University of Zimbabwe

(HDS103,HAI103,HCC103,HCS103,HFM103) CALCULUS 1

Calculus of Single Variables

Author: Department:
D.F. Mamutse Mathematics

October 3, 2023
 Abstract

Calculus is one of the milestones of Western thought. Building on ideas of Archimedes, Fermat,
Newton, Leibniz, Cauchy, and many others, the calculus is arguably the cornerstone of modern
science. Any well-educated person should at least be acquainted with the ideas of calculus, and a
scientifically literate person must know calculus solidly. Calculus has two main aspects: differential
calculus and integral calculus. Differential calculus concerns itself with rates of change. Various
types of change, both mathematical and physical, are described by a mathematical quantity called
the derivative. Integral calculus is concerned with a generalized type of addition, or amalgamation,
of quantities. Many kinds of summation, both mathematical and physical, are described by a
mathematical quantity called the integral.

Calculus is one of the most important parts of mathematics. It is fundamental to all of modern
science. How could one part of mathematics be of such central importance? It is because calculus
gives us the tools to study rates of change and motion. All analytical subjects, from biology to
physics to chemistry to engineering to mathematics, involve studying quantities that are growing
or shrinking or moving, in other words, they are changing. Astronomers study the motions of the
planets, chemists study the interaction of substances, physicists study the interactions of physical
objects. All of these involve change and motion. 1 2

1
To Archimedes, Pierre de Fermat, Isaac Newton, and Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, the fathers of calculus
2
The true sign of intelligence is not knowledge but imagination—— Albert Einstein
Chapter 1

The Basics

1.1 Number Systems

Mathematics has its own language with numbers as the alphabet. The language is given structure
with the aid of connective symbols, rules of operation, and a rigorous mode of thought (logic). The
number systems that we use in calculus are the natural numbers, the integers, the rational numbers,
and the real numbers. Let us describe each of these :

1. The natural numbers are the system of positive counting numbers 1, 2, 3 . . . . We denote the
set of all natural numbers by N.

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, . . . }.

2. The integers are the positive and negative whole numbers and zero, . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
We denote the set of all integers by Z.

Z = {. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }.

3. The rational numbers are quotients of integers or fractions, such as 32 , − 54 . Any number
p
of the form , with p, q ∈ Z and q 6= 0, is a rational number. We denote the set of all rational
q
numbers by Q.  
p
Q= p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0 .
q
4. The real numbers are the set of all decimals, both terminating and non-terminating. We
denote the set of all real numbers by R. A decimal number of the form x = 3.16792 is actually
a rational number, for it represents
316792
x = 3.16792 = .
100000
1
A decimal number of the form

m = 4.27519191919 . . . ,

with a group of digits that repeats itself interminably, is also a rational number. To see this,
notice that
100 · m = 427.519191919 . . .
and therefore we may subtract

100m = 427.519191919 . . .
m = 4.27519191919 . . .

Subtracting, we see that

99m = 423.244
or
423244
m= .
99000
So, as we asserted, m is a rational number or quotient of integers. To indicate recurring
decimals we sometimes place dots over the repeating cycle of digits, e.g., m = 4.2751̇9̇,
19
6
= 3.16̇.
Another kind of decimal number is one which has a non-terminating decimal expansion that
does not keep repeating. An example is π = 3.14159265 . . . . Such a number is irrational, that
is, it cannot be expressed as the quotient of two integers.
In summary : There are three types of real numbers : (i) terminating decimals, (ii) non-
terminating decimals that repeat, (iii) non-terminating decimals that do not repeat. Types
(i) and (ii) are rational numbers. Type (iii) are irrational numbers.
The geometric representation of real numbers as points on a line is called the real axis. Between
any two rational numbers on the line there are infinitely many rational numbers. This leads
us to call the set of rational numbers an everywhere dense set.
Real numbers are characterised by three fundamental properties :

(a) algebraic means formalisations of the rules of calculation (addition, subtraction, multi-
plication, division). Example : 2(3 + 5) = 2 · 3 + 2 · 5 = 6 + 10 = 16.
3 1
(b) order denote inequalities. Example : − < .
4 3
(c) completeness implies that there are “no gaps” on the real line.
Algebraic properties of the reals for addition (a, b, c ∈ R) are :
(A1) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c. associativity
(A2) a + b = b + a. commutativity
(A3) There is a 0 such that a + 0 = a. identity
(A4) There is an x such that a + x = 0. inverse
Why these rules? They define an algebraic structure (commutative group). Now define anal-
ogous algebraic properties for multiplication :

2
(M1) a(bc) = (ab)c.
(M2) ab = ba.
(M3) There is a 1 such that a · 1 = a.
(M4) There is an x such that ax = 1 for a 6= 0.

