daily Peak Sun Hours (PSH). This is the equivalent number of hours with a solar irradiance
(power) of 1kW/m2. Solar water pump manufacturers typically specify their tables for a
specified solar irradiation stated in kWh/m2.

Figure12: Solar Irradiation (Energy)

4.1 Array Orientation and Tilt
For maximum solar input at latitudes higher than 10 degrees, the fixed ground mounted array
frame usually should be orientated towards the equator. This means that in the southern
hemisphere the modules usually should point north while in the northern hemisphere they
usually should point south. For latitudes less than 10 degrees the orientation is not an issue.
Also, the tilt should never be less than 10 degrees because that much tilt is needed to allow rain
water run-off fast enough to help clean the modules. The available solar irradiation (energy)
varies somewhat with the tilt of the array frame as can be seen in Table 2. As is noted
separately in this Guideline, in some cases having half the modules tilted toward the east and
half toward the west may result in more water being pumped over a 24-hour period. For
maximum output, solar modules that track the position of the sun will increase the pump output
but their high installation cost and their complexity that results in high maintenance
requirements have not allowed them to be used successfully in the islands. Here is a small table
mentioning the latitudes of different Indian states.

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Table1: Best angle for solar panels for latitudes of different Indian states
States Latitudes
Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal 30 - 36 degrees
Pradesh, Punjab
Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Bihar, Haryana, Rajasthan 24 - 30 degrees
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, West Bengal, 18 - 24 degrees
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Odisha
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, 12 - 18 degrees
Telangana

Along with the angle for solar panels, there are some other factors that you should keep in
mind during the installation process so that you get the maximum energy output from the
panels. If the water use requirement is constant throughout the year and there is no significant
seasonal difference in cloudiness, then the solar array will typically be tilted at latitude plus 15
degrees but the best orientation will depend on many factors including the patterns of water
use, the presence or absence of battery storage, the effects of seasonal cloudiness, and the
characteristics of the pumping system being installed. If the water resource requirement varies
throughout the year, the designer will need to select a tilt angle and array size such that the
solar water pumping system can provide the water required for all months.
4.2 Shading of Solar Array
The array should be located in an unshaded location. If shade is unavoidable then the designer
shall use appropriate tools (e.g. Solar Pathfinder) to determine the loss in irradiation due to the
shading and shall choose a location with minimum shade over the year. The designer shall use
a calculated or computed irradiation value when selecting the solar water pumping system.

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5 Selecting the water pipe
Water pipe can be supplied as metal pipes, PVC pipes (hard plastic pipes) or polyethylene
pipes (commonly known as poly pipe). Because of its flexibility poly pipe is often used with
solar water pumping systems as the suction pipe for a surface pump and for the pipe within a
borehole for the borehole pump. For the discharge pipe (from the top of a borehole/well and
the discharge pipe from a surface pump) the designer should select the most appropriate pipe
suitable for the location that the pipe will be installed. In many cases it would be poly pipe for
the intake pipe and possibly for the discharge pipe as well. However, if there is a risk that the
pipe could be mechanically damaged then a pipe with stronger walls will be required.
Metal pipe could be selected, however the disadvantage of galvanised iron pipe (most common
type of metal pipe) in the Pacific is that it will ultimately rust and hence should be avoided.
Galvanised iron pipes also have a slightly rough interior surface and usually have higher
friction losses than do plastic pipes. PVC pipes with extra wall thickness for water pumping
applications do exist and could be selected. If the plastic pipes are going to be exposed to the
sun, they should be UV resistant or must be painted with a UV blocking paint suitable for the
pipe material.
5.1 Rating of Pipes
The thickness of the water pipe wall mainly determines the water pressure that the pipe can
withstand. The pressure that will affect the pipe comes from the water pump itself — that is it
generates a water pressure sufficient to move the water from one location to another at the
needed rate. This pressure can be determined from the dynamic head that the water pump must
overcome. Water pipe specifications include the pressure rating for the pipes. The designer
shall ensure that they select a pipe suitable for the maximum pressure (head) possible for the
system. Table 2 shows the pressure unit conversions.
Table 2: Pressure Unit Conversions
Pressure Pounds Per
Kilopascals Metres of Feet of
Nominal Bars Square Inch
(kPA) Water Head Water Head
(PN) (PSI)
4 400 41 134 4 58
6.3 630 65 211 6.3 90
8 800 82 268 8 116
10 1000 102 335 10 145
12.5 1250 123 419 12.5 181
16 1600 163 536 16 229
20 2000 204 669 20 290

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For metric pipes, Polyethylene (PE) pipes are designated by their outside diameter or DN (for
Diameter Nominal). For water and other general pressurised applications, the maximum
allowable operating pressure (MAOP) with a minimum service coefficient is designated by the
pressure rating or PN. The standard dimension ratio (SDR) of a PE pipe describes the geometry
of the pipe and is the ratio of the outside diameter and the minimum wall thickness. Pipes with
a higher SDR have a thinner wall than pipes with a low SDR. The SDR can be related to the
MAOP using the material Minimum Required Strength (MRS) and the service coefficient
appropriate for the application.
PE pipes are either classified as PE80 or PE100. The designations PE80 and PE100 are based
on the long-term strength of the respective materials, known as the minimum required strength
(MRS) in accordance with ISO 12162. The designations are provided in Table 3.

