Data Collection

NOTES

DATA COLLECTION

CONTENTS
4.0 Aims and Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Observation Methods
4.2.1 Types of Observation Methods
4.2.2 Survey Research Design
4.3 Survey Methods
4.3.1 Personal Interviews
4.3.2 Telephone Surveys
4.3.3 Computer Associated Direct Interviews
4.3.4 Email Surveys
4.3.5 Internet/Intranet (Web Page) Survey
4.3.6 Mail Questionnaire
4.4 Questionnaire
4.4.1 Importance and Limitations of Questionnaire in MR
4.4.2 Characteristics of Questionnaire
4.5 Process of Questionnaire Designing
4.6 Interview
4.6.1 Structured Study
4.6.2 Non-structured Studies
4.6.3 Depth Interview (Non-disguised)
4.6.4 Projective Technique (Disguised Study)
4.6.5 Focus Group Interviews
4.7 Schedule Method
4.7.1 Purpose/Objectives of the Schedule
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Quantitative and Research 4.7.2 Types of Schedules
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4.7.3 Merits of Schedule Method
4.7.4 Limitations of the Schedule Method
NOTES
4.7.5 Characteristics of a Good Schedule
4.7.6 Suitability of Schedule Method
4.8 Secondary Data
4.8.1 Sources of Secondary Information
4.8.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data
4.9 Let us Sum up
4.10 Lesson End Activities
4.11 Keywords
4.12 Questions for Discussion
4.13 Suggested Readings

4.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
 Discuss the observation and survey methods
 Provide insight into questionnaire and process of its designing
 Explain the interview and schedule method
 Explain the secondary data

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The data directly collected by the researcher, with respect to the problem
under study, is known as primary data. Primary data is also the firsthand
data collected by the researcher for the immediate purpose of the study.
Observation and questioning are two broad approaches available for
primary data collection. The major difference between the two approaches
is that in the questioning process, the respondents play an active role
because of their interaction with the researcher.

4.2 OBSERVATION METHODS

In the observation method, only present/current behaviour can be studied.
Therefore, many researchers feel that this is a great disadvantage. A causal
observation could enlighten the researcher to identify the problem such as
the length of the queue in front of a food chain, price and advertising
activity of the competitor etc. Observation is the least expensive mode of
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data collection.
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Example: Suppose a Road Safety Week is observed in a city and the Data Collection

public is made aware of advance precautions while walking on the road.

After one week, an observer can stand at a street corner and observe the
number of people walking on the footpath and those walking on the road
during a given period of time. This will tell him whether the campaign on NOTES
safety is successful or unsuccessful.
Sometimes, observation will be the only method available to the
researcher.
Example: Behaviour or attitude of the children, and also of those who are
inarticulate.

4.2.1 Types of Observation Methods

There are several methods of observation of which any one or a
combination of some of them could be used by the observer. Some of
these are:
1. Structured or unstructured method
2. Disguised or undisguised method
3. Direct-indirect observation
4. Human-mechanical observation
1. Structured-Unstructured Observation: Whether the observation
should be structured or unstructured depends on the data needed.
Example 1: A manager of a hotel wants to know “how many of his
customers visit the hotel with their families and how many come as
single customers. Here, the observation is structured, since it is clear
“what is to be observed”. He may instruct his waiters to record this.
This information is required to decide requirements of the chairs and
tables and also the ambience.
Suppose, the manager wants to know how single customers and those
with families behave and what their attitudes are like. This study is
vague, and it needs a non-structured observation.
It is easier to record structured observation than non-structured
observation.
Example 2: To distinguish between structured and unstructured
observations, consider a study, investigating the amount of search that
goes into the purchase of soap. On the one hand, the observers could
be instructed to stand at one end of a supermarket and record each
sample customer’s search. This may be observed and recorded as
follows: “The purchaser first paused after looking at HLL brand. He
looked at the price on of the product, kept the product back on the
shelf, then picked up a soap cake of HLL and glanced at the picture on
the pack and its list of ingredients, and kept it back. He then checked Self Learning
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Quantitative and Research the label and price for P&G product, kept that back down again, and
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after a slight pause, picked up a different flavour soap of M/s Godrej
Company and placed it in his trolley and moved down the aisle”. On
the other hand, observers might simply be told to record the “first soap
NOTES cake examined”, by checking the appropriate boxes in the observation
form. The ‘second situation’ represents more structured than the first.
The observation method is the only method applicable to study the
growth of plants and crops.

The observation method

is the only method
applicable to study
the growth of plants
and crops.

Figure 4.1: Example of Observation Method

To use a more structured approach, it would be necessary to decide

precisely what is to be observed and the specific categories and units
that would be used to record the observations.
2. Disguised-Undisguised Observation: In disguised observation, the
respondents do not know that they are being observed. In non-
disguised observation, the respondents are well aware that they are
being observed. In disguised observation, observers often pose as
shoppers. They are known as “mystery shoppers”. They are paid by
research organisations. The main strength of disguised observation is
that it allows for registering the true of the individuals.
In the undisguised method, observations may be restrained due to
induced error by the objects of observation. The ethical aspect of
disguised observations is still open to question and debate.
3. Direct-Indirect Observation: In direct observation, the actual
behaviour or phenomenon of interest is observed. In indirect
observation, the results of the consequences of the phenomenon are
observed. Suppose, a researcher is interested in knowing about the soft
drinks consumption of a student in a hostel room. He may like to
observe empty soft drink bottles dropped into the bin. Similarly, the
observer may seek the permission of the hotel owner to visit the
kitchen or stores. He may carry out a kitchen/stores audit, to find out
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the consumption of various brands of spice items being used by the
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 hotel. It may be noted that the success of an indirect observation Data Collection

largely depends on “how best the observer is able to identify physical

evidence of the problem under study”.
4. Human-Mechanical Observation: Most of the studies in marketing NOTES
research are based on human observation, wherein trained observers
are required to observe and record their observation. In some cases,
mechanical devices such as eye cameras are used for observation. One
of the major advantages of electrical/mechanical devices is that their
recordings are free from any subjective bias.

Advantages of Observation Method

1. The original data can be collected at the time of occurrence of the
event.
2. Observation is done mostly in natural surroundings. Therefore, the
facts emerge more clearly, whereas in a questionnaire, experiments
have environmental as well as time constraints.
3. Sometimes, the respondents may not like to part with some of the
information. Such information can be obtained by the researcher more
effectively through observation.
4. Observation can also be done on those who cannot articulate.
5. Any bias on the part of the researcher is greatly reduced in observation
method.

Limitations of Observation Method

1. The observer might wait for longer period at the point of observation.
And yet the desired event may not take place. Observation is required
over a long period of time and hence may not occur.
2. For observation, an extensive training of observer is required.
3. This is an expensive method.
4. External observation provides only superficial indications. To delve
beneath the surface is very difficult. Only overt behaviour can be
observed.
5. Two observers may observe the same event, but may draw different
inferences.
6. It is very difficult to gather information on Opinions and Intentions.
These are various tools to collect primary data

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NOTES

Figure 4.2: Tools of Collecting Data

4.2.2 Survey Research Design

Survey is used most often to describe a method of gathering information
from samples of individuals. For example, sample of voters are questioned
before elections to determine how the public perceives the candidate and
the party. A manufacturer does a survey of the potential market before
introducing a new product. Government commissions conduct a survey to
gather the factual information; it needs to evaluate existing legislation, etc.

Steps involved in Designing Survey Method

1. Select and formulate research problem.
2. Select an appropriate survey method.
3. Design the survey method/research design.
4. Conduct survey and collect data.
5. Analyze and report.

Cover Note
Researcher needs to send a polite short cover note, especially in the evenly
mailed questionnaires and it should include the following:
 Introduction to the researcher.
 What the research is all about?
 Why is he conducting the study?
 What will happen with the results?
 Who to contact if respondent has any queries?
 How to return the questionnaire to the researcher?

Characteristics of Survey
1. Survey is conducted in a natural setting.
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2. Survey seeks responses directly form the respondents. Data Collection

3. Survey is widely used in non-experimental social science research.

4. Often use questionnaire or interview method for data collection.
NOTES
5. Survey involves real world samples.
6. Often it is quantitative method, but can also be qualitative.
7. It is systematic, follows specific set of rules, a formal and orderly logic
of sequence.
8. It is impartial, select sample units without any prejudice and
preference.