Finally, connect multiplication and addition :

(D) a(b + c) = ab + ac. distributivity

These 9 rules define an algebraic structure called a field.

Order properties of the reals are :

(O1) for any a, b ∈ R, a ≤ b or b ≤ a. totality of ordering I

(O2) if a ≤ b and b ≤ a, then a = b. totality of ordering II
(O3) if a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c. transitivity
(O4) if a ≤ b, then a + c ≤ b + c. order under addition
(O5) if a ≤ b and c ≥ 0, then ac ≤ bc. order under multiplication

Some useful rules for calculations with inequalities are : If a, b, c are real numbers, then :

(a) if a < b and c < 0 ⇒ bc < ac.

(b) if a < b ⇒ −b < −a.
1
(c) if a > 0 ⇒ > 0.
a
1 1
(d) if a and b are both positive or negative, then a < b ⇒ < .
b a
The completeness property can be understood by the following construction of the real
numbers : Start with the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . .

ˆ N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . } natural numbers ⇒ Can we solve a + x = b for x?

ˆ Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . } integers ⇒ Can we solve ax = b for x?
ˆ Q = { pq |p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0} rational numbers ⇒ Can we solve x2 = 2 for x?
√
ˆ R real numbers, for example : The positive solution to the equation x2 = 2 is 2. This
is an irrational number whose decimal representation is not eventually repeating.

⇒ N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R
In summary, the real numbers R are complete in the sense that they correspond to all points on
the real line, i.e., there are no “holes” or “gaps”, whereas the rationals have “holes” (namely
the irrationals).
You Try It : What type of real number is 3.41287548754875 . . . ? Can you express this
number in more compact form?

3
1.2 Intervals

Definition 1.2.1. A subset of the real line is called an interval if it contains at least two numbers
and all the real numbers between any of its elements.

Examples :

1. x > −2 defines an infinite interval. Geometrically, it corresponds to a ray on the real line.

2. 3 ≤ x ≤ 6 defines a finite interval. Geometrically, it corresponds to a line segment on the real

line.

Finite Intervals. Let a and b be two points such that a < b. By the open interval (a, b) we mean
the set of all points between a and b, that is, the set of all x such that a < x < b. By the closed
interval [a, b] we mean the set of all points between a and b or equal to a or b, that is, the set of all
x such that a ≤ x ≤ b. The points a and b are called the endpoints of the intervals (a, b) and [a, b].

By a half-open interval we mean an open interval (a, b) together with one of its endpoints. There
are two such intervals : [a, b) is the set of all x such that a ≤ x < b and (a, b] is the set of all x such
that a < x ≤ b.

Infinite Intervals. Let a be any number. The set of all points x such that a < x is denoted by
(a, ∞), the set of all points x such that a ≤ x is denoted by [a, ∞). Similarly, (−∞, b) denotes the
set of all points x such that x < b and (−∞, b] denotes the set of all x such that x ≤ b.

1.3 Solving Inequalities

Solve inequalities to find intervals of x ∈ R. Set of all solutions is the solution set of the inequality.
Examples:

4
 1.

2x − 1 < x + 3
2x < x + 4
x < 4.

2. For what values of x is x + 3(2 − x) ≥ 4 − x?

x + 3(2 − x) ≥ 4 − x when
x + 6 − 3x ≥ 4−x
6 − 2x ≥ 4−x
2 ≥ x ⇒ x ≤ 2.

3. For what values of x is (x − 4)(x + 3) < 0?

Case 1: (x − 4) > 0 and (x + 3) < 0, =⇒ x > 4 and x < −3.
Impossible since x cannot be both greater than 4 and less than −3.
Case 2: (x − 4) < 0 and (x + 3) > 0, =⇒ x < 4 and x > −3 =⇒ −3 < x < 4.

2 3
You Try It: Solve the inequality < .
x−1 2x + 1

1.4 The Absolute Value

It is a quantity that gives the magnitude or size of a real number. The absolute value or modulus
of a real number x, denoted by |x|, is given by

x, if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x, if x < 0.

Geometrically, |x| is the distance between x and 0. For example, | − 6| = 6, |5| = 5, |0| = 0.

1.4.1 Properties of the Absolute Value

1. The absolute value of a real number x is non-negative, that is, |x| ≥ 0.

2. The absolute value of a real number x is zero if and only if x = 0, that is, |x| = 0 ⇐⇒ x = 0.

3. In general, if x and y are any two numbers, then

5
 (a) −|x| ≤ x ≤ |x|.
(b) | − x| = |x| and |x − y| = |y − x|.
(c) |x| = |y| implies x = ±y.
x |x|
(d) |xy| = |x| · |y| and = if y 6= 0.
y |y|
(e) |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|. (Triangle inequality)
4. If a is any positive number, then
(a) |x| = a if and only if x = ±a.
(b) |x| < a if and only if −a < x < a.
(c) |x| > a if and only if x > a or x < −a.
(d) |x| ≤ a if and only if −a ≤ x ≤ a.
(e) |x| ≥ a if and only if x ≥ a or x ≤ −a.