Table 3: PE Classifications
Material Designation Minimum Required Strength (MRS) MPa
PE 100 10.0
PE 80 8.0

Table 4 shows the comparison of SDR and Pressure Ratings denoted by PN (‘Pressure
Nominal’) which are used to specify a particular water pipe.
Table 4: SDR and PN Comparison
SDR 41 33 26 21 17 13.6 11 9 7.4
PE80 PN 3.2 PN 4 - PN 6.3 PN 8 PN 10 PN 12.5 PN 16 PN 20

PE100 PN 4 - PN 6.3 PN 8 PN 10 PN 12.5 PN 16 PN 20 PN 25

Metric water pipes are sold based on their outside dimensions and their SDR ratings.
5.2 Friction in Pipes
To force water to flow through a pipe there must be certain pressure at the inlet to the pipe. For
there to be a flow of water, the inlet pressure must overcome both the static head and the
friction losses encountered as the water flows through the pipe. When there is flow through the
pipe. Thus, for the same inlet pressure, the pressure at the discharge end of the pipe will be
reduced relative to no-flow conditions because of the drop in pressure due to friction losses in
the pipe.
The larger the pipe the lower the percentage of the water volume flowing actually comes in
contact with the inner surface of the pipe, so for a specified flow rate the friction losses will be
less in a larger pipe than in a smaller pipe. Also, the rougher the inner surface of the pipe, the

18
higher the friction losses. Galvanized iron pipe has a rougher inner surface than most plastic or
copper pipes and therefore tends to have somewhat higher friction losses.
Pipe manufacturers provide tables or graphs depicting the friction loss in their pipes at various
flow rates. These are generally expressed as friction head per length of pipe for a specified
flow. The distance value can be per metre of pipe or, as is often expressed, per hundred metres
of pipe. Hence, by knowing the flow rate in a pipe the diameter of the pipe and the length of
the pipe, the friction losses (and therefore the dynamic head) can be determined using the
manufacturer’s tables or graphs.

Figure 13: Chart showing friction lass for various types of Poly Pipes (metric)
(Source: Vinidex Pty Limited)
The Australian Pump Manufacturers Association, Ltd. (https://pumps.asn.au) produces a Pipe
Friction Handbook that is a useful resource that provides friction losses for a variety of pipe
types for various flow rates. Figure 12 (provided in Appendix 2 in higher resolution) provides
an example of a friction loss curve for various metric size poly pipes. It shows the flow in litres
per second and the friction loss in metres per 100 metres of pipe. A corresponding graph for
imperial pipe would show the flow as gallons per minute and the loss in pounds per square inch
(PSI) per 100 feet.
5.3 Flow Rates
In solar water pumping systems without batteries, the flow rate will vary during the day due to
the variations in available solar energy. The solar pump manufacturer should provide
information on the maximum flow rate for a particular solar water pumping system that is

19
based on the pump selected for the complete system operating at a specified input power. The
actual flow rate will also vary depending on the actual total dynamic head of the system. So, at
first it is very difficult to estimate what the actual maximum flow rate in the water pipe will be
for a specific pump. The solar pump manufacturer will often provide the maximum possible
flow rate for the water pump that is supplied with the system. Figure 13 shows the actual flow
rates of three of the pumps used in a Mono Pump surface water pumping system.

7.4 USG/min 17.96 USG/min 34.34 USG/min

Figure 14: Maximum Flow Rates of three pumps used in Mono Surface Solar water Pumping
Systems (Source: Mono Pumps)
The designer must use this maximum flow rate when undertaking the initial estimate of the
friction losses in the selected water pipe. The final actual maximum flow rate in litres per
second (or gallons per minute) for the system will often be less than the maximum for the
pump because of the effect of the actual dynamic head on the system. To help explain this,
Tables 7a and 7b show the data sheets provided by Mono Pumps for selecting a solar water
pumping system using their surface pump. The three colours match the three different pumps
shown in Figure 13. It can be seen that as head increases for a specific pump and array size (in
Watts) remains constant, the maximum volume of water in m 3 (multiply by 3785 to obtain
number of gallons per day) being supplied over the day is reduced; this would be reflected by a
reduced maximum flow rate.
Table 5a: Daily Flow in m3 for surface Mono Solar Water Pumping Systems

20
Table 5b: Daily Flow in gallons for surface Mono Solar Water Pumping Systems

Note:
1. The three colours in the table match the three pumps shown in Figure 13.
2. The daily flow is based on a tracking solar system and for an irradiation of 6.5kWh/m2 per day.
A tracking array system produces approximately 30% more than a stationary system so the
flow in Tables 7a and 7b can be multiplied by 0.77 (100/130) to obtain the approximate output
of a stationary system. The actual difference between tracking and non-tracking solar will be
less when there are many clouds as is often the case in the Pacific Islands. Therefore assuming
0.77 in creating the design is conservative and should not result in an actual water delivery that
is less than the calculated value.
5.4 Selecting the size of water pipe
The length, diameter and material (which affects the roughness of internal surfaces) of the
water pipes all affect the dynamic head of the pumping system. The length of the water pipe is
fixed by the on-site conditions in relation to the location of the water resource and the water

21
delivery location (often a water tank). A larger diameter and/or pipe with a smoother internal
surface will reduce the frictional head so installing a larger diameter and smoother internal
surface pipe will possibly reduce the size of the pump required. However, a larger diameter
and/or smoother internal surface pipe will generally also increase the system costs.
The selection process for the most appropriate water pipe will involve balancing the additional
costs incurred against the increased system efficiency. However, with a solar water pumping
system the solar array and its mounting is usually the costliest component so the objective is to
select the smallest solar water pumping system that can provide the daily required water.
Because the friction losses increase the overall effective head (total dynamic head) that the
solar water pumping system must meet, the designer shall select a size of water pipe to
minimise the effect of friction losses in the system. Unlike voltage drop in electrical systems
there is no maximum percentage frictional head loss specified. It is the designer’s role to
reduce the amount of frictional loss to minimise the total dynamic head of the complete system
while maintain a reasonable cost. This is done by using a larger diameter pipe, a pipe with a
smoother inside surface, using bends in the pipe that are not abrupt and minimizing the number
of valves or using low head loss type valves.
The process for selecting the size of water pipe is an iterative process. The overall dynamic
head is estimated based on the static head and a predicted total frictional head loss so that the
designer can then select a solar water pumping system that provides the required water volume
with the solar irradiation available at the site. It is recommended that the solar water pumping
system be simple and includes no more than a foot (nonreturn) valve and one or two gate
valves. The designer then obtains the data on the specific pump used in the selected solar water
pumping system. The specific data would be the size of the inlet and outlet that the water pipe
would be connected to Figure 14 a, b and c shows key dimensions of the three water pumps
shown in Figure 13 and used in the solar water pumping systems used in Table 7.