Purpose of Survey
There are two purposes of survey, they are as follows:
 Information gathering: It collects information for a specific purpose.
For example, pools, census, customer satisfaction, attitude, etc.
 Theory testing and building: Surveys are also used for the purpose of
testing and building theory. For example, personality and social
psychology theories.

Advantages of Survey
 Access to wide range of participants.
 Collection of large amount of data.
 May be more ethical than experimental designs.

Disadvantages of Survey
 Lack of control.
 Data may be superficial.
 Costly to obtain representative data.

4.3 SURVEY METHODS

Let us understand the methods of survey in primary data collection:

4.3.1 Personal Interviews

An interview is called personal when the Interviewer asks the questions
face-to-face with the Interviewee. Personal interviews can take place at
home, at a shopping mall, on the street, and so on.

Advantages of Personal Interview

 The ability to let the Interviewee see, feel and/or taste a product.

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Quantitative and Research  The ability to find the target population. For example, you can find
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people who have seen a film much more easily outside a theater in
which it is playing than by calling phone numbers at random.
NOTES  Longer interviews are sometimes tolerated. Particularly with in-home
interviews that have been arranged in advance. People may be willing
to talk longer face-to-face than to someone on the phone.

Disadvantages of Personal Interview

 Personal interviews usually cost more per interview than other
methods.
 Change in the characteristics of the population might make sample
non-representative.

4.3.2 Telephone Surveys

It is a process of collecting information from sample respondents by
calling them over telephone. Surveying by telephone is the most popular
interviewing method.

Advantages
 People can usually be contacted faster over the telephone than with
other methods.
 You can dial random telephone numbers when you do not have the
actual telephone numbers of potential respondents.
 Skilled interviewers can often invite longer or more complete answers
than people will give on their own to mail, e-mail surveys.

Disadvantages
 Many telemarketers have given legitimate research a bad name by
claiming to be doing research when they start a sales call.
 The growing number of working women often means that no one is at
home during the day. This limits calling time to a “window” of about
6-9 p.m. (when you can be sure to interrupt dinner or a favorite TV
program).
 You cannot show sample products by phone.

4.3.3 Computer Associated Direct Interviews (CADI)

In this method with the assistance of computer the respondents key in
(enter) their responses/answers directly.

Advantages
 It eliminates data entry and editing costs.
 Answers are more accurate to sensitive questions through a computer
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 Interviewer bias is eliminated. Different interviewers can ask questions Data Collection

in different ways, leading to different results. The computer asks the

questions the same way every time.
 Ensuring skip patterns are accurately followed. The Survey System can NOTES
ensure people are not asked questions they should skip based on their
earlier answers. These automatic skips are more accurate than relying
on an Interviewer reading a paper questionnaire.
 Response rates are usually higher as it looks novel and interesting to
some people.

Disadvantages
 The interviewees must have access to a computer or it must be
provided for them.
 As with mail surveys, computer direct interviews may have serious
response rate problems in populations due to literacy levels being low.

4.3.4 Email Surveys

Email Questionnaire is a new type of questionnaire system that
revolutionizes the way on-line questionnaires are conducted. Unlike other
on-line questionnaire systems that need a web server to construct,
distribute and manage results, Email Questionnaire is totally email based.
It works with the existing email system making on-line questionnaire
surveys available to anyone with an Internet connection.

Advantages
 Speed: An email questionnaire can gather several thousand responses
within a day or two.
 There is practically no cost involved once the set up has been
completed.
 Pictures and sound files can be attached.
 The novelty element of an email survey often stimulates higher
response levels than ordinary mail surveys.

Disadvantages
 Researcher must possess or purchase a list of email addresses.
 Some people will respond several times or pass questionnaires along to
friends to answer.
 Many people dislike unsolicited email even more than unsolicited
regular mail.
 Findings cannot be generalised with email surveys. People who have
email are different from those who do not, even when matched on
demographic characteristics, such as age and gender.
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Quantitative and Research  Email surveys cannot automatically skip questions or randomize
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question.

4.3.5 Internet/Intranet (Web Page) Survey

NOTES
Web surveys are rapidly gaining popularity. They have major speed, cost,
and flexibility advantages, but also significant sampling limitations. These
limitations make software selection especially important and restrict the
groups that can be studied using this technique.

Advantages
 Web page surveys are extremely fast. A questionnaire posted on a
popular Web site can gather several thousand responses within a few
hours. Many people who will respond to an email invitation to take a
Web survey will do so the first day, and most will do so within a few
days.
 There is practically no cost involved once the set up has been
completed.
 Pictures can be shown. Some Web survey software can also show
video and play sound.
 Web page questionnaires can use complex question skipping logic,
randomizations and other features which is not possible with paper
questionnaires. These features can assure better data.
 Web page questionnaires can use colors, fonts and other formatting
options not possible in most email surveys.
 A significant number of people will give more honest answers to
questions about sensitive topics, such as drug use or sex, when giving
their answers to a computer, instead of to a person or on paper.
 On an average, people give longer answers to open-ended questions on
Web page questionnaires than they do on other kinds of self-
administered surveys.

Disadvantages
 Current use of the Internet is far from universal. Internet surveys do
not reflect the population as a whole. This is true even if a sample of
Internet users is selected to match the general population in terms of
age, gender and other demographics.
 People can easily quit in the middle of a questionnaire. They are not as
likely to complete a long questionnaire on the Web as they would be if
talking with a good interviewer.
 Depending on your software, there is often no control over people
responding multiple times to bias the results.

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4.3.6 Mail Questionnaire Data Collection

Mail questionnaire is a paper questionnaire, which is sent to selected

respondents to fill and post filled questionnaire back to the researcher.

Advantages NOTES

1. Easier to reach a larger number of respondents throughout the country.

2. Since the interviewer is not present face to face, the influence of
interviewer on the respondent is eliminated.
3. This is the only kind of survey you can do if you have the names and
addresses of the target population, but not their telephone numbers.
4. Mail surveys allow the respondent to answer at their leisure, rather
than at the often inconvenient moment they are contacted for a phone
or personal interview. For this reason, they are not considered as
intrusive as other kinds of interviews.
5. Where the questions asked are such that they cannot be answered
immediately, and needs some thinking on the part of the respondent,
the respondent can think over leisurely and give the answer.
6. Saves cost (cheaper than interview).
7. No need to train interviewers.
8. Personal and sensitive questions are well answered in this method.
9. The questionnaire can include pictures - something that is not possible
over the phone.

Limitations
1. It is not suitable when questions are difficult and complicated.
Example, Do you believe in value price relationship?
2. When the researcher is interested in a spontaneous response, this
method is unsuitable. Because thinking time allowed to the respondent
will influence the answer. Example, “Tell me spontaneously, what
comes to your mind if I ask you about cigarette smoking”.
3. In case of a mail questionnaire, it is not possible to verify whether the
respondent himself/herself has filled the questionnaire. If the
questionnaire is directed towards the housewife, say, to know her
expenditure on kitchen items, she alone is supposed to answer it.
Instead, if her husband answers the questionnaire, the answer may not
be correct.
4. Any clarification required by the respondent regarding questions is not
possible. Example: Prorated discount, product profile, marginal rate,
etc., may not be understood by the respondents.
5. If the answers are not correct, the researcher cannot probe further. Self Learning
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7. In populations of lower educational and literacy levels, response rates
to mail surveys are often too small to be useful.
NOTES
Additional Consideration for the Preparation of Mail Questionnaire
1. It should be shorter than the questionnaire used for a personal
interview.
2. The wording should be extremely simple.
3. If a lengthy questionnaire has to be made, first write a letter requesting
the cooperation of the respondents.
4. Provide clear guidance, wherever necessary.
5. Send a pre-addressed and stamped envelope to receive the reply.
Table 4.1: Factors Affecting Choice of Survey Methods

Speed Email and web page surveys are the fastest methods, followed by
telephone, interviewing, mail surveys are the slowest.
Cost Personal interviews are the most expensive followed by telephone and the
mail. Email and the web page surveys are the least expensive for the large
sample.
Internet usage Internet is the basis for Email and web page surveys.
Literacy level Interview method is most used and email and web page surveys are not
used for illiterate people.
Sensitive Computer direct interviews are most suitable to get answers for sensitive
questions questions.
Video, Sound, To get reactions to video, music or picture, computer direct interviews
Graphic and web pages are useful. To get reactions to music the above methods
and telephone may be used. To show pictures email, web page, computer
direct interviews can be used.