Example: Show that for all real numbers x, | − x| = |x|.

Solution: If x ∈ R, then either x > 0, x = 0 or x < 0. If x > 0, then −x < 0. Thus,
| − x| = −(−x) = x = |x|, that is, | − x| = |x|.
If x = 0, then | − x| = | − 0| = |0| = 0, that is, | − x| = |x|.
If x < 0, then −x > 0. Now |x| = −x = | − x| since −x > 0.
Therefore in all cases | − x| = |x|.

Solving an Equation with Absolute Values: Solve the equation |2x − 3| = 7.

Solution: Hence 2x − 3 = ±7, so there are two possibilities,

2x − 3 = 7 2x − 3 = −7
2x = 10 2x = −4
x = 5 x = −2

The solutions of |2x − 3| = 7 are x = 5 and x = −2.

2
Solving Inequalities Involving Absolute values: Sole the inequality 5 − < 1.
x

Solution: We have
2 2
5− < 1 ⇐⇒ −1 < 5 − < 1
x x
2
⇐⇒ −6 < − < −4
x
1
⇐⇒ 3 > > 2
x
1 1
⇐⇒ <x< .
3 2
6
Solve the inequalities and show the solution set on the real line. (a) |2x − 3| ≤ 1 (b) |2x − 3| ≥ 1.

Solution: (a)

|2x − 3| ≤ 1 ⇐⇒ −1 ≤ 2x − 3 ≤ 1
⇐⇒ 2 ≤ 2x ≤ 4
⇐⇒ 1 ≤ x ≤ 2.

The solution set is the closed interval [1, 2].

(b)

|2x − 3| ≥ 1 ⇐⇒ 2x − 3 ≥ 1 or 2x − 3 ≤ −1
⇐⇒ x ≥ 2 or x ≤ 1.

The solution set is (−∞, 1] ∪ [2, ∞).

You Try It: Solve the inequality 4|x| < 7x − 6.

1.5 The Principle of Mathematical Induction

It is an important property of the positive integers (natural numbers) and is used in proving state-
ments involving all positive integers when it is known for, for example, that the statements are valid
for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . but it is suspected or conjectured that they hold for all positive integers.

1.5.1 Steps

1. Prove the statement for n = 1 or some other positive integer. (Initial Step)

2. Assume the statement true for n = k, where k ∈ Z+ . (Inductive Hypothesis)

3. From the assumption in 2 prove the statement must be true for n = k + 1.

4. Since the statement is true for n = 1 (from 1) it must (from 3) be true for n = 1 + 1 = 2 and
from this for n = 2 + 1 = 3, and so on, so must be true for all positive integers. (Conclusion)

Example: For any positive integer n,

n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + n = .
2
Solution:

7
 1(1 + 1) 2
1. Prove for n = 1, 1 = = = 1, which is clearly true.
2 2
2. Assume that the statement holds for n = k, that is,

k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + k = .
2

3. Prove for n = k + 1. So
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + · · · + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1) (by inductive hypothesis)
2
k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
=
2
2
k + 3k + 2
=
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
=
2
so holds for n = k + 1.
n(n + 1)
4. Hence by induction, 1 + 2 + · · · + n = is true for any positive integer n.
2

Example: Prove that for any natural number

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 2n − 1 = n2 .

Solution:

1. Prove for n = 1, 1 = 12 = 1, so it is true.

2. Assume that the statement holds for n = k, that is,

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 2k − 1 = k 2 .

3. Prove for n = k + 1. We have

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) + 2(k + 1) − 1 = k 2 + 2k + 1 (by inductive hypothesis)

= (k + 1)2 .

So it is true for n = k + 1.

4. Hence by induction 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 2n − 1 = n2 is true for all natural numbers n.

8
 Example: Prove that 3n > 2n for all natural numbers n.

Solution:

1. Prove for n = 1 =⇒ 31 = 3 > 21 = 2, which is true.

2. Assume the statements holds for n = k, that is, 3k > 2k .

3. Prove for n = k + 1.

3k+1 = 3k · 3
> 2k · 3 by inductive hypothesis
> 2k · 2 since 3 > 2
> 2k+1 ,

which is true.

4. Hence, by induction 3n > 2n for all natural numbers n.

Example: Prove that for any integer n ≥ 1, 22n − 1 is divisible by 3.

Solution:

1. Prove for n = 1 =⇒ 22 − 1 = 3 and is divisible by 3, hence its true.

2. Assume that the statement holds for n = k, that is, for k ≥ 1, 22k − 1 is divisible by 3, i.e.,
22k − 1 = 3l, for some l ∈ Z.