22
 Figure 15: (a) Dimensions of CP25 Pump (b) Dimensions of CP800 Pump (c) Dimensions of
CP1600 Pump (Source: Mono Pumps)
The designer should initially use pipe that is the same size as the inlets and outlets. The
designer then undertakes the frictional loss calculations for that size of water pipes using the
known maximum water flow for that solar water pumping system. If the frictional losses are
high, in particularly greater than the 3 to 5 metres (10 to 16 feet) assumed, the designer should
select a larger diameter water pipe and start again. As a result of this process the designer
selects the most appropriate sized water pipe for the system.
As stated in section 6.3, because the final actual flow rate will usually be less than that used in
the calculations for the friction losses, the overall result will be a lower total dynamic head and
potentially a greater volume of water provided by the selected solar water pumping system
than initially calculated.
5.5 Total Dynamic Head
The total Dynamic head includes:
• Static Head: this is the vertical distance as determined in section 4.6;

23
 • Frictional Head- the water that is transferred by the pump from the water source to the
storage tank must travel in pipes. These pipes restrict the flow of water due to friction and
therefore increase the actual head that the pump must meet. Section 6.2 only considered
the frictional head in a straight pipe. There are also frictional head components due to
bends, reductions in pipe diameter at connection points and valves. The designer must
determine all these frictional heads.
• Pressure Head: this is the head represented by the actual pressure (if any) required at the
outlet of the pipe. In solar only water pumping systems this pressure head is generally
ignored because a solar water pumping system with its variable energy resource is unable
to provide a constant flow and constant pressure all through the day. This is not a problem
when the system fills a tank or provides ditch type irrigation but In town water supplies or
sprinkler irrigation systems the water must reach these outlets with sufficient pressure for
the home owner in a village to provide water for showers, to provide water to a second or
higher level of the house or to operate the sprinklers in the case of a piped irrigation
system. For this guideline it is assumed that the water is stored in a tank and no pressure
head is required to be provided by the pump.
• Velocity Head: The head in metres at the discharge nozzle of the pump. This is required
for the water to be discharged from the water pipe into the storage tank. It is a function of
the velocity of the water and gravity. Typically, it is less than 1 metre. So, when there are
high static heads it is only a small part of total head but in low head installations it can be
significant.
In summary the total dynamic head = static head + friction head of complete water piping
system + velocity head at the discharge point.
Section 4.6 described how to determine static head while section 6.2 through to 6.4 describes
how to calculate friction loss (frictional head) in a straight water pipe only.
5.6 Calculating Total Frictional Head of Water Piping System
As stated in section 6.2 the frictional head of the pipe is based on the length of the straight
pipe, the maximum flow of the water in the pipe and the size of the pipe. Curves (Figure 12) or
tables (Table 6) can be used to determine the frictional head of the pipe based on known
maximum flow provided by the solar water pump manufacturer (section 6.3) and the size and
characteristics of the water pipe selected (section 6.4). Bends, reductions in pipe sizes, meters,
valves, etc. all increase the frictional losses of the overall water piping system.
The friction loss in pipe fittings is determined by the following formula: = K × v2/2g

24
Where K is the resistance coefficient, v is the velocity of the water in metres per second (m/s)
or feet per second (FPS), g is gravity (9.81m/s) or (32.185 f/s), K is dependent on the type of
fitting and the size and the size of the pipe that the fitting is connected to.
The K values for different types of fittings are provided by manufacturers and are also included
in the Pipe Friction Handbook referred to previously. If a solar water pumping system is
installed with poly pipe, then the main valves that will exist in the system generally will
include a foot valve (or non-return valve) and gate valves.
Tables 8 and 9 provides typical K values for gate valves and foot valves that are common in
solar water pumping systems.
Table 6: K Values for Some Fittings (metric)

Table 7: K Values for Some Fittings (US/imperial)

When determining the friction loss of the solar water pumping pipe system the designer shall
include the friction loss of the pipe and those of the various pipe fittings.
When determining the total friction loss for the piping system for a borehole/well pump there
will just be the discharge pipe and associated pipe fittings. If poly pipe (flexible plastic tubing)
has been used, then there might be a foot valve (also called non-return valve) on the outlet of
the submersible pump and a gate valve located at the exit of the borehole. The calculations will
then be similar to what has been shown in the worked examples for the surface pump.

5.7 Velocity Head

The velocity head is determined by the following formula: Velocity head= v2/2g
Where v is the velocity of the water in metres per second (m/s) or feet per second (FPS), g is
gravity (9.81m/s) or (32.185 feet/s). The velocity of the water is provided in the friction loss
tables and charts. The total dynamic head = static head + friction head of the complete water
piping system + velocity head.

25
This guideline has shown how to calculate the total dynamic head but the designer has to have
access to pipe friction data along with the K values for various water pipe fittings. There are
many websites, typically those provided by water pump suppliers and manufacturer’s or pipe
manufacturers, where this data is available. Many of these websites also include their own
calculators for determining the total dynamic head of a water pumping system.
Some websites that provide tools for calculating dynamic head or pipe friction losses include:
• http://www.pumpworld.com/total-dynamic-head-calculator.htm.
• http://www.ajdesigner.com/phppump/pump_equations_total_head.php
• http://www.csgnetwork.com/csgdynamichead.html
• https://www.nationalpump.com.au/calculators/friction-loss-calculator/
• https://www.tuhorse.com.au/total-dynamic-head-tdh-calculator/
Some include fittings while others do not. It is recommended that the designer determine where
they will be sourcing pipes and fittings and check the websites of those companies to see if
there are tools suitable for the pipe systems selected by the designer.