4.4 QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions
and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from
respondents. The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton.

4.4.1 Importance and Limitations of Questionnaire in MR

Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of data collection.
Questionnaires are cheap, do not require as much effort from the
questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized
answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such standardized
answers may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the
fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and respond to
them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a survey by
questionnaire may not be practical.
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4.4.2 Characteristics of Questionnaire Data Collection

Questionnaire has the following characteristics:

1. It must be simple. The respondents should be able to understand the
questions. NOTES
2. It must generate replies that can be easily be recorded by the
interviewer.
3. It should be specific, so as to allow the interviewer to keep the
interview to the point.
4. It should be well arranged, to facilitate analysis and interpretation.
5. It must keep the respondent interested throughout.

4.5 PROCESS OF QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNING

The following are the seven steps involved in designing a questionnaire:

2 3
1
What type of Decide on the type of
Determine what
questionnaire to be used questions
information is needed

4
6 5
Decide on the wording of
Pre-test Deciding on the layout
questions

7
Revise and prepare final
questionnaire

Figure 4.3: Steps Involved in Designing a Questionnaire

Step 1: Determine What Information is Required

The first question to be asked by the market researcher is “what type of
information does he need from the survey?” This is valid because if he
omits some information on relevant and vital aspects, his research is not
likely to be successful. On the other hand, if he collects information which
is not relevant, he is wasting his time and money.
At this stage, information required, and the scope of research should be
clear. Therefore, the steps to be followed at the planning stage are:
1. Decide on the topic for research.
2. Get additional information on the research issue, from secondary data
and exploratory research. The exploratory research will suggest “what
are the relevant variables?”
3. Gather what has been the experience with similar study.
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Quantitative and Research 4. The type of information required. There are several types of
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information such as:
(a) awareness,
NOTES (b) facts,
(c) opinions,
(d) attitudes,
(e) future plans,
(f) reasons.
Facts are usually sought out in research.
Example: Which television programme did you see last Saturday? This
requires a reasonably good memory and the respondent may not
remember. This is known as recall loss. Therefore, questioning the distant
past should be avoided. Memory of events depends on (1) Importance of
the events, and (2) Whether it is necessary for the respondent to remember.
In the above case, both the factors are not fulfilled. Therefore, the
respondent does not remember. On the contrary, a birthday or wedding
anniversary of individuals is remembered without effort since the event is
important. Therefore, the researcher should be careful while asking
questions about the past. First, he must make sure that the respondent has
the answer.
Example: Do you go to the club? He may answer ‘yes’, though it is untrue.
This may be because the respondent wants to impress upon the interviewer
that he belongs to a well-to-do family and can afford to spend money on
clubs. To obtain facts, the respondents must be conditioned (by good
support) to part with the correct facts.
Mode of Collecting the Data
The questionnaire can be used to collect information either through
personal interview, mail or telephone. The method chosen depends on the
information required and also the type of respondent. If the information is
to be collected from illiterate individuals, a questionnaire would be the
wrong choice.

Step 2: Different Types of Questionnaire

1. Structured and Non-disguised
2. Structured and Disguised
3. Non-structured and Disguised
4. Non-structured and Non-disguised
1. Structured and Non-disguised Questionnaire: Here, questions are
structured so as to obtain the facts. The interviewer will ask the
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 questions strictly in accordance with the prearranged order. For Data Collection

example, what are the strengths of soap A in comparison with soap B?

(a) Cost is less
(b) Lasts longer NOTES
(c) Better fragrance
(d) Produces more lather
(e) Available in more convenient sizes
Structured and non-disguised questionnaire is widely used in market
research. Questions are presented with exactly the same wording and
same order to all respondents. The reason for standardizing the
question is to ensure that all respondents reply the same question. The
purpose of the question is clear. The researcher wants the respondent
to choose one of the five options given above. This type of
questionnaire is easy to administer. The respondents have no difficulty
in answering, because it is structured, the frame of reference is
obvious.
In a non-disguised type, the purpose of the questionnaire is known to
the respondent.
Example: “Subjects attitude towards Cyber laws and the need for
government legislation to regulate it”.
Certainly, not needed at present
Certainly not needed
I can’t say
Very urgently needed
Not urgently needed
2. Structured and disguised Questionnaire: This type of questionnaire is
least used in marketing research. This type of questionnaire is used to
know the peoples’ attitude, when a direct undisguised question
produces a bias. In this type of questionnaire, what comes out is “what
does the respondent know” rather than what he feels. Therefore, the
endeavour in this method is to know the respondent’s attitude.
Currently, the “Office of Profit” Bill is:
(a) In the Lok Sabha for approval.
(b) Approved by the Lok Sabha and pending in the Rajya Sabha.
(c) Passed by both the Houses, pending the presidential approval.
(d) The bill is being passed by the President.

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Quantitative and Research Depending on which answer the respondent chooses, his knowledge on
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the subject is classified.
In a disguised type, the respondent is not informed of the purpose of
NOTES the questionnaire. Here the purpose is to hide “what is expected from
the respondent?”
Example: “Tell me your opinion about Mr. Ben’s healing effect show
conducted at Bangalore?”
Example: “What do you think about the Babri Masjid demolition?”
3. Non-Structured and Disguised Questionnaire: The main objective is
to conceal the topic of enquiry by using a disguised stimulus. Though
the stimulus is standardized by the researcher, the respondent is
allowed to answer in an unstructured manner. The assumption made
here is that individual’s reaction is an indication of respondent’s basic
perception. Projective techniques are examples of non-structured
disguised technique. The techniques involve the use of a vague
stimulus, which an individual is asked to expand or describe or build a
story, three common types under this category are (a) Word
association (b) Sentence completion (c) Story telling.
4. Non-structured and Non-disguised Questionnaire: Here the purpose
of the study is clear, but the responses to the question are open-ended.
Example: “How do you feel about the Cyber law currently in practice
and its need for further modification”? The initial part of the question
is consistent. After presenting the initial question, the interview
becomes very unstructured as the interviewer probes more deeply.
Subsequent answers by the respondents determine the direction the
interviewer takes next. The question asked by the interviewer varies
from person to person. This method is called “the depth interview”.
The major advantage of this method is the freedom permitted to the
interviewer. By not restricting the respondents to a set of replies, the
experienced interviewers will be above to get the information from the
respondent fairly and accurately. The main disadvantage of this
method of interviewing is that it takes time, and the respondents may
not cooperate. Another disadvantage is that coding of open-ended
questions may pose a challenge.
For example: When a researcher asks the respondent “Tell me
something about your experience in this hospital”. The answer may be
“Well, the nurses are slow to attend and the doctor is rude. ‘Slow’ and
‘rude’ are different qualities needing separate coding. This type of
interviewing is extremely helpful in exploratory studies.

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 Table 4.1 Data Collection

Types Characteristics
Structured – Disguised  The same question is posed to each respondent.
 Administering the questionnaire and post-administration work is
simple i.e. coding tabulating, etc. is easy. NOTES
 This type of questionnaire is least used in market research.
 Respondents’ bias is minimized.
Unstructured –  This type of questionnaire is very commonly used for focus
Disguised group discussions.
 This is difficult to analyse, code etc,
 No fixed set of questions.
 The inner self (why) of an individual is researched.
E.g.: Motivation Research.
Unstructured –  No fixed questions.
Undisguised
 Suitable for conducting depth interview.
 Subject-matter can be questioned in great detail.
 Coding, tabulating etc. are difficult not a very frequently used
method.
Structured –  Fixed set of questions to every respondent.
Undisguised  Inappropriate when researcher wants to probe deeper.
 Easy to administer coding, tabulating is easy.
 Due to structuring and undisguised nature of the questionnaire,
there is no possibility of the respondent misunderstanding the
question. This is the most commonly used method.

