Chapter 3 ─ Data Transmission

CSE 3213

Data Transmission

• quality of the signal being

transmitted

The successful • characteristics of the

transmission of data transmission medium
depends on two factors:

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 Transmission Terminology
Data transmission occurs between transmitter and
receiver over some transmission medium.

Communication is
in the form of Unguided media
Guided media
electromagnetic (wireless)
waves. twisted pair,
air, vacuum,
coaxial cable,
seawater
optical fiber

Transmission Terminology (2)

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 Transmission Terminology (3)

Simplex

signals transmitted in one direction

eg. television

Half duplex

both stations transmit, but only one at a time

eg. police radio

Full duplex

simultaneous transmissions

eg. telephone

Note: elsewhere, half duplex is called “simplex”;

full duplex is called “duplex” (ITU-T definitions)
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Analog and Digital Data Transmission

Data

Entities that convey meaning, or information (data ≠ info)

Signals

Electric or electromagnetic representations of data

Signaling

Physical propagation of the signal along a medium

Transmission

Communication of data by propagation and processing of signals

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 Analog and Digital Data

Analog

Continuous values within some interval

e.g. sound, video

Digital

Discrete values

e.g. text, integers

Analogue and Digital Signals

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 Analog Signals

Digital Signals

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5
 Advantages & Disadvantages
of Digital Signals

cheaper

less susceptible to noise

but greater attenuation

digital now preferred choice

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Frequency, Spectrum and Bandwidth

Time domain concepts

Analog signal

Various in a smooth way over time

Digital signal

Maintains a constant level then changes to another constant level

Periodic signal

Pattern repeated over time

Aperiodic signal

Pattern not repeated over time

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 Periodic
Signals

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Sine Wave
Periodic continuous signal

Peak Amplitude (A)

maximum strength of signal

volts

Frequency (f)

rate of change of signal

Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second

period = time for one repetition (T)

T = 1/f

Phase (φ)

relative position in time
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 Examples of Sine Waves
s(t) = A sin(2πft +Φ)

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Wavelength (λ)
the wavelength of a
signal is the distance
occupied by a single
cycle

can also be stated as the especially when v = c

distance between two points • c = 3x108 m/s
of corresponding phase of (speed of light in free
two consecutive cycles space)

assuming signal velocity v,

then the wavelength is or equivalently
related to the period as
λf = v
16 λ = vT

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 Frequency Domain Concepts

Signal usually made up of many frequencies

Components are sine waves

Can be shown (Fourier analysis) that any signal is made up of
components at various frequencies; each component is a sine
wave

fundamental frequency

period of total signal = period of fundamental frequency

harmonic frequency = a multiple of fundamental frequency

Can plot frequency domain functions

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Frequency
Domain
Examples
S(f) is discrete

Figure a is discrete because (a) Frequency domain function for s(t)=(4/π)[sin(2πft)+(1/3)sin(2π(3f)t)]

the time domain function is
periodic. Figure b is
continuous because the time
domain function is aperiodic.

Single square pulse

S(f) is continuous

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(b) Frequency domain function for a single square pulse s(t)=1 for -X/2<t<X/2

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 19

Addition of
Frequency
Components
(a) sin(2πft)
(T = 1/f)

(c) is the sum of f and 3f

(b) (1/3)sin(2π(3f)t)

(c) (4/π)[sin(2πft)+(1/3)sin(2π(3f)t)]

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 Original
Time -> Harmonic spectrum

As we add
more
harmonics
the signal
reproduces
the original
more closely

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Analog Signaling

Frequency and peak amplitude are the most important.
amplitude (volts)

1 cycle

phase
difference
time
(sec)

frequency (hertz)
= cycles per second
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 Frequency
Domain
S(f) is discrete

Figure a is discrete because (a) Frequency domain function for s(t)=(4/π)[sin(2πft)+(1/3)sin(2π(3f)t)]

the time domain function is
periodic. Figure b is
continuous because the time
domain function is aperiodic.