5.8 Suction Head

For a system where the water pump is a surface, the pump is effectively “sucking” the water
from the water resource – e.g. river, pond or lake, then the total dynamic head of the water
piping system should be analysed in two parts: total dynamic head on the suction side and the
total dynamic head on the discharge side.
The formulas for determining the total dynamic head is as follows: H = hd + hs + fd + fs + v 2/2g
Where H = Total Dynamic Head in metres (or feet) delivered by the pump
hd = static discharge head in metres (or feet)
hs = static suction head or lift in metres (or feet)
fd = friction head in discharge pipe in metres (or feet) (must also include pipe fitting friction)
fs = friction head in suction pipe in metres (or feet) (must also include pipe fitting friction)
v2/2g = the velocity head in metres (or feet) at the discharge of the pump
When a pump is operating in suction lift, that is the water level is below the pump, the pump
actually creates a vacuum in its inlet such that the pressure is lower than the atmospheric
pressure on the water surface and therefore the atmospheric pressure pushes the water into the
pump. There is a maximum head possible between the inlet of the pump and the water above
which the pump will not be able to draw water due to the atmosphere not having enough
pressure to push the water all the way up the inlet pipe). Since this is dependent on atmospheric
pressure the maximum height that a pump can lift at sea level under standard conditions of
atmospheric pressure is 9.81 metres (or 32.185 feet). But this varies according to the

26
temperature of the water and also atmospheric pressure which is reduced as the altitude of the
pump increases.
The pump manufacturer will specify the maximum head between the pump’s inlet and the
water resource. The total dynamic suction head must be less than the maximum head/lift
specified by the manufacturer. The total dynamic suction head = static suction head in metres
(or feet) + friction head in the suction pipe in metres (or feet). Note that this must also include
the pipe fitting friction value.
For most suction lift systems, the only pipe fitting will be a foot valve (non-return valve). If the
pump is self priming this may not be installed but it is still good practice to prevent the water
flowing backwards down the discharge pipe since It means a slower start for the water flow
because the inlet and outlet pipes must first fill with water before any will be delivered to the
outlet.

6 Selecting and installation of the solar water pumping system

Solar water pump suppliers/manufacturers match the solar array to the pump. Some
manufacturers will produce tables or graphs showing the estimated total daily water flow based
on specified daily irradiation and total dynamic head for different size systems given the solar
array capacity in peak watts (Wp). Many of the manufacturers have developed software for
selecting the most appropriate solar water pumping system for a specified head, flow
requirements and location. (Refer to section 8.4).
Tables 7a and 7b showed the daily flow for the mono surface pump systems where the array
was tracking the sun and the daily irradiation was assumed to be 6.5kWh/m2 per day. The
systems ranged from 200Wp to 1600Wp.

27
 Figure 16: Curves for Grundfos SQFlex Borehole Pumps
Once they have determined the daily flow requirements and the total dynamic head, the
designer can use these tables and curves to select the most appropriate pumping system.

6.1 Installation of the solar water pumping system

The installation of the solar pumping system should be performed safely and according to the
equipment manufacturer’s instructions. Many solar pump manufacturers/suppliers offer
complete packaged systems including the wires/cables between the array, pump controller and
water pump so that electrically the system is just a plug and play type system. In these systems
it is only the water pipe and associated fittings, along with any material required for the array
frame installation that need to be supplied by the system installer. Though the electrical wiring
may be supplied there are still some key principles for working with solar electricity that needs
to be understood by the system installer:
• In some Pacific Island countries, any electrical work on sections of the system that have a
voltage greater than 120V dc or 50V rms ac must be performed by a licensed electrician
or similarly qualified person. Many of the larger water pumping systems will be
operating in excess of 120V dc so any additional electrical wiring to that provided with
the system will need to be undertaken by a suitably qualified person for that country.
• In Pacific countries following the National Electrical Code from USA, extra low voltage
is defined as 60V dc and below. It is recommended that in all Pacific countries with any
system operating greater than that voltage that all care shall be undertaken to never come
in contact with the live wires.

28
 • Solar modules will produce electricity at full voltage whenever they are exposed to
sunlight, even early in the morning or late in the evening. Attempting to cover them (e.g.
with a blanket) to stop them from generating is not a safe practice.
• All wiring should be treated as live at all times.

6.2 Array structure installation

Typically, the array frame structure is provided with the solar water pumping system. If not,
the support frame may be made of galvanised steel, aluminium or wood that has been
chemically treated to prevent rotting, If the installer is sourcing the solar modules and array
frame separate from the water pumping system, then the installer shall ensure:
• The array mounting frames must be wind rated in accordance with relevant wind
loading standards. For those countries that have experienced Category 3 to Category 5
cyclones/ typhoons then the frames shall be designed and installed in a manner that will
remain intact in the wind speeds expected in a Category 5 cyclone/typhoon.
• The array structures shall be designed to withstand the aggressively hot and salty
atmosphere of the Pacific Islands.
• Installation of footings, posts, screws and/or in-ground fasteners shall follow
manufacturer’s instructions and associated installation manuals.
6.2.1 Installing a Post Array
A number of solar water pumping systems are provided with a single post mount array frame.
Others are provided with frames to be connected to one or more posts. It is important to follow
the instructions of the manufacturer and use the recommended materials and procedures in
installing the posts. In general, to install the post(s) first dig the appropriately sized hole. To
comply with wind loading standards, drill a hole in the base of the post and insert a reinforcing
rod through the hole with it extending at least 15 cm (6 inches) on both sides of the post, and
pour concrete around the post in the hole ensuring that the concrete extends past the end of the
rods at least 5 cm (2 inches) on both sides. Ensure the post is vertical and the array mount
when attached to the post will be facing due north (not magnetic north) in the southern
hemisphere and due south in the northern hemisphere. Vertical reinforcing rods should be
inserted into the concrete as shown in Figure 19.