Step 3: Type of Questions

Questions can be either "open ended" or "close-ended" based on the nature
of respondent.
Open-ended Questions
These are questions where respondents are free to answer in their own
words.
Example: “What factor do you consider while buying a suit”? If multiple
choices are given, it could be colour, price, style, brand, etc., but some
respondents may mention attributes which may not occur to the researcher.
Therefore, open-ended questions are useful in exploratory research, where
all possible alternatives are explored. The greatest disadvantage of open-
ended questions is that the researcher has to note down the answer of the
respondents verbatim. Therefore, there is a likelihood of the researcher
failing to record some information.
Another problem with open-ended question is that the respondents may
not use the same frame of reference.
Example: “What is the most important attribute in a job?”
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Quantitative and Research The respondent may have meant “basic pay” but interviewer may think
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that the respondent is talking about “total pay including dearness
allowance and incentive”. Since both of them refer to pay, it is impossible
to separate two different frames.
NOTES
Dichotomous Question
These questions have only two answers, ‘Yes’ or ‘no’, ‘true’ or ‘false’
‘use’ or ‘don’t use’.
Do you use toothpaste? Yes ……….. No …………
There is no third answer. However sometimes, there can be a third answer:
Example: “Do you like to watch movies?”
Ans: Neither like nor dislike.
Dichotomous questions are most convenient and easy to answer. A major
disadvantage of dichotomous question is that it limits the respondent’s
response. This may lead to measurement error.
Close-Ended Questions
There are two basic formats in this type:
 Make one or more choices among the alternatives.
 Rate the alternatives.
Choice Among Alternatives
Which of the following words or phrases best describes the kind of person
you feel would be most likely to use this product, based on what you have
seen in the commercial?
(a) Young ………… old …………….
Single ………… Married ………..
Modern ………… Old fashioned ……………...
(b) Rating Scale
 Please tell us your overall reaction to this commercial?
 A great commercial; would like to see again.
 Just so-so, like other commercials.
 Another bad commercial.
 Pretty good commercial.
 Based on what you saw in the commercial, how interested do you feel,
you would be buying the products?
 Definitely
 Probably I would buy
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  Probably I would not buy Data Collection

 Definitely I would not buy.

Closed-ended questionnaires are easy to answer. It requires less effort on
the part of the interviewer. Tabulation and analysis is easier. There are NOTES
lesser errors, since the same questions are asked to everyone. The time
taken to respond is lesser. We can compare the answer of one respondent
to another respondent.
One basic criticism of closed-ended questionnaires is that middle
alternatives are not included in this, such as “don’t know”. This will force
the respondents to choose among the given alternative.

Step 4: Wordings of Questions

Wordings of particular questions could have a large impact on how the
respondent interprets them. Even a small shift in the wording could alter
the respondent’s answer.
Example 1: “Don’t you think that Brazil played poorly in the FIFA cup?”
The answer will be ‘yes’. Many of them, who do not have any idea about
the game, will also most likely say ‘yes’. If the question is worded in a
slightly different manner, the response will be different.
Example 2: “Do you think that, Brazil played poorly in the FIFA cup?”
This is a straightforward question. The answer could be ‘yes’, ‘no’ or
‘don’t know’ depending on the knowledge the respondents have about the
game.
Example 3: “Do you think anything should be done to make it easier for
people to pay their phone bill, electricity bill and water bill under one
roof”?
Example 4: “Don’t you think something might be done to make it easier
for people to pay their phone bill, electricity bill, water bill under one
roof”?
A change of just one word as above, can generate different responses by
respondents.
Guidelines towards the use of correct wording:
Is the vocabulary simple and familiar to the respondents?
Example: Instead of using the word ‘reasonably’, ‘usually’,
‘occasionally’, ‘generally’, ‘on the whole’.
Example: “How often do you go to a movie?” “Often, may be once a
week, once a month, once in two months or even more.”
1. Avoid Double-Barreled Questions: These are questions, in which the
respondent can agree with one part of the question, but not agree with
the other or cannot answer without making a particular assumption.
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Quantitative and Research Example 1: “Do you feel that firms today are employee-oriented and
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customer-oriented?” There are two separate issues here – [yes] [no]
Example 2: “Are you happy with the price and quality of branded
NOTES shampoo?” [yes] [no]
2. Avoid Leading and Loading Questions:
(a) Leading Questions: A leading question is one that suggests the
answer to the respondent. The question itself will influence the
answer, when respondents get an idea that the data is being
collected by a company. The respondents have a tendency to
respond positively.
Example 1: “How do you like the programme on ‘Radio Mirchy’?
The answer is likely to be ‘yes’. The unbiased way of asking is
“which is your favorite F.M. Radio station? The answer could be
any one of the four stations namely 1. Radio City 2. Mirchy 3.
Rainbow 4. Radio-One.
Example 2: Do you think that offshore drilling for oil is
environmentally unsound? The most probable response is ‘yes’.
The same question can be modified to eliminate the leading factor.
What is your feeling about the environmental impact of offshore
drilling for oil? Give choices as follows:
 Offshore drilling is environmentally sound.
 Offshore drilling is environmentally unsound.
 No opinion.
(b) Loaded Questions: A leading question is also known as a loaded
question. In a loaded question, special emphasis is given to a word
or a phrase, which acts as a lead to respondent.
Example: “Do you own a Kelvinator refrigerator.” A better
question would be “what brand of refrigerator do you own?”
“Don’t you think the civic body is ‘incompetent’?” Here the word
incompetent is ‘loaded’.
 Are the Questions Confusing? If there is a question unclear or
is confusing, then the respondent becomes more biased rather
that getting enlightened. Example: “Do you think that the
government publications are distributed effectively”? This is
not the correct way, since respondent does not know what the
meaning of the word effective distribution is. This is confusing.
The correct way of asking questions is “Do you think that the
government publications are readily available when you want
to buy?” Example: “Do you think whether value price equation
is attractive”? Here, respondents may not know the meaning of
value price equation.
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  Applicability: “Is the question applicable to all respondents?” Data Collection

Respondents may try to answer a question even though they

don’t qualify to do so or may lack from any meaningful
opinion.
NOTES
Examples: 1. “What is your present education level” 2. “Where are
you working” (assuming he is employed)? 3. “From which bank
have you taken a housing loan” (assuming he has taken a loan).
3. Avoid Implicit Assumptions: An implicit alternative is one that is not
expressed in the options. Consider following two questions:
Would you like to have a job, if available?
Would you prefer to have a job, or do you prefer to do just domestic
work?
Even though, we may say that these two questions look similar, they
vary widely. The difference is that Q-2 makes explicit the alternative
implied in Q-1.
4. Split Ballot Technique: This is a procedure used wherein (1) The
question is split into two halves and (2) Different sequencing of
questions is administered to each half. There are occasions when a
single version of questions may not derive the correct answer and the
choice is not obvious to the respondent.
Example: “Why do you use Ayurvedic soap”? One respondent might
say “Ayurvedic soap is better for skin care”. Another may say
“Because the dermatologist has recommended”. A third might say “It
is a soap used by my entire family for several years”. The first
respondent answers the reason for using it at present. The second
respondent answers how he started using. The third respondent “the
family tradition for using”. As can be seen, different reference frames
are used. The question may be balanced and rephrased.
5. Complex Questions?: In which of the following do you like to park
your liquid funds?
(a) Debenture
(b) Preferential share
(c) Equity linked M.F.
(d) I.P.O.
(e) Fixed deposit
If this question is posed to the general public, they may not know the
meaning of liquid fund. Most of the respondents will guess and tick
one of them.
6. Are the Questions Too Long? Generally as a thumb rule, it is
advisable to keep the number of words in a question not exceeding 20.
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Quantitative and Research The question given below is too long for the respondent to
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comprehend, leave alone answer.
Example: Do you accept that the people whom you know, and
NOTES associate yourself have been receiving ESI and P.F. benefits from the
government accept a reduction in those benefits, with a view to cut
down government expenditure, to provide more resources for
infrastructural development?
Yes................... No................... Can’t say...................
7. Participation at the Expense of Accuracy: Sometimes the respondent
may not have the information that is needed by the researcher.
Example 1: The husband is asked a question “How much does your
family spend on groceries in a week”? Unless the respondent does the
grocery shopping himself, he will not know how much has been spent.
In a situation like this, it will be helpful to ask a ‘filtered question’. An
example of a filtered question can be, “Who buys the groceries in your
family”?
Example 2: “Do you have the information of Mr. Ben’s visit to
Bangalore”? Not only should the individual have the information but
also s(he) should remember the same. The inability to remember the
information is known as “recall loss”.