Single square pulse

S(f) is continuous

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(b) Frequency domain function for a single square pulse s(t)=1 for -X/2<t<X/2

Spectrum and Bandwidth

Spectrum

range of frequencies contained in signal

Absolute bandwidth

width of spectrum

Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth)

narrow band of frequencies containing most of the energy

DC Component

Component of zero frequency

No DC component ⇒ average amplitude = 0

DC component is undesirable (avg amplitude ≠ 0)

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 Signal with DC Component

(a) s(t)=1+(4/π)[Sin(2πft)+(1/3)Sin(2π(3f)t)]

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Data Rate and Bandwidth

any transmission this limits the data rate
system has a limited that can be carried on
band of frequencies the transmission
medium

limiting square waves have

bandwidth most energy in infinite components
creates first few and hence an
distortions components infinite bandwidth

There is a direct relationship between

26 data rate and bandwidth.

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 Example

Case 1: Case 2:
f = 1 MHz f = ? MHz
R = ? Mbps B = 8 MHz
B = ? MHz R = ? Mbps

Case 3:
f = ? MHz
B = 4 MHz
R = ? Mbps
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Data Rate and Bandwidth (2)

Any transmission system has a limited band of frequencies

This limits the data rate that can be carried

Data rate

In bits per second

Rate at which data can be communicated

Bandwidth

In cycles per second, or Hertz

Constrained by transmitter and medium

Channel: a communication path

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 Data Rate and Bandwidth (4)
Consider a square wave

Data rate R = 2 x f (f: fundamental frequency)

Double the bandwidth ⇒ double the data rate
(other things being equal)

A given bandwidth can support different data rates (e.g., by
removing the component with the highest frequency).
However, it’s harder for the receiver to interpret the received
signal if R is high (i.e., more chances for errors).

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Data Rate and Bandwidth (5)

In general,

The greater the bandwidth ⇒ the higher the data rate

The higher the data rate ⇒ The greater the required effective
bandwidth

Keeping the same data rate:
Greater bandwidth ⇒ better quality of the received signal,
but greater cost

The higher center frequency ⇒ the higher the potential
bandwidth

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 Transmission Impairments (3.3)

Signal received may differ from signal transmitted

Analog - degradation of signal quality

Digital - bit errors

Caused by

Attenuation and attenuation distortion

Delay distortion

Noise

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Attenuation

Signal strength falls off with distance

Solutions: use repeaters, amplifiers

Depends on medium

Received signal strength:

must be enough to be detected

must be sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error

Attenuation is an increasing function of frequency
Solutions:

equalization

amplifying high frequencies more than low frequencies

Less of a problem with digital signals (why?)

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 Attenuation and Delay Distortion

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Delay Distortion

occurs because propagation velocity of a signal through a
guided medium varies with frequency

highest velocity near the center frequency

various frequency components arrive at different times
resulting in phase shifts between the frequencies

particularly critical for digital data since parts of one bit spill
over into others causing inter-symbol interference

solution: equalization

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 Noise
unwanted signals
inserted between
transmitter and
receiver

is the major limiting

factor in
communications
system performance
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Categories of Noise

Intermodulation noise

• produced by nonlinearities in the

transmitter, receiver, and/or
intervening transmission medium
• effect is to produce signals at a
frequency that is the sum or difference
of the two original frequencies
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 Categories of Noise
Crosstalk:

a signal from one line is picked
up by another

can occur by electrical
coupling between nearby
Impulse Noise: twisted pairs or when
microwave antennas pick up

caused by external electromagnetic unwanted signals
interferences

noncontinuous, consisting of
irregular pulses or spikes

short duration and high amplitude

minor annoyance for analog signals
but a major source of error in
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digital data

Thermal (White) Noise

Due to thermal agitation of electrons

Uniformly distributed
N = kTB (watts)
k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
T = kelvin degrees; B = bandwidth in Hz

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 Effect of noise

Signal

Noise
Logic
Threshold Signal+Noise

Sampling times
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 Data Received
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 Original data

Bit error
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Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

Effect

distorts a transmitted signal

attenuates a transmitted signal

signal-to-noise ratio to quantify noise

usually expressed using dB
S= average signal power
S
SNRdB = 10 log10 N= noise power
N

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 Channel Capacity (3.4)

The maximum rate at which data can be
transmitted over a given communication path, or
channel, under given conditions.