29
 Figure 17: Typical single post array installation
Note: The post should meet the manufacturer’s minimum requirements. If using a wooden post, ensure
that it is treated against rot or insect damage. When using a metal pipe, ensure that it is galvanised iron
and is corrosion resistant. The depth in ground and the height above ground should be in accordance
with manufacturer’s instructions for the solar water pumping system that is chosen for that site.
6.2.2 Installing a Ground Mounted Array
The array frame should be mounted on a suitable foundation to meet the wind loading
requirements. This will usually include concrete footings or even a concrete slab covering the
area under the array. Consideration should be provided on how to minimise plant growth in the
vicinity of the ground mounted structure that will grow and shade the solar modules and
seriously reduce the system’s performance. The area under the solar modules should be
accessible for maintenance of the solar modules and for control of the growth of vegetation
under the array.
6.2.3 Mounting the modules onto the array frame
The installer shall follow the instructions of the manufacturer/supplier when mounting the
modules onto the array frame. The fixing of the solar modules to the mounting frame is
important. The manufacturer’s instructions will dictate the allowable clamping points to the
solar modules and the recommended installation methods to be followed. If the array and
framing are not installed according to the manufacturer’s instructions and are not sufficient to
suit the prevailing conditions, the structural loadings of this equipment under severe weather
conditions may result in damage to the array. If the system installer is sourcing the array frame
and modules separately from the solar water pumping system then the installer shall follow the
following basic rules:
• Solar modules should be attached to the array structure either using the mounting holes
provided by the solar module manufacturer or via the size and number of frame clamps
that are suitable for the maximum wind conditions at the site.

30
• The mounting of the PV modules should allow for the expansion and contraction of the
PV modules due to temperature changes under the expected operating conditions.
• Where modules are installed in such a way that a junction box is mounted to the side or
at the bottom of the module, care must be taken to ensure this is permitted by the
manufacturer.
• Drilling holes in the frame of the solar modules is likely to void the manufacturer’s
warranty.
• When considering using clamps, the solar module manufacturer’s installation
instructions shall be followed. The installer shall consider the following:
 amount of overhang allowed from clamp to the end of the module.
 size of clamp required.
 If the array frame is steel, the aluminium solar module frame must be
electrically isolated from the steel using a layer of non-conductive material
(e.g. Teflon film).
 Stainless steel screws, washers and nuts should always be used to fasten solar
modules to the array frame.

Figure 18: Example of Array Clamps

31
 Figure 19: Module Clamps
Note: Attaching a solar module in such a manner (e.g. drilling, pop riveting) that causes a hole in the
anodised aluminum frame of the solar module typically voids the manufacturer’s product warranty with
respect to defects in material and workmanship. If the installer intends to undertake an installation in
this manner, they shall obtain written verification from the manufacturer that it does not affect the
warranty. This shall be included in the system documentation supplied to the customer. Bolting modules
directly to the mounting frame and not using clamps in areas where typhoons/cyclones are likely should
be considered.

6.3 System Wiring

Solar water pumping systems are typically provided with all wiring appropriate for the
installation. This is why it is important to determine the distances between the solar array and
water pump during the site visits. This is particularly important for borehole/well pumps
because of the water-resistant cable that must be used to connect the pump. The installation of
the electrical components should be performed according to all applicable standards and the
manufacturer’s instructions.
6.3.1 Wiring of the array and pump controller
Many solar pumping system packages will include solar modules with interconnecting
cables/connectors set up for ‘plug and play’ by using plug and socket connectors. These
modules should be installed and connected according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The
output of the array shall be connected to the pump controller with the plug that has been
supplied by the manufacturer/supplier.

32
Precaution: Some solar arrays can deliver voltage levels over 60 dc. Always unplug the solar
motor pump controller from the array before working on any electrical wiring on the solar
motor pump controller or motor cables.
When wiring the array frame and the cable to the pump controller:
• Plastic cable ties are not to be used as the primary means of wiring support.
• Cables shall not lay on the ground without an enclosure or conduit.
• Cables shall be protected from mechanical damage. Where the presence of fauna (e.g. rats)
is expected to constitute a hazard, either the wiring system shall be selected accordingly, or
special protective measures shall be adopted.
• All external wiring must be protected from UV from the sun either by using UV rated
cables or installing the cables in UV rated enclosures/conduit that totally shields the cable
insulation from UV exposure.
• All conduits exposed to direct sunlight shall be suitably UV rated.
• The installer shall ensure that all cable connectors are connected securely to avoid the
possibility of a loose connection or the entry of moisture that may cause corrosion of the
connection.
• If the array voltage is greater than 60 V dc then the cables to the pump controller should be:
 installed in conduit or a suitable enclosure;
 double insulation of each conductor shall be maintained within the enclosure; and
 the wiring enclosure shall be labelled ‘SOLAR’ on the exterior surface of the
enclosure at an interval not exceeding 2 metres.
The size of the cable in cross sectional area (mm2 for metric cables and AWG for US cables)
should be specified by the solar water pump manufacturer/supplier for the required length of
cable. Under maximum load conditions the voltage drop from the most remote module in the
array to the input of the pump controller should not exceed 3% of the maximum power point
voltage (Vmp at Standard Test Conditions) of the array.
Correctly sized cables in an installation will produce the following outcomes:
 No excessive voltage drops (which equates to an equivalent power loss) in the cables.
 The current in the cables will not exceed the safe current handling capability of the
selected cables known as current carrying capacity (CCC) or ampacity.
6.3.1.1 Wiring of Arrays provided by the installer
If the solar modules/array have been supplied separately to the water pumping system then the
cables used within the PV array wiring shall:
• Be suitable for dc applications.
• Have a voltage rating equal to or greater than the PV array maximum voltage