3. Prove for n = k + 1.

22(k+1) − 1 = 4 · 22k − 1 but 22k = 3l + 1 by the inductive hypothesis

= 4(3l + 1) − 1
= 12l + 4 − 1
= 12l + 3
= 3(4l + 1),

which is true.

4. Hence, by induction 22n − 1 is divisible by 3 for all n ≥ 1.

9
Chapter 2

Sequences

Definition 2.0.1. A sequence is a set of numbers u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . in a definite order of arrangement

and formed according to a definite rule.

Each number in the sequence is called a term and un is called the nth term. The sequence
u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . is written briefly as {un }, e.g., {un } = 2n, where u1 = 2, u2 = 4, u3 = 6 and so
on. The sequence is called finite or infinite according as there are or are not a finite number of
terms.

Recursion Formula or Recurrence Relations

So far we have seen that a sequence {Un } may be defined by giving a formula for {Un } in terms of
n. For example
2n2 − 5n + 4
Un = √ .
n2 + 1
We can also define sequences by giving a relation or formula that connect successive terms of a
sequence and specifying the value or values of the first term or the first and second terms etc. The
formula or relation linking the terms is called a recursion formula or recurrence relation.

Example:
Find the values of the first four terms of the sequence defined by
2
un+1 = , u0 = 1, n ∈ N.
un

Solution:
2 2
u1 = u0+1 = = =2
u0 1
2 2
u2 = u1+1 = = =1
u1 2
2 2
u3 = u2+1 = = = 2.
u2 1

10
You Try It: Define recursively
a0 = a1 = 1, and an = an−1 + 2an−2 , n ≥ 2.
Find a6 recursively.

2.1 Limits of Sequences

1
Lets consider the sequence un = . The sequence has the terms 1, 21 , 13 , 14 , . . . . We see that the
n
terms of the sequence tend to or approach 0.
Definition 2.1.1. A number L is called the limit of an infinite sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . or {an }, if
for any positive number ε, we can find a positive number N depending on ε such that |an − L| < ε
for all integers n > N . We write lim an = L.
n→∞

If {an } is a convergent sequence, it means that the terms an can be made arbitrarily close to L for
n sufficiently large.

1 3n + 1
Example: If un = 3 + = , the sequence is 4, 27 , 10
3
, . . . and we can show that
n n
lim un = 3.
n→∞

If the limit of a sequence exists, the sequence is called convergent, otherwise, it is called divergent.

11
 1
Example: Prove that lim = 0.
n→∞ n

1 1 1 1 1
Proof: Let ε > 0, we can find N (ε) such that −0 = = < ε. But n > . So N = .
n n n ε ε
1 1
Taking N to be the smallest integer greater than , we have, lim = 0.
ε n→∞ n

1
You Try It: Prove that lim = 0 if p ∈ N.
n→0 np

2n − 1 2
Example: Use the definition of a limit to prove that lim = .
n→∞ 3n + 2 3

Proof: Let ε > 0, we can find N (ε) such that

2n − 1 2 3(2n − 1) − 2(3n + 3) 6n − 3 − 6n − 4 −7 7
− = = = = <ε
3n + 2 3 3(3n + 2) 3(3n + 2) 3(3n + 2) 3(3n + 2)

7
< ε
3(3n + 2)
7 − 6ε
n > .
9ε
7 − 6ε 7 − 6ε
Take N = . So taking N to be the smallest integer greater than , we have
9ε 9ε
2n − 1 2 2n − 1 2
− < ε , i.e., lim = .
3n + 2 3 n→∞ 3n + 2 3

2.2 Theorems on Limits

If lim an = A and lim bn = B, then

n→∞ n→∞

1. lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn = A + B.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

2. lim (an − bn ) = lim an − lim bn = A − B.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

3. lim (an · bn ) = ( lim an )( lim bn ) = AB.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

an lim an A
4. lim = n→∞ = if lim bn = B 6= 0.
n→∞ bn lim bn B n→∞
n→∞

5. The limit of a convergent sequence {un } of real numbers is unique.

12
Proof: We must show that if lim un = l1 and lim un = l2 , then l1 = l2 . By hypothesis, given any
n→∞ n→∞
ε ε
ε > 0, we can find N such that |un − l1 | < when n > N and |un − l2 | < when n > N . Then
2 2
ε ε
|l1 − l2 | = |l1 − un + un − l2 | ≤ |l1 − un | + |un − l2 | < + = ε,
2 2
i.e., |l1 −l2 | is less than any positive ε (however small) and so must be zero, i.e., l1 −l2 = 0 =⇒ l1 = l2 .