Step 5: Sequence and Layout

Some guidelines for sequencing the questionnaire are as follows:
Divide the questionnaire into three parts: (1) Basic information
(2) Classification (3) Identification information. Items such as age, sex,
income, education, etc., are questioned in the classification section. The
identification part involves body of the questionnaire. Always move from
general to specific questions on the topic. This is known as funnel
sequence. Sequencing of questions is illustrated below:
(1) Which TV shows do you watch?
Sports ................... News ...................
(2) Which among the following are you most interested in?
Sports ................... News ...................
Music ................... Cartoon ...................
(3) Which show did you watch last week?
World Cup Football ...................
Bournvita Quiz Contest ...................
War News in the Middle East ...................
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The above three questions follow a funnel sequence. If we reverse the Data Collection

order of question and ask “which show was watched last week”?, the
answer may be biased. This example shows the importance of sequencing.
Layout: How the questionnaire looks or appears. NOTES
Example: Clear instructions, gaps between questions, answers and spaces
are part of layout. Two different layouts are shown below:
Layout – 1 How old is your bike?
........ Less than 1 year ........ 1 to 2 years ........ 2 to 4 years ........ more than
4 years.
Layout – 2 How old is your bike?
........ Less than 1 year
........ 1 to 2 years.
........ 2 to 4 years.
........ More than 4 years.
From the above example, it is clear that layout – 2 is better. This is
because likely respondent error due to confusion is minimised.
Therefore, while preparing a questionnaire start with a general question.
This is followed by a direct and simple question. This is followed by more
focused questions. This will elicit maximum information.
Forced and Unforced Scales
Suppose the questionnaire is not provided with ‘don’t know’ or ‘no
option’, then the respondent is forced to choose one side or the other. A
‘don’t know’ is not a neutral response. This may be due to genuine lack of
knowledge.

Balanced and Unbalanced Scales

In a balanced scale, the number of favourable responses is equal to the
number of unfavorable responses. If the researcher knows that there is a
possibility of a favourable response, it is best to use unbalanced scale.
Use Funnel Approach
Funnel sequencing gets the name from its shape, starting with broad
questions and progressively narrowing down the scope. Move from
general to specific examples.
1. How do you think this country is getting along in its relations with
other countries?
2. How do you think we are doing in our relations with the US?
3. Do you think we ought to be dealing with US?
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Quantitative and Research 4. If yes, what should be done differently?
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5. Some say we are very weak on the nuclear deal with the US, while,
some say we are OK. What do you feel?
NOTES The first question introduces the general subject. In the next question, a
specific country is mentioned. The third and fourth questions are asked to
seek views. The fifth question is to seek a specific opinion.

Step 6: Pre-testing of Questionnaire

Pre-testing of a questionnaire is done to detect any flaws that might be
present. For example, the word used by researcher must convey the same
meaning to the respondents. Are instructions clear skip questions clear?
One of the prime conditions for pre-testing is that the sample chosen for
pre-testing should be similar to the respondents who are ultimately going
to participate. Just because a few chosen respondents fill in all the
questions going does not mean that the questionnaire is sound.
 How Many Questions to be Asked? The questionnaire should not be
too long as the response will be poor. There is no rule to decide this.
However, the researcher should consider that if he were the
respondent, how would he react to a lengthy questionnaire. One way of
deciding the length of the questionnaire is to calculate the time taken to
complete the questionnaire. He can give the questionnaire to a few
known people to seek their opinion.

Step 7: Revise and preparation of final questionnaire

Final questionnaire may be prepared after pre-testing the questionnaire
with the small group of respondents. Questionnaire should be revised for
the following:
1. To correct the spellings.
2. To place the questions in proper order to avoid the contextual bias.
3. To remove the words which are not familiar to respondents.
4. To add or remove questions arise in the process of pre-test, if any.
5. To purge the words with double meaning, etc.

4.6 INTERVIEW
Interview on samples may be carried out either with a structured
framework or with an undirected approach. The structured framework
involves use of some pre-determined questions. Such pre-determination
enables the researcher to standardize the responses with some fixed
alternatives. The samples here are merely directed to choose
answers/responses from different pre-determined alternatives. Thus the
researcher can or may quantify the responses in line with his research
object. Standardizing the responses with pre-determination involves great
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amount of risk unless the researcher acquaints himself with the intricacies Data Collection

of the research matter in much greater details. However, this approach is

more scientific in nature for its feasibility of quantifications with least
trouble and application of scientific techniques with more rationality.
NOTES
Unstructured or undirected interview approach enables the respondents or
the samples to answer the researcher’s queries with greater amount of
flexibility. Since no predetermined responses here are advised, the
researcher may proceed, keeping in tune with the research matter, with
greater amount of flexibility too. However, quantification of the responses
from unstructured interviews are difficult unless the researcher fixes the
standard of all response with some amount of control. If sample
characteristics go on rising, enumeration become difficult. Thus
unstructured approach may defeat the purpose and object of research. This
approach is resorted to usually in cases where the selected samples need to
be interviewed in a more intensive way.
There are different types of unstructured interviews:
1. Focussed interview, which is directed to focus the attention of
respondents to some given experience and its effects.
2. Clinical interview, which is somewhat similar to focussed interview
but enables the samples to underlie their feelings or motivations in
much broader perspectives. This method is usually administered in
psychiatric clinics and in prison administration.
3. The third method of unstructured interview is non-directive approach.
Under this approach the initiative is left completely in the hands of the
respondents. Psychoanalytic research is usually done with a non-
directive approach.
Interviewing the subjects or the samples is more advantageous than
sending questionnaires through mail. Interview method enables the
researcher to personally feel the problems of samples. Moreover
interviewer/researcher, being presents on the spot, case study certain
qualitative variables like facial expressions and gestures of the samples
can be studied. For high reliability and feasibility of scoring using test
devices, interview approach is more scientific than mailing
questionnaire.

4.6.1 Structured Study

If a radio manufacturer wanted to find out how many people own a radio,
what type it is, when they bought it, the respondents could be asked a set
of questions in the following given sequence.
Does your family own a radio? Yes/No
(If yes, ask)
What brand is it? Name ___________________
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Quantitative and Research How many valves? Number__________________
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When did you purchase this radio? Date_____________________
This is an example of structured and non disguised study.
NOTES
4.6.2 Non-structured Studies
More than anything else marketing men want to know why people buy or
don’t buy their products.
Reasons for why can be classified as:
1. Those reasons which are a part of the individual own purposes or
attitudes.
2. Those reasons which are the result of outside influences such as
advertising.
3. Those reasons which are based on characteristics of the product itself.
But questions will have to be aimed at these three categories separately,
which makes the approach satisfactory.
Many people will not report motives which might be considered biased or
socially unacceptable.
To overcome these difficulties, techniques have been developed by
psychoanalysts.

4.6.3 Depth Interview (Non-disguised)

Instead of approaching the respondent with a fixed list of questions, the
interviewer attempts to get the respondent to talk freely about the subject
of interest. By doing so the interviewer hopes to get the respondent at ease
and then encourage him to express any ideas which he has on the subject.
If some idea of interest is passed over too quickly, the interviewer may
seek more information by “probing”. For example, he may comment “That
is interesting. Why do you feel that way?” This encourages further
discussion or the point. Various probes can be used to get the respondent
to expand on any particular ideas. Although no formal questionnaire is
used in interviewing of this type, the interviewer has an outline in mind. If
the respondent does not get into areas of special interest, the interviewer
will insert questions opening up these topics. The objective of these
interviews is to get below the respondent’s surface reasons for particular
marketing decisions, and to find the underlying or basic motives.
Interviewer should have background of social psychology and field
experience of 500 or more interviews.
Sometimes, a group of 6 to 8 people are called for a discussion with the
interviewer acting as a moderator.

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4.6.4 Projective Technique (Disguised Study) Data Collection

Respondent is given an ambiguous situation and asked to describe it. The

description given contains a projection of the respondents’ personality and
attitudes to the situation described. NOTES
Various projective techniques are used but the most commonly used are
word association, sentence completion and storytelling.
In word association, a series of words is read one at a time to the
respondent. After each word, the respondent says the first thing that comes
into his mind. Sentence completion requires the respondent to complete
partial sentences. In story telling the respondent is shown a picture or
given a description and asked to tell a story about it.