33
 • Have a temperature rating according to the application.
• If exposed to the environment, cables should be UV-resistant, be protected from UV light
by appropriate protection, or installed in UV-opaque conduit that is itself UV-resistant.
• Be water resistant.
• If exposed to salty environments, use tinned copper, multi-stranded conductors to reduce
degradation of the cable over time due to corrosion.
• In all systems operating at voltages above 60V dc, cables shall be selected so as to
minimise the risk of earth faults and short-circuits. This is commonly achieved using
reinforced or double-insulated cables, particularly for cables that are exposed or laid in a
metallic tray or conduit. This can also be achieved by reinforcing the wiring.
• It is recommended that module string cables be flexible to allow for thermal/wind
movement of arrays/modules.
• Cables should comply with PV1-F requirements or UL 4703 or VDE-AR-E-2283-4.

Figure 20: Double insulated solar DC cable

In addition to the requirements specified in section 9.2.1 the installers shall ensure that
• All cable connectors used are waterproof and connected securely to avoid the possibility
of a loose connection.
• Only cable connectors that are the same type/model from the same manufacturer are
allowed to be interconnected.
• That the correct plug is used when interconnecting the array to the pump controller.
6.3.2 Wiring of pump controller to the pump.
The wiring between the pump controller and the water pump should be installed according to
applicable standards and the manufacturer’s instructions. If the surface pump or borehole/well
is not near the solar array/pump controller then the cable shall either be installed:
• as an aerial cable; or
• direct in the ground in appropriate conduit to a depth least 500 mm (20 inches); or
• installed in metal conduit on the ground surface.
Whichever way the cable is installed it shall be well supported and suitably mechanically
protected to prevent any damage to the cable. The connection to a surface water pump shall be
with the connectors provided by the manufacturer. The cable connected to a submersible pump

34
shall be suitable for installation in water. It shall not be used to support the weight of the
submersible pump unless specifically designed and intended for that purpose. The connection
to the pump motor shall use the waterproof connectors provided by the manufacturer. The
pump cable should be tied to the pump’s discharge water pipe (sometimes called the rising
main) every 3 metres (9.8 feet) with stainless steel cable ties. Leave a minimum of 100 mm (4
inches) of slack in the electrical cable between each cable tie to allow for stretch of the riser
main pipe.
6.3.3 Earthing/Grounding of the array frame.
• All exposed metal module frames and array mounting frames shall be earthed (grounded)
if the PV array has a PV array maximum voltage greater than 120V dc (Note this should
be 60V dc in countries adopting NEC standards)
• A minimum cable size of 4 mm2 (NEC states it shall be no smaller than 14 AWG) shall be
used but if the array structure is to be earthed (grounded) for lightning protection then it
should be at least 16 mm2 (6 AWG).
• Please check with the manufacturer’s instructions because some pump controllers need to
have the array frames earthed/grounded for lightning protection.
• Earth/ground connections shall be:
 arranged so that the removal of a single module earth connection will not affect the
continuity of the earthing/grounding or bonding connections to any other module;
 by purpose-made fittings providing earthing/grounding or bonding connections for
dissimilar metals and fitted according to the manufacturer’s instructions, or
 by purpose-made washers with serrations or teeth for the connection between the PV
module and mounting frame and fitted according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
• Self-tapping screws shall not be used.
• Ensure that rail joiners (splices) provide earth (ground) continuity. Some rail
manufacturers state that the use of a rail joiner (splice) provides earth continuity between
rails. If the manufacturer does not provide this information, an earthing strap shall be
installed across the joint.
• The earth/grounding cable can be insulated unsheathed cable. If exposed to direct sunlight
the cable shall have a physical barrier to prevent exposure to direct sunlight.
• The earth/grounding cable should be installed in parallel with and in close proximity to the
PV array cables (both positive and negative) and the pump controller cables until
connected to an earth rod connected in the ground.

6.4 Pump controller Installation

35
The pump controller is designed to interconnect the solar arrays dc output to the water pump.
For dc water pumps the pump controller will include a maximum power point tracker (MPPT)
to maximise the power transferred from the array and a dc motor pump controller. For ac water
pumps the pump controller will include an MPPT and an inverter to convert the solar array dc
power to ac.
These are typically installed on a bracket on the array frame or on the array mounting pole.
They should be mounted as per the manufacturer’s instructions and should be suitably
mechanically supported. The solar pump controller shall meet the appropriate ingress
protection (IP) rating for outdoor usage at the site. A minimum of IP56 is required and IP66 or
higher is preferred.
6.4.1 Sensor Installations
The solar installer shall install all sensors that are recommended by the manufacturer.
Water pumping systems that are pumping water into a storage tank generally include a float
switch which is installed in the water tank. This will include two sensing wires that
interconnect with the pump controller. When the tank is full the float switch disconnects the
power to the water pump and turns the pump back on when the water level falls to a lower
level. These cables will be installed between the tank and the pump controller, often this is
done by physically tying the sense wires to the discharge piping system.
Surface pumps can be installed with flow monitoring valves to protect the pump from
operating dry if there is a concern that the inlet might get blocked due to the local conditions. If
these are provided as part of the system, the valve will be installed on the outlet side of the
water pump and the two sense wires would be interconnected to the pump controller. The
pump controller will then turn power off the water pump in the event there is no water flow.
Note: This would require manual resetting the valve after the inlet has been cleaned.
Borehole/well pumps will include two sensors as shown in Figure 25. Both are sensing whether
there is water in the borehole/well. The lower sensor is located above the pump and will
disconnect power to the pump if water falls below the level of the sensor. The higher sensor is
located just below the recommended drawdown level and it will restart the pump when water
covers that sensor. The sensor cables are tied to the discharge water pipe as are the pump’s
electrical cable.