Example: If lim an = A and lim bn = B, prove that lim (an + bn ) = A + B.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

Proof: We must show that for any ε > 0, we can find N > 0, such that |(an + bn ) − (A + B)| < ε
for all n > N . We have

|(an + bn ) − (A + B)| = |(an − A) + (bn − B)| ≤ |an − A| + |bn − B|.

ε
By hypothesis, given ε > 0 we can find N1 and N2 such that |an − A| < for all n > N1 and
2
ε
|bn − B| < for all n > N2 . Then
2
ε ε
|(an + bn ) − (A + B)| < + =ε
2 2
for all n > N where N = max(N1 , N2 ). Hence lim (an + bn ) = A + B.
n→∞

2.3 Sequences Tending to Infinity

n tends to infinity, n → ∞ (n grows or increases beyond any limit ). Infinity is not a number and
the sequences that tend to infinity are not convergent.

We write lim an = ∞, if for each positive number M , we can find a positive number N (depending
n→∞
on M ) such that an > M for all n > N .

Similarly, we write lim an = −∞, if for each positive number M , we can find a positive number N
n→∞
such that an < −M for all n > N .

Example: Prove that (a) lim 32n−1 = ∞ (b) lim (1 − 2n) = −∞.
n→∞ n→∞

Proof: (a) If for each positive number M we can find a positive number
 N such
 that an > M for
1 ln M
all n > N , then 32n−1 > M when (2n − 1) ln 3 > ln M , i.e., n > + 1 . Taking N to be
  2 ln 3
1 ln M
the smallest greater than + 1 , then lim 32n−1 = ∞.
2 ln 3 n→∞

13
(b) If for each positive number M , we can find a positive number N such that an < −M for all
n > N , i.e., 1 − 2n < −M when 2n − 1 > M or n > 12 (M + 1). Taking N to be the smallest integer
greater than 12 (M + 1), we have lim (1 − 2n) = −∞.
n→∞

2.4 Bounded and Monotonic Sequences

A sequence that tends to a limit l is said to be convergent and the sequence converges to l. A
sequence may tend to +∞ or −∞, and is said to be divergent and it diverges to +∞ or −∞.

If un ≤ M for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , where M is a constant, we say that the sequence {un } is bounded

above and M is called an upper bound. The smallest upper bound is called the least upper bound
(l.u.b).

If un ≥ m, the sequence is bounded below and m is called a lower bound. The largest lower bound
is called the greatest lower bound (g.l.b).

If m ≤ un ≤ M , the sequence is called bounded, indicated by |un | ≤ P . (Every convergent sequence

is bounded, but the converse is not necessarily true)

If un+1 ≥ un , the sequence is called monotonic increasing and if un+1 > un it is called strictly
increasing. If un+1 ≤ un , the sequence is called monotonic decreasing, while if un+1 < un it is
strictly decreasing.

Examples: 1. The sequence 1, 1.1, 1.11, 1.111, . . . is bounded and monotonic increasing.
2. The sequence 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, . . . is bounded but not monotonic increasing or decreasing.
1
Definition 2.4.1. A null sequence is a sequence that converges to 0, e.g., un = , n ≥ 11.
n − 10

If {un } does not tend to a limit or +∞ or −∞, we say that {un } oscillates (or is an oscillating
sequence). It can oscillate finitely (bounded) or infinitely (unbounded).

Examples: un = (−1)n , un = (−1)n n.

2.5 Limits of Combination of Sequences

5 − 2n2
 
1 3
We want to be able to evaluate limits, for example, of the form lim 2− + 2 or lim .
n→∞ n n n→∞ 4 + 3n + 2n2

14
  
1 3 1 1
Example: lim 2 − + 2 = lim 2 − lim + 3 lim 2 = 2 − 0 + 0 = 2.
n→∞ n n n→∞ n→∞ n n→∞ n

3n2 − 5n 3 − n5 3+0 3
Example: lim = lim = = .
n→∞ 5n2 + 2n − 6 n→∞ 5 + 2 − 6
5+0+0 5
n n2

√ √ 
√ √ √ √ n+1+ n 1
Example: lim ( n + 1 − n) = lim ( n + 1 − n) · √ √ = lim √ √ = 0.
n→∞ n→∞ n+1+ n n→∞ n+1+ n

2.6 Squeeze Theorem

If lim an = l = lim bn and there exists an N such that an ≤ cn ≤ bn , for all n > N , then
n→∞ n→∞
lim cn = l.
n→∞

cos n
Example: Find lim .
n→∞ n

Solution: We know that −1 ≤ cos n ≤ 1

1 cos n 1 1 cos n 1 cos n
=⇒ − ≤ ≤ =⇒ − lim ≤ lim ≤ lim =⇒ 0 ≤ lim ≤0
n n n n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ n
cos n
=⇒ lim = 0.
n→∞ n

15
Chapter 3

Functions

3.1 What is a Function?

A function is a rule or a correspondence, relating two sets in such a manner that each element in
the first set corresponds to one and only one element in the second set. What do we mean when
we say y is a f unction of x? Symbolically, we write y = f (x), where

1. x is the independent variable. (input value of f )

2. y is the dependent variable. (output value of f at x)

3. f is a function. (rule that assigns x to y)

Definition 3.1.1. A function f from a set X to a set Y is a rule that assigns to each element x
in X a unique element y in Y .