4 related factors: data rate, bandwidth, noise, error rate
(see next slide).

Our goal: get as high a data rate as possible at a
particular limit of error rate for a given bandwidth.

The main constraint on achieving this efficiency is
noise.

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Channel Capacity (cont.)

Data rate

In bits per second

Rate at which data can be communicated

Bandwidth

In cycles per second of Hertz

Constrained by transmitter and medium

Noise

Average level of noise over the communication path

Error rate

Error: 1 becomes 0; 0 becomes 1

At a given noise level, higher data rate ⇒ higher error rate (Fig
3.16)
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 Nyquist Bandwidth

Assume noise-free channels

Channel bandwidth limits the signal/data rate

Given bandwidth B, highest signal rate is 2B: C = 2B

If rate of signal transmission is 2B then signal with frequencies
no greater than B is sufficient to carry signal rate

Given binary signal, data rate supported by B Hz is 2B bps

Can be increased by using M signal levels: C= 2B log2M

however this increases burden on receiver

noise and other impairments limit the value of M

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Nyquist Bandwidth: Example

Binary signals

B = 3,100 Hz

C = 2B = 6,200 bps

Multi-level signal

M=8

C= 2B log2M = 2 x 3100 x 3 = 18,600 bps

Higher bit rate with the same bandwidth

Drawback?

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 Shannon Capacity Formula

Consider data rate, noise and error rate

Higher data rate shortens each bit so burst of noise affects more bits

At given noise level, high data rate means higher error rate

Capacity C = B log2(1 + S/R)

S/R = (signal power)/(noise power)

Typically measured at the receiver

Assumes only thermal noise
⇒ much lower rates are achieved in practice due to impulse noise,
attenuation distortion, delay distortion, etc.

Increase data rate by increasing S? Or increasing B?

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decibel (dB)

Normal ratio = Pout/Pin

1 bel (B) = log10(Pout/Pin)
(devised by engineers of Bell Telephone Lab, named after
Alexander Graham Bell)

1 decibel (dB) = 10 B = 10 log10(Pout/Pin)

Note: this is dimensionless unit (a ratio)

3 dB ≈ doubling of power
10 log10(2) = 10 x 0.3 = 3

6 dB ≈ 4 times the power

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 Why dB and not simple ratio?

Signal strength often falls off exponentially.

Net gain/loss in a cascaded path can be calculated with
simple addition/subtraction.

Signal to noise ratio (in decibels)

SNRdB= 10 log10 (signal/noise)

Note: “S/R” in the Shannon capacity formula is a normal
ratio, not dB.

See Example 3.6 in the textbook.

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Exercises

Calculate the thermal noise for an effective noise
temperature of 27oC and a 10 MHz bandwidth.

Given a channel for digital signals with a bandwidth of

1KHz, is it possible to transmit data at a rate of 6 Kbps
along this channel? If so, describe a method and any
conditions that must be satisfied. If not, explain why.

Repeat the previous problem for a data rate of 1 Kbps

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 Exercises (2)

Given a square wave signal represented by the following
Fourier series:
x(t) = cos(2πft) – (1/3)cos(6πft) +
(1/5)cos(10πft) – (1/7)cos(14πft)
The fundamental frequency of the signal is 5 KHz.
1. What is the effective bandwidth of the signal?
2. What is the data rate supported by the signal?

Given a SNR of 20 dB, calculate the capacity of a channel

with a bandwidth of 1 KHz.

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Required Reading

Chapter 3

Reference: Appendix 3A (decibels)

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