4.6.5 Focus Group Interviews

Focus group interviews are a survey research instrument which can be
used in addition to, or instead of, a personal interview approach. It has
particular advantages for use in qualitative research applications. The
central feature of this method of obtaining information from groups of
people is that the interviewer strives to keep the discussion led by a
moderator focused upon the issue of concern. The moderator behaves
almost like a psycho-therapist who directs the group towards the focus of
the researcher. In doing so, the moderator speaks very little, and
encourages the group to generate the information required by stimulating
discussion through terse provocative statements.

Characteristics of Focus Group Interviews

The groups of individuals (e.g. housewives, farmers, manufacturers, etc.)
are invited to attend an informal discussion. Usually between 6 and 8
participants are involved and the discussion would last between 1 and 2
hours. Small groups tend to lose the mutual stimulation among participants,
whilst large groups can be difficult to manage and may prevent some
participants having the opportunity to get fully involved in the discussion.
The researcher raises issues for discussion, following a 'guide list of topics'
rather than a structured questionnaire. The participants are encouraged to
discuss the issues amongst themselves and with the researcher in an
informal and relaxed environment. The researcher records comments made
by the participants (usually utilizing a tape or video recorder).

The Process of Developing a Topic List for Focus Groups

In contrast to a personal interview survey, the number of interviews in a
typical group interview survey is very small, usually between 3 and 4
would be sufficient for each type of respondent-sector (e.g. farmers or
manufacturers). Generally from the first interview on an unfamiliar subject
the researcher will learn a great deal. The second and third interviews will
produce more information, but all of it will not be new. By the fourth Self Learning
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Quantitative and Research interview most of what is revealed will have been covered before, and the
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diminishing returns involved would generally not justify the cost of further
groups.
NOTES The participants within a focus group are selected in such a way that they
exhibit a high degree of homogeneity with respect to either background,
behaviour or both. Consider, for example, a study carried out by a small
African nation that is looking for a niche market for a new range of
sparkling wines. It is decided that, as a first step, a series of focus groups
be conducted. The researchers are keen to ensure that each group
comprises people who are similar in age and behaviour with respect to
wine consumption.

Structuring a Focus Group Session

Group discussions are also useful as a cost-effective means of generating
background information and hypotheses on a particular subject prior to the
launch of a quantitative survey. In this respect group interviews can have
advantages over personal interviews in a number of ways:
1. Synergism: The combined effort of the group will produce a wider
range of information, insight, and ideas than will the accumulation of
responses of a number of individuals when these replies are secured in
personal interviews.
2. Snowballing: A bandwagon effect often operates in that a comment by
one person triggers a chain of responses from other participants.
3. Stimulation: Usually after a brief introductory period the participants
become enthusiastic to express their ideas and feelings as the group
begins to interact. In a personal interview, the respondent may not be
willing to expose his/her views for fear of having to defend his/her
view or fear of appearing 'unconcerned' or 'radical'. Like most animals,
the human being feels safer psychologically - as well physically -
when he/she is in a group.
4. Spontaneity: Since no individual is required to answer any given
question in a group interview, the individual's responses can be more
spontaneous, less conventional, and should provide a more accurate
picture of his position on some issues. In short, respondents are able to
speak when they have definite feelings about a subject and not because
a question requires an answer.
5. Serendipity: It is more often the case in a group interview than a
personal interview that unexpected responses or ideas are put forward
by participants. The group dynamics encourages ideas to develop more
fully.
6. Specialization: The group interview allows the use of a more highly
trained, but more expensive, interviewer since a number of individuals
are being 'interviewed' simultaneously.
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7. Scientific scrutiny: It allows closer scrutiny in several ways: the Data Collection

session can be observed by several observers. This allows some check

on the consistency of the interpretations. The session can be taped or
even video-taped. Later detailed examination of the recorded session
allows the opportunity of additional insight and also can help clear up NOTES
points of disagreement among analysts with regard to exactly what
happened.

APPLICATIONS OF FOCUS GROUPS

 New product development

 Positioning studies

 Usage studies

 Assessment of packaging

 Attitude and language studies

 Advertising/copy evaluations

 Promotion evaluations

 Idea generation

 Concept tests

4.7 SCHEDULE METHOD

Schedule may be defined as a proforma that contains a set of questions
which are asked and filled by an interviewer in a face to face situation with
another. It is a standardized device or tool of observation to collect the
data in an objective manner. In this method of data collection the
interviewer puts certain questions and the respondent furnishes certain
answers and the interviewer records as they are given.

4.7.1 Purpose/Objectives of the Schedule

The main objectives of the schedule are as follows:
1. Delimitation of the topic: A schedule is always about a definite item
of enquiry. Its subject is a single and isolated item rather than the
research subject in general. The schedule therefore delimits and
specifies the subject of enquiry.
2. Aids to Memorize: It is not possible for the interviewer to keep in
mind or memorize all the information that he collects from different
respondents. Without a standardized tool, he might ask different
questions to different respondents and thereby get confused when he
requires analyzing and tabulating the data. Therefore schedule acts as
an "aide memoire".
3. Aid to classification and analysis: Another objective of the schedule is
to tabulate and analyze the data collected in a scientific and
homogeneous manner.
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Quantitative and Research 4.7.2 Types of Schedules
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These are as follows:
1. Observation Schedule: The schedules which are used for observation
NOTES are known as observation schedules. Using this schedule, observer
records the activities and responses of an individual respondent or a
group of respondents under specific conditions. The main purpose of
the observation schedule is to verify information.
2. Rating Schedule: Rating schedules are used to assess the attitudes,
opinions, preferences, inhibitions, perceptions and other similar
elements or attributes of respondent. Such measurement is done using
a Rating Scale. We have discussed about various rating scales
separately in attitude measurement chapter.
3. Document Schedule: These schedules are used in exploratory research
to obtain data regarding written evidence and case histories from
autobiography, diary, or records of government etc. It is an important
method for collecting preliminary data or for preparing a source list.
4. Institution Survey Schedules: This type of schedule is used for
studying different problems of institutions.
5. Interview Schedule: Using his schedule, an interviewer presents the
questions to the interviewee and records his responses in the given
space of the questionnaire.

4.7.3 Merits of Schedule Method

The schedule method has the following merits:
1. Higher response: In the schedule, since a research worker is present
and he can explain and persuade the respondent, response rate is high.
In case of any mistake in the schedule, the researcher can rectify it.
2. Saving of time: While filling the schedule, the researcher may use
abbreviation or short forms for answers, he may also generate a
template. All these steps help in saving of time in data collection.
3. Personal contact: In the schedule method there is a personal contact
between the respondent and the field worker. The behaviour, and
character of respondent obviously facilitates the research work.
4. Human touch: Sometimes reading something does not impress as
much as when the same is heard or spoken by experts as they are able
to lay the right emphasis. This greatly improves the response.
5. Deeper probe: Through this method it is possible to probe deeper into
the personality, living conditions, values, etc., of the respondents.
6. Defects in sampling are detected: If there are some defects in schedule
during sampling it easily come to the notice and can be rectified by the
researcher.
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7. Removal of doubts: Presence of enumerator removes the doubts in the Data Collection

minds of respondent on the one hand and avoid from the respondent
artificial replies owing to fear of cross checking on the other hand.
8. Human elements make the study more reliable and dependable: The
NOTES
presence of human elements makes the situation more attractive and
interesting which helps in making interview useful and reliable.

4.7.4 Limitations of the Schedule Method

Following are the main limitations of the schedule method:
1. Costly and time-consuming: This method is costly and time
consuming due to its basic requirement of interviewing the
respondents. This becomes a serious limitation when respondents are
not found in a particular region but are scattered over a wide area.
2. Need of trained field workers: The schedule method requires
involvement of well trained and experienced field workers. This
involves great cost and sometimes workers are not easily available
forcing engagement of inexperienced hands, which defeats the purpose
trained of research.
3. Adverse effect of personal presence: Sometimes personal presence of
enumerator becomes an inhibiting factor. Many people despite
knowing certain facts cannot say them in the presence of others.
4. Organizational difficulties: If the field of research is dispersed, it
becomes difficult to organize it. Getting trained manpower, assigning
them duties and then administrating the research is a very difficult
task.