The set X is called the domain of f and the set of corresponding elements y in Y is called the
range of f where sets X and Y consists of real numbers. We write f : X → Y .

Examples: Stock market index depending on time, volume of sphere depending on radius, circle
of a given radius has only one area.

Let f be a function. The number y in the range that corresponds to a selected number x in the
domain is said to be the value of the function at x, or image of x, written f (x), so y = f (x).

Examples: f (x) = 3x4 + 2, g(t) = 4 − t2 , h(s) = 2s2 + 7.

The domain of a function f is the largest set of real numbers for which the rule makes sense.

16
 1 1
Example: Let f (x) = , we cannot compute f (0), since is not defined. Then the domain of
x 0
1
f (x) = is the set of all real numbers except 0.
x

Function Domain x ∈ X Range y ∈ Y

y = x2 (−∞, ∞) [0, ∞)
1
y= (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
x
√
y = √x [0, ∞) [0, ∞)
y = 1 − x2 [−1, 1] [0, 1]

Table 3.1: Examples of functions

You Try It: Let

x
g(x) = .
x2 + 4x + 3
What is the domain and range of this function?

3.2 Graphs of Functions

It is useful to draw pictures which represent functions. These pictures, or graphs, are a device
for helping us to think about functions. We graph functions in the x − y plane. The elements of
the domain of the function are thought of as points of the x−axis. The values of a function are
measured on the y−axis. The graph of f associates to x a unique y value that the function f assigns
to x. The graph of a function f is the set of points {(x, y)|y = f (x) in the domain of f } in the
Cartesian plane.

As a consequence, a function is characterized geometrically by the fact that any vertical line inter-
secting its graph does so in exactly one point.

17
3.3 Bounded Functions

If there is a constant M such that f (x) ≤ M for all x in the interval (or other set of numbers), we
say that f is bounded above in the interval (or the set) and call M an upper bound of the function.
If a constant m exists such that f (x) ≥ m for all x in an interval, we say that f (x) is bounded below
in the interval and call m a lower bound. If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M in an interval, we call f (x) bounded.

Examples: f (x) = x + 3 is bounded in −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. An upper bound is 4 (or any number greater

than 4). A lower bound is 2 (or any number less than 2).

3.4 Types of Functions

3.4.1 Elementary Functions

Polynomial Function

Have the form f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + · · · + an−1 x + an where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are constants and n is
a positive integer called the degree of the polynomial provided a0 6= 0.

Examples: x5 + 10x3 − 2x + 1 is a polynomial of degree 5.

Rational Functions

P (x)
A function f (x) = where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomial functions.
Q(x)

18
 x3 + x + 5
Example: f (x) = is a rational function. Since x2 − 3x − 4 = (x + 1)(x − 4) and
x2 − 3x − 4
(x + 1)(x − 4) = 0 for x = −1 and x = 4, the domain of f is the set of all real numbers except −1
and 4.

Power Function

f (x) = kxn , n a real number and k a constant.

1 1 2
Examples: y = , y = x2 , y = x3 .
x

Piecewise Defined Functions

A function need not be defined by a single formula. A piecewise defined function is a function
described by using different formula on different parts of its domain.
 
 −1, x<0  −x, x<0
Examples: (a) f (x) = 0, x=0 (b) f (x) = x2 , 0≤x≤1
x + 2, x>0 1, x > 1.
 

19
Transcendental Functions

The following are sometimes called elementary transcendental functions.

1. Exponential function, f (x) = ax , a 6= 0, 1.

2. Logarithmic function, f (x) = loga x, a 6= 0, 1.

3. Trigonometric functions (also called circular functions because of their geometric interpreta-
sin x
tion with respect to the unit circle), e.g., sin x, cos x, tan x = , csc x, cot x, sec x.
cos x
4. Inverse trigonometric functions, e.g., y = sin−1 x, y = cos−1 x.

5. Hyperbolic Functions, e.g., sinh x, cosh x, tanh x, coth x.

Even and Odd Functions

Let f (x) be a real-valued function of a real variable. Then f is even if f (x) = f (−x). (Symmetric
with respect to the y−axis)

Examples: |x|, x2 , x4 , cos x, cosh x.

20
Let f (x) be a real-valued function of a real variable. Then f is odd if −f (x) = f (−x) or
f (x) + f (−x) = 0. (Symmetric with respect to the origin)

Examples: x, x3 , sin x, sinh x.