6.5 Water Pump and Water Pipe Installation

The system installer(s) should have experience with the installation of water pipes of the type
being used. The installer shall follow all manufacturer’s instructions.
6.5.1 Surface Pump and associated pipe Installation

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Pump Installation
It is recommended that all pumps be protected from direct sunlight. This can be done using a
sheet metal cover. All surface pumps are to be mounted on a secure base such as a concrete
pad. This will ensure pumps do not vibrate or move and thereby put stress on the water pipes.
Suction pipe Installation
When installing the suction pipe:
• The length of the pipe shall be kept at a minimum and if using rigid pipe keep the number
of bends to a minimum using sweeping bends instead of right-angle bends where practical.
• Unless the manufacturer recommends otherwise, a foot valve shall be installed at the end
of the suction pipe to ensure the suction pipe does not drain when the pump is not
operating.
• The suction pipe shall be installed such that the end of the suction pipe is clear from
obstruction (e.g. the bottom of the water source) and at a suitable depth below the water
surface, so as not to suck in any air or floating debris.
• The suction pipe and pump shall be full of water prior to commissioning the pump.
• The suction pipe should be buried if it is a long length of pipe, e.g. longer than 3 metres
(9.8 feet). Unburied pipe may result in the sun heating the water in the suction line which
can affect pump performance.
• If possible, ensure that no point in the suction pipe that the pipe is higher than the inlet of
the pump nor should there be a point where the pipe (on the water source side) is higher
than another section of the pipe between that point and the pump.
If the piping systems shown in Figures 23 (a) or (b) are unavoidable then an air release valve
should be located in the highest point (or points) of the pipe where the air can be trapped. It is
important that all air is removed from the system before the pump is started. This is achieved
by ensuring there is a stop valve (foot valve) on the suction inlet and that the line is “primed” –
filled with water such that all air is removed before the air release valve is closed.
The suction pipe should always be as large as the inlet on the pump. If it has to be larger, then
an eccentric reducer should be used; a concentric reducer should not be used. See Figure 24.

Figure 21: Suction Pipes at inlet of Pumps

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Discharge Pipe Installation
A gate valve shall be installed at the outlet of the pump. The pipe should be installed such that
it is continually rising to the tank if possible.
6.5.2 Submersible Pump Installation and associated pipe installation.
A typical installation is shown in Figure 25.
Pump Installation
The pump should be located at least 1 metre (3.3 feet) above the bottom of the borehole/well
and sufficiently below the “drawdown level” so as not to allow the pump to operate dry. It is
recommended that a water level sensing system (as described in section 9.3.1) be incorporated
into the system to prevent the pump ever operating dry. A stainless steel cable should be
connected to the pump and fastened to the borehole cap to support the weight of the pump and
to reduce the strain on the discharge pipe.
Pipe Installation
If recommended by the pump manufacturer, a non-return (check) valve should be installed in
the discharge pipe just above the pump. The discharge pipe should be screwed into the outlet of
the pump to help support the weight. If the discharge pipe is a poly pipe it is recommended that
it has a rating of PN 12.5 or higher. A gate valve should be installed in the discharge pipe after
it exits the borehole.

7.Maintenance
It is recommended that regular maintenance is carried out on the system to prevent failure of
the water supply due to an unexpected system shutdown. The following are some generic tips
for carrying out maintenance. However, the manufacturer may require additional specific
procedures which also must be carried out.

38
 Figure 22: Typical submersible pump installation

Solar Arrays and Modules:

• Clean modules (regularly as required);
• Check array structure for loose mounting connections;
• Check inter-module cables and other cables for mechanical damage;
• If the pump controller includes a data readout, check the array output voltage and current
and compare to what would be expected under the existing conditions.
Pump controller:
• Keep the unit clean and minimise the possibility of dust. Clean when required;
• Ensure the unit is not “invaded” by insects;
• Ensure all electrical connections are kept clean and tight;
• Follow manufacturers’ recommendations.
Pumps:
• Follow manufacturer’s recommendations.
Cables and Pipes
• Check that there is no visible damage.
8. Dynamic Simulation
Dynamic model for solar irrigation pumping system for both battery-based and battery-less
systems was built in MATLAB Simulink. Both models were simulated for same input data of
irradiance and temperature.
8.1. Battery-Less System.

39
In the battery-less system, a boost converter was used to increase the voltage level from 48V to
460V to run the induction motor to lift ground water. A three-level bridge converter was used
as inverter to convert the DC component into AC component. This system consists of a large
water tank which can store around 3100m3 of water and a limited integrator was used to
indicate the tank water level. 38.4kWp solar array provided the energy needed to run the
model. Figure 11 demonstrates the dynamic model of a battery-less solar irrigation pumping
system.
8.2. Battery-Base System.
Figure 12 shows the dynamic model of a battery-based solar irrigation pumping system. A
MPPT trucker was used here to operate the system at maximum power point. A two-level
bridge was used to convert the DC component into AC component. A three-phase transformer
was used instead of a boost converter to increase the voltage level to run the motor. A large
battery bank of capacity 3000Ahr was used to store energy for further use. In this system, the
same water tank (as in battery-less system) was kept to measure the volume of extracted water.

Figure 23: Dynamic modelling of battery-less system.