4.7.5 Characteristics of a Good Schedule

The following are the essentials or characteristics of a good schedule.
1. Accurate communication: It means that the questions given in the
schedule should enable the respondent to understand the context in
which they are asked.
2. Accurate response: The schedule should structure in such a manner so
that the required information are accurate and secured. For this,
following steps should be taken.
 The size of the schedule should be precise and attractive.
 The questions should be clearly worded and should be
unambiguous.
 The questions should be free from any subjective evaluation.
 Questions should be inter-linked.
 Information sought should be capable of tabulation and subsequent
statistical analysis.
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Quantitative and Research 4.7.6 Suitability of Schedule Method
Methods in Business
This method is generally applied in the following situations:
 The field of investigation is wide and dispersed.
NOTES
 Where the researcher requires quick result at low cost.
 Where the respondents are educated.
 Where trained and educated investigators are available.
Check Your Progress 1
Fill in the blanks:
1. ..................... is also the first hand data collected by the
researcher for the immediate purpose of the study.
2. ………………… is a part of the company’s record, for which
research is already conducted.
3. In …………………. the main problem arises when the
respondent deliberately hides information otherwise it is an in
depth source of information.
4. …………and ………………. are two broad approaches
available for primary data collection.

4.8 SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data are statistics that already exists. They have been gathered
not for immediate use. This may be described as “Those data that have
been compiled by some agency other than the user”. Secondary data is
defined as the data that has been collected by individuals or agencies for
purposes other than those of the particular research study. For example, if
a government department has conducted a survey of, say, school going
children, then a uniform manufacturer might use this data for his research
purpose. As mentioned earlier, it is ideal to undertake a marketing research
study after a prior search of secondary sources (also termed desk research).
The reasons for this are summed up below. Many a time secondary data
may itself be sufficient to draw conclusions and answer to solve the
problem. Primary data collection may not be required.
No marketing research study should be undertaken without a prior search
of secondary sources (also termed desk research). There are several
grounds for making such a bold statement:
1. Secondary data may be available which is entirely appropriate and
wholly adequate to draw conclusions and answer the question or solve
the problem. Sometimes primary data collection simply is not
necessary.
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2. It is far cheaper to collect secondary data than to obtain primary data. Data Collection

For the same level of research budget a thorough examination of

secondary sources can yield a great deal more information than can be
had through a primary data collection exercise.
NOTES
3. The time involved in searching secondary sources is much less than
that needed to complete primary data collection.
4. Secondary sources of information can yield more accurate data than
that obtained through primary research. This is not always true but
where a government or international agency has undertaken a large
scale survey, or even a census, this is likely to yield far more accurate
results than custom designed and executed surveys when these are
based on relatively small sample sizes.
5. It should not be forgotten that secondary data can play a substantial
role in the exploratory phase of the research when the task at hand is to
define the research problem and to generate hypotheses. The assembly
and analysis of secondary data almost invariably improves the
researcher’s understanding of the marketing problem, the various lines
of inquiry that could or should be followed and the alternative courses
of action which might be pursued.
6. Secondary sources help define the population. Secondary data can be
extremely useful both in defining the population and in structuring the
sample to be taken. For instance, government statistics on a country’s
agriculture will help decide how to stratify a sample and, once sample
estimates have been calculated, these can be used to project those
estimates to the population.

4.8.1 Sources of Secondary Information

Secondary data can be classified as:
 Internal secondary data
 External secondary data

Internal Secondary Data

Is that data which is a part of company’s record, for which research is
already conducted. Internal data are those, which are found within the
organisation. Example: Sales in units, credit outstanding, sales persons call
reports, daily production report, monthly collection report, etc.

External Secondary Data

The data collected by the researcher from outside the company. This can
be divided into the following parts:
1. Census data: is the most important among the sources of data. The
following are some of the data that can be got by census:
 Census of the wholesale trade Self Learning
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Quantitative and Research  Census of the retail trade
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 Population census
 Census of manufacturing industries
NOTES
 Individual project report publicized
 Encyclopedia of business information sources
 Product finder
 Thomas registers, etc.
2. Special Techniques of Market Research or Syndicated Data: These
techniques involve data collection on a commercial basis i.e., data
collected by this method is sold to interested clients, on payment.
Example of such organisation is Neilson Retail, ORG Marg, IMRB
etc. These organizations provide NRS called National Readership
Survey to the sponsors and advertising agencies. They also provide
business relationship survey called BRS which estimates the
following:
(a) Rating
(b) Profile of the company etc.
(c) These people also provide TRP rating namely television rating
points on a regular basis. This provides (i) Viewership figures, (ii)
Duplication between programmes etc. Some of the interesting
studies made by IMRB are SNAP – Study of Nations Attitude and
Awareness Programme. In this study, the various groups of the
Indian population and their life styles, attitudes of Indian
housewives are detailed.
There is also a study called FSRP which covers children in the age
group of 10-19 years. Beside their demographics and psychographics,
the study covers those areas such as:
 Children as decision makers
 Role model of Indian children
 Pocket money and its usage
 Media reviews
 Favoured personalities and characteristics and
 Brand awareness and advertising recall.
Syndicated sources consist of market research firms offering
syndicated services. These market research organisations, collects and
updates information on a continues basis. Since data is syndicated,
their cost is spread over a number of client organisations and hence
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 to be included in the questionnaire, which is used routinely to collect Data Collection

syndicated data. The client will have to pay extra for these. The data
generated by these additional questions and analysis of such data will
be revealed only to the firms submitting the questions. Therefore we
can say, customization of secondary data is possible. Some areas of NOTES
syndicated services are newspapers, magazine readership, TV channel
popularity etc. Data from syndicated sources are available on a weekly
or monthly basis.
Syndicated data may be classified as:
(a) Consumer purchase data
(b) Retailer and wholesaler data
(c) Advertising data.
Most of these data collection methods as above are also called as
syndicated data. Syndicated data can be classified into
3. Consumer Purchase Data or Panel Type Data: This is one type of
syndicated data. In this method, there are consumer panels. Members
of this panel will be representative of the entire population. Panel
members keep diaries in which they record all purchase, made by
them. Product purchased, ranges from packaged food, to personal care
products. Members submit the dairies every month to the
organizations, for which, they are paid. This panel data can be used to
find out the sale of the product. These panel data also gives an insight
into repeat purchases, effect of free samples, coupon redemption, etc.
The consumer panel data also gives profile of the target audience.
Now-a-days, diaries are replaced by hand held scanners. Panels also
provide data on consumer buying habits on petrol, auto parts, sports
goods, etc.
Limitations
(a) Low income groups are not represented
(b) Some people do not want to take the trouble of keeping the record
of the purchases. Hence data is not available.
Advantages
(a) Use of scanner tied to the central computer helps the panel
members to record their purchases early (Almost immediately)
(b) It also provides reliability and speed.
(c) Panel can consist of only senior citizens or only children.
We also have consumer mail panel (CMP). This consists of members
who are willing to answer mail questionnaire. A large number of such
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Quantitative and Research households are kept on the panel. This serves as a universe, through
Methods in Business
which panels are selected.
4. Retail and Wholesale Data: Marketing research is done in a retail
NOTES store. These are organizations which provide continuous data on
grocery products. The procedure does not involve questioning people
and also does not rely on their memory. This requires cooperation,
from the retailer to allow auditing to be done. Generally, retail audit
involves counting of stocks between two consecutive visits. It involves
inspection of goods delivered between visits. If the stock of any
product in the shop is accurately counted, on both the visits and data
on deliveries are accurately taken from the records, the collection of
sales of a product over that period can be determined accurately as
follows:
Initial stock + Deliveries between visits – Second time stock = Sales
If this information is obtained from different shops from the
representative sample of shops, then the accurate estimates of sales of
the product can be made. To do this, some shops can be taken as a
“Panel of shops” representing the universe.
Advantages
(a) It provides information on consumer purchase over the counter
between audits in specific units. For example, KGs, bottles, No’s
etc.
(b) It provides data on shop purchases i.e., the purchases made by the
retailer between audits.
(c) The manufacturer comes to know “How competitor is doing?”
(d) It is very reliable method.
Disadvantages
(a) Experience is needed by the market researcher.
(b) Cooperation is required from the retail shop.
(c) It is time consuming.
5. Advertising Data: Since large amount of money is spent on
advertising, data need to be collected on advertising. One way of
recording is, by using passive meter. This is attached to a TV set and it
records when the set was “On”. It will record “How long a channel is
viewed”. By this method, data regarding audience interest in a channel
can be found out. One thing to be noticed from the above is that, it
only tells you that someone is viewing TV at home. But it does not tell
you “Who is viewing at home”. To find out “Who is viewing” a new
instrument called “People’s Meter” is introduced. This is a remote
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 button. When the button is pressed, it signals the control box that a Data Collection

specific person is viewing. This information is recorded electronically

and sent to a computer that stores this information and subsequently it
is analysed.
NOTES
6. Miscellaneous Secondary Data: Includes trade association such as
FICCI, CEI, Institution of Engineers, chamber of Commerce, Libraries
such as public library, University Library etc., literature, state and
central government publications, private sources such as all India
Management Association (AIMA), Financial Express and Financial
Dailies, world bodies and international organizations such as IMF,
ADB etc.