3x
Example: Determine whether the following function is odd or even f (x) = .
x2 + 1

Solution:
3(−x) 3x
f (−x) = 2
=− 2 = −f (x).
(−x) + 1 x +1
The function is odd.

3.5 Combining Functions

A function f can be combined with another function g by means of arithmetic operations to form
f
other functions, the sum f + g, difference f − g, product f g and quotient are defined as :
g
Let f and g denote functions, then

1. Sum : (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x).

2. Difference : (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x).

3. Product : (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x).

 
f f (x)
4. Quotient : (x) = .
g g(x)

f
Example: If f (x) = 2x2 − 5 and g(x) = 3x + 4. Find f + g, f − g, f g, .
g

Solution:

(f + g)(x) = (2x2 − 5) + (3x + 4) = 2x2 + 3x − 1.

(f − g)(x) = (2x2 − 5) − (3x + 4) = 2x2 − 3x − 9.
(f g)(x) = (2x2 − 5)(3x + 4) = 6x3 + 8x2 − 15x − 20
2x2 − 5
 
f
(x) = .
g 3x + 4

21
3.6 Composition of Functions

Let f and g denote functions. The composition of f and g, written f ◦ g is the function
(f ◦g)(x) = f (g(x)) and the composition of g and f , written g◦f , is the function (g◦f )(x) = g(f (x)).

Example: If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x2 + 1, find f ◦ g and g ◦ f .

Solution:
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x2 + 1) = (x2 + 1)2 = x4 + 2x2 + 1.
and
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x2 ) = (x2 )2 + 1 = x4 + 1.
In general, f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f .

3.7 Bijection, Injection and Surjection

Classes of functions may be distinguished by the manner in which arguments and images are related
or mapped to each other.

A function f : X → Y is injective (one-to-one, 1 − 1) if every element of the range corresponds

to exactly one element in its domain X.

For all x, y ∈ X, f (x) = f (y) =⇒ x = y or equivalently

For all x, y ∈ X, x 6= y =⇒ f (x) 6= f (y). An injective function is an injection.

22
Example: Show that the functions f (x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x3 − 2 are injective.

Solution: Need to show that f (x) = f (y) =⇒ x = y.

2x + 3 = 2y + 3
2x = 2y =⇒ x = y.

Hence f (x) = 2x + 3 is injective.

Need to show that g(x) = g(y) =⇒ x = y.

x3 − 2 = y 3 − 2
x3 = y 3 taking cube roots
x = y.

Hence g(x) = x3 − 2 is injective.

A function f : X → Y is called onto if for all y in Y there is an x in X such that f (x) = y. All
elements in Y are used. Such functions are referred to as surjective.

Example: Show that f (x) = 3x − 5 is onto.

y+5
Solution: For onto f (x) = y, i.e., 3x − 5 = y. Solve for x, =⇒ x = .
    3
y+5 y+5
So f =3 − 5 = y. Therefore f is onto.
3 3

Let X and Y be sets. A function f : X → Y that is one-to-one and onto is called a bijection
or bijective function from X to Y . If f is both one-to-one and onto, then we call f a 1 − 1
correspondence.

Inverse of a Function. Suppose f is a 1 − 1 function that has domain X and range Y . Since
every element y ∈ Y corresponds with precisely one element x of X, the function f must actually
determine a reverse function g whose domain is Y and range is X, where f and g must satisfy
f (x) = y and g(y) = x. The function g is given the formal name inverse of f and usually written
f −1 and read f inverse. Not all functions have inverses, those that do are called invertible functions.

23
Example: Find the inverse of the function f (x) = (2x + 8)3 .

Solution: We must solve the equation y = (2x + 8)3 for x.

y = (2x + 8)3
√3
y = 2x + 8
√3
y − 8 = 2x
√3 y − 8
x = .
2
√
3
x−8
Hence the inverse function f −1 −1
is given by f (x) = .
2

A 1−1 function f can have only one inverse, i.e., f −1 is unique. A function f : X → Y is invertible
if and only if f is one-to-one and maps X onto Y .

3.8 Operations on Functions

Equality of Functions

Equality of functions does not mean the same as equality of two numbers (numbers have a fixed
value but values of functions vary). Each function is a relationship between x and y, the two
relationships are the same if for every value of x we get the same value of y.

Example: The functions (x − 1)(x + 2) and x2 + x − 2 are equal.

Example: Equal functions for positive values of x,

√
|x| = x2 .

24
Identity Function

Generally, an identity function is one which does not change the domain values at all. Its the
function f (x) = x. Denoted by IX .

Monotonic Functions

A function is called monotonic increasing in an interval, if for any two points x1 and x2 in the interval
such that if x1 < x2 , f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ). If f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) the function is called strictly increasing.