40
 Figure 24: Battery-base system.

8.3. Result and Analysis

8.3.1. Sensitivity Analysis.
Sensitivity analysis of solar irrigation pumping system was carried out during HOMER
optimization with 10% variation in load (119 kW/d, 107kWh/d, and 131kWh/d) and irradiance
(4.52kWh/m2/d, 4.07 kWh/m2/d, and 4.99kWh/m2/d). Figure 13(a) demonstrates how the total
NPC (Net Present Cost) fluctuates with the variation of irradiance and load. For lowest and
highest load demand, the total NPC decreases linearly with the increase of irradiance. In case
of 119 kWh/d load demand, the NPC falls sharply as irradiance goes higher. However, the Cost
of Energy (COE) is the same for any voltage demand at highest irradiance level as in Figure
13(b). However, for lowest irradiance level, the COE is the same for 119 kWh/d and
131kWh/d. The COE of lowest and average load demand become the same when the solar PV
modules get average irradiance. Figure 13(c) shows the similar relationship to Figure 13(a).
Operating costs are almost similar for lowest and average load demand at average irradiance.
For average load demand, there is a hike in operational cost at lowest irradiance, but it is
not true for 107 kWh/d load demand.
8.3.2. Simulation Result Analysis.
Simulation was done for both dynamic models in MATLAB Simulink. For battery-based
system, simulation was done for two seconds and five seconds for battery-less system (each
simulation required many hours of computer operation).
Battery-Less System.
PV module voltage and current at maximum power point are 35.8V and 8.68A accordingly. As
the selected panel is 72 cell panels and two is the number of panels connected in series per

41
string, the bus voltage should be 48V. Total number of strings is 62. Figure 14 shows the
irradiance, temperature, diode current, PV voltage, and PV current. Boost converter increased
the voltage PV voltage level. V dc denotes the boosted-up dc voltage in Figure 15. I ac and V
ac indicate the converted ac current and voltage accordingly. Figure 16(a) demonstrates the
rotor speed (rad/sec). The motor is running at full load and the rotor speed becomes 187 rad/s
or 1785.72 r.p.m which was expected.
Figure 16(b) shows the water discharge (m3/s) and tank water level (m). The average water
discharge during five seconds of simulation was 0.05m 3/s or 180m3/h. If the system runs for
eight hours, the induction motor will be able to lift 1440m 3 of water per day, which is close to
the estimated value. During the first five seconds, the water level in the large water tank (40m×
26m×3m) reached1.74𝑒−4 m. After eight hours of operation, the tank water level would reach
at least 1m and volume of lifter water per day would be 1040m3.

Figure 25: (a) Sensitivity analysis based on NPC; (b) sensitivity analysis based on COE; (c)
sensitivity analysis based on operating cost.
Battery-Based System.
The number of strings in PV module remains the same for battery-based system; else a small
transformer and a MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracker) are used here instead of a boost
voltage. Figure 17 shows the irradiance, temperature, diode current, PV voltage, and PV
current. Figure 18 shows DC voltage, DC current, and duty cycle of the MPPT tracker. The
voltage was 48V as expected. The value duty cycle was 0.45. The battery voltage, current, and

42
state of charge are demonstrated in Figure 19. Battery state of charge remains at 60% (initial
state of charge was decided as 60%) as the model was run for only two seconds. As the battery
was discharging, the direction of current was negative. Battery voltage was the same as
nominal voltage (48V). The inverted AC voltage and current are denoted by AC voltage and
AC current in Figure 20 which are output voltage and current. The transformer secondary
current and voltage are denoted by current and voltage accordingly.
The rotor speed of induction motor was 186 rad/s or 1776.17 r.p.m, similar as battery-less
system shown in Figure 21(a). Figure 21(b) demonstrates the water discharge (m3/s) and tank
water level (m). Water discharge was also the same as battery-less system, 0.05m3/s or
180m3/h. In case of battery-based system, the water tank size was kept similar (40m × 26m ×
3m) to measure the volume of total amount of lifted water.
During the first two seconds of simulation, the tank water level reached 4.24𝑒−5 m. After eight
hours of operation, the tank water level would reach at least 0.61m and volume of lifter water
per day would be 634.4m3. The excess energy would be stored as electrical form in battery
storage.

Figure 26: PV module components.

Figure 27: AC and DC voltage and current.

43
8.4 Effectiveness Analysis
Effectiveness of the alternative systems was compared from economic point of view. The
project lifetime was decided as 25 years. The economic comparison was done among four
alternatives: battery-less system, battery-based system, combination of both, and diesel engine
system based on total cost. All categories were simulated in HOMER to obtain the most
feasible solution of each group. Present market price (US$) of each component of each group
was selected separately as the system elements are different from each other.

Figure 28: (a) Rotor speed; (b) water discharge and tank water level.

Figure 29: (a) PV module components, (b) Battery storage.

Figure 30: (a) DC components, (b) System output voltage and current.
Figure 22(a) shows the total cost at the very beginning of the project (first year) while Figure
22(b) demonstrated the total cost of the project for twenty-five years of operational period.
Total cost of the diesel engine system is lowest for one year operational period, but it is the

44
worst solution for longer period. Moreover, diesel operated engine will cause pollution to the
environment. Table 3 gives an idea about the emission of diesel operated system.
Table 8: Emission

Pollutant Emission (kg/yr)

Carbon dioxide 44,566
Carbon monoxide 110
Particulate matter 8.29
Sulfur dioxide 89.5
Nitrogen oxides 982
Unburned hydrocarbons 12.2

Figure 31: (a) Rotor speed; (b) water discharge and tank water level.

Figure 32: (a) System cost for one-year period; (b) system cost for twenty-five year period.

Although the cost difference between the battery-less and battery-based system is higher on
first year of the project, the difference decreases strongly for a period of 25 years because there
is no replacement cost for water tank. The replacement cost of battery storage needs to be
considered.

45
9. Conclusions
Renewable energy system offers an alternative way for sustainable development of a country.
This project indicates that the solar water pumping system can be integrated to irrigation
systems in Bangladesh as it is feasible solution for longer period. For twenty-five years of life
cycle, solar PV system will cost half of the diesel engine operated system. Combination of both
battery storage and water tank is the economically feasible solution to meet the irrigation
challenges faced during dry season.

46
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