4.8.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data

Advantages
(a) It is economical, no need to hire field people.
(b) It saves time, normally 2 to 3 months time is saved, if data is available
on hand and it can be tabulated in minutes.
(c) They provide information, which the retailers may not be willing to
give to the researcher.
(d) No training is required to collect the data unlike primary data.

Disadvantages
If secondary data had been collected for some other projects then it may
not fit in to the problem, which is being defined. In some cases, the fit is
so poor that, the data becomes completely inappropriate. It may be ill
suited because of the following three reasons:
 Unit of measurement
 Problem of Accuracy
 Recency
1. Unit of Measurement: It is common for secondary data to be
expressed in units. Example: Size of the retail establishments, for
instance, can be expressed in terms of gross sales, profits, square feet
area and number of employees. Consumer income can be expressed by
individual, family, household, etc.
Secondary data available may not fit this.
Assume that the class intervals used is quite different from those which
are needed. Example: Data available with respect to age group is as
follows:
<18 year
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Quantitative and Research 18 – 24 years
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25 – 34 years
35 – 44 years
NOTES
Suppose the company needs a classification less than 20, 20 – 30 and
30 – 40, the above data classification of secondary data cannot be used.
2. Problem of Accuracy: The accuracy of secondary data is highly
questionable. A number of errors are possible, in collection and
analysis of the data. Accuracy of secondary data depends on
(a) Who collected the data?
(b) How are the data collected?
 Who collected the data?: Reputation of the source decides the
accuracy of the data. Assume that a private magazine publisher
conducts a survey of its readers. The main aim of the survey is to
find out the opinion of its reader about advertisement appearing in
it. This survey is done by the publisher with a hope that other firms
will buy this data before inserting advertisement.
Assume that a professional M.R agency has conducted a similar
survey and selling its syndicated data on many magazines.
If you are a person, who wants information on a particular
magazine, you buy the data from M.R agency rather from the
magazine publisher. Reason for this is trust on M.R agency. The
reason for trusting the MR agency is as follows:
 Being an independent agency, there is no bias. The M.R agency
is likely to provide an unbiased data.
 The data quality of M.R agency will be good, since they are
professionals.
 How was the data collected?
 What instruments was used?
 What type of sampling was done?
 How large was the sample?
 What was the time period of data collection? Example: Days of
the week, time of the day.
3. Recency: This refers to “How old is the information?” If it is five
years old, it may be useless. Therefore, publication lag is a problem.

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 Check Your Progress 2 Data Collection

Fill in the blanks:

1. …………….is used to analyse those data which cannot be
quantified. NOTES
2. Unstructured, direct interview is known as a ………….
interview.
3. A ………………….is a research instrument consisting of a
series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of
gathering information from respondents.
4. The main objective of ………………….. is to conceal the topic
of enquiry by using a disguised stimulus.
5. …………………………are questions where respondents are
free to answer in their own words.
6. A ………………………question is one that suggests the
answer to the respondent.

4.9 LET US SUM UP

In the observation method, only present/current behaviour can be studied.
Therefore, many researchers feel that this is a great disadvantage. A causal
observation could enlighten the researcher to identify the problem. Such as
the length of the queue in front of a food chain, price and advertising
activity of the competitor, etc. Observation is the least expensive mode of
data collection.
Secondary data are statistics that already exists. These may not be readily
used because these data are collected for some other purpose. There are
two types of secondary data (1) Internal and (2) External secondary data.
Census is the most important among secondary data. Syndicated data is an
important form of secondary data which may be classified into (a)
Consumer purchase data, (b) Retailer and wholesale data, (c) Advertising
data. Each has advantages and disadvantages. Secondary data has its own
advantages and disadvantages. Sometimes, secondary data may not be able
to solve the research problem. In that case researcher needs to turn towards
primary data. Primary data may pertain to life style, income, awareness or
any other attribute of individuals or groups. There are 2 ways of collecting
primary data namely. (a) Observation, (b) By questioning the appropriate
sample. Observation method has a limitation i.e., certain attitudes,
knowledge, motivation etc cannot be measured by this method. For this
reason, researcher needs to communicate. Questionnaire can be
administered either in person or online or Mail questionnaire. Each of
these methods has advantages and disadvantages. Questions in a
questionnaire may be classified into (a) Open question, (b) Close ended
questions, (c) Dichotomous questions, etc Self Learning
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Quantitative and Research
Methods in Business 4.10 LESSON END ACTIVITIES
Mr. Ravi, a qualified food technologist was an NRI working at “Ready to
eat food” manufacturing company in the Middle East. He completed his
NOTES basic degree in science from India and proceeded to the US to do Masters
degree in food technology. He completed the same and joined a Dubai
based company as food specialist. The company manufactured variety of
“ready to eat food”, which was distributed through big retailer chains. The
company enjoyed a great reputation.
After working for 10 years, Mr. Ravi wanted to return to his motherland
and wanted to set up a unit in his native Chennai. He has been toying with
an idea of setting up a factory, where “ready to eat products” could
manufactured. During his earlier visits, he made enquires with known
people to ascertain “whether his intention to set up a ‘ready to eat product’
would find customers.” His initial data gathering gave a positive
indication.
He was told that with changing demography and lifestyles in sunrise
sectors like IT, BT most families had couples at work. Time was a major
constraint. Hence his “ready to eat food” would find acceptance. All this
information was gathered by “word of mouth”.
His close friends informed him of a foreign company to have started this
business and appeared to be doing well. This did not bother Mr. Ravi,
since he knew that he could meet the taste of Indian customer better than
any multinational. On the contrary, Mr. Ravi was glad that this new
foreign company was doing well, which was an encouraging signal.
Even though ready to eat food was popular abroad, and word of
appreciation yielded positive. Mr. Ravi still wanted to ascertain the
feasibility of setting the project. He had a volley of questions to be
answered. If you were to be the advisor, how would you care for him?
Questions
1. Will the tradition-bound Indian society accept a “ready to eat food”?
How will you proceed to confirm this?
2. What product variety should be introduced? Should the taste be similar
to the existing company’s product or different? If so, which product
to start with?
3. What research would you conduct to decide packing, storing and
distribution of the product?

4.11 KEYWORDS
Primary Data: Data directly collected by the researcher, with respect to
problem under study, is known as primary data.
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Internal Secondary Data: Is that data which is a part of company's record, Data Collection

for which research is already conducted.

Recency: This refers to "How old is the information?" If it is five years
old, it may be useless. NOTES
Structured disguised Questionnaire: This type of Questionnaire is used to
find, peoples' attitude, when a direct undisguised question produces a bias.
Open-ended questions: These are questions where respondents are free to
answer in their own words.
Dichotomous questions: These questions have only two answers, 'Yes' or
'no', 'true' or 'false' 'use' or 'don't use'.
Leading question: A leading question is one that suggests the answer to
the respondent.

4.12 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What are the various methods available for collecting primary data?
2. What would you define as the characteristics of a good questionnaire?
3. By the help of examples only, explain what is meant by
leading/loading question?
4. What are the types of secondary data?
5. What are the special techniques of secondary data?

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1
1. Primary data
2. Internal secondary data
3. Interview
4. Observation, questioning

CYP 2
1. Qualitative research
2. Depth
3. Questionnaire
4. Non-Structured and Disguised Questionnaire
5. Open-ended Questions
6. Leading

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Quantitative and Research
Methods in Business 4.13 SUGGESTED READINGS
S.N. Murthy and U. Bhojanna, Business Research Methods, Excel Books,
2007.
NOTES
Rajendra Nargundkar, Marketing Research - Tata McGraw Hill Pub. Co.
Ltd
Donald R. Cooper, Business research Methods - Tata McGraw Hill Pub.
Co. Ltd
Beri. G.C, Marketing Research - Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd
Shajahan. S, Marketing Research - MacMillan India Ltd

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