Similarly, if f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 , then f (x) is monotonic decreasing, while if
f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) it is strictly decreasing.

25
Chapter 4

Limits and Continuity

The single most important idea in calculus is the idea of limit. More than 2000 years ago, the
ancient Greeks wrestled with the limit concept, and they did not succeed. It is only in the past 200
years that we have finally come up with a firm understanding of limits. The study of calculus went
through several periods of increased mathematical rigour beginning with the French mathematician
Augustin-Loius Cauchy (1789-1857) and later continued by the German mathematician, and former
high school teacher, Karl Wilhelm Weierstrass (1815-1897).

4.1 Limit of a Function

If f is a function, then we say lim f (x) = A, if the value of f (x) gets arbitrarily closer to A as x gets
x→a
closer and closer to a. For example, lim x2 = 9, since x2 gets arbitrarily close to 9 as x approaches
x→3
as close as one wishes to 3.

The definition can be stated more precisely as follows : lim f (x) = A if and only if, for any
x→a
chosen positive number ε, however small, there exists a positive number δ, such that, whenever
0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − A| < ε.

lim f (x) = A means that f (x) can be made as close as desired to A by making x close enough, but
x→a
not equal to a. How close is “close enough to a” depends on how close one wants to make f (x) to
A. It also of course depends on which function f is and on which number a is. The positive number
ε is how close one wants to make f (x) to A ; one wants the distance to be no more than ε. The
positive number δ is how close one will make x to a ; if the distance from x to a is less than δ (but
not zero), then the distance from f (x) to A will be less than ε. Thus δ depends on ε. The limit
statement means that no matter how small ε is made, δ can be made smaller enough. The letters
ε and δ can be understood as “error” and “distance”. In these terms the error (ε) can be made as
small as desired by reducing the distance (δ).

26
The ε − δ definition of lim f (x) = A
x→a

For any chosen positive number ε, however small, there exists a positive number δ, such that,
whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − A| < ε.

Example: Show that lim (x2 + 1) = 2.

x→1

Solution: Need to find δ so that, for a given ε, |x2 + 1 − 2| < ε for |x − 1| < δ.

Now

x 2 + 1 − 2 = x2 − 1
= (x + 1)(x − 1).

Choose |x − 1| < 1 so that −1 < x − 1 < 1 ⇒ 0 < x < 2 ⇒ 1 < x + 1 < 3. You have |x2 + 1 − 2| < ε
ε
if 3|x − 1| < ε or |x − 1| < . You have now two conditions on x :
3
ε
|x − 1| < 1 and |x − 1| < .
3
Choose δ = min{1, 3ε }. For a given ε > 0, choose δ = min{1, 3ε }, then we have |x − 1| < δ, it would
be true that |x2 + 1 − 2| < ε.

Example: Show that lim (x2 + 3x) = 10.

x→2

Solution: Let ε > 0. We must produce a δ > 0 such that, whenever 0 < |x − 2| < δ then
|(x2 + 3x) − 10| < ε. First we note that

|(x2 + 3x) − 10| = |(x − 2)2 + 7(x − 2)| ≤ |x − 2|2 + 7|x − 2|.
ε
Also, if 0 < δ ≤ 1, then δ 2 ≤ δ. Hence, if we take δ to be the minimum of 1 and , then, whenever
8
0 < |x − 2| < δ,
|(x2 + 3x) − 10| < δ 2 + 7δ ≤ δ + 7δ = 8δ ≤ ε.
 
1
You Try It: Prove that lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x

Right and Left Limits

Considering x and a as points on the real axis where a is fixed and x is moving, then x can approach
a from the right or from the left. We indicate these respective approaches by writing x → a+ and
x → a− .

27
If lim+ f (x) = A1 and lim− f (x) = A2 , we call A1 and A2 respectively the right and left hand limits
x→a x→a
of f (x) at a.

We have lim f (x) = A if and only if lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x) = A. The existence of the limit from the
x→a x→a x→a
left does not imply the existence of the limit from the right and conversely. When a function f is
defined on only one side of a point a, then lim f (x) is identical to the one-sided limit, if it exists. For
√ x→a √ √
example, if f (x) = x, then f is only defined to the right of zero. Hence, lim x = lim+ x = 0.
x→0
√ √ x→0
Of course, lim− x does not exist, since x is not defined when x < 0. On the other hand, consider
x→0 r
1
the function g(x) = , which is defined only for x > 0. In this case, lim+ g(x) does not exist and,
x x→0
therefore lim g(x) does not exist.
x→0

4.2 Theorems on Limits

1. If f (x) = c, a constant, then lim f (x) = c.
x→a

2. If lim f (x) = A and lim g(x) = B, then

x→a x→a

(a) lim kf (x) = kA, k being any constant.

x→a

(b) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x) = A ± B.

x→a x→a x→a

(c) lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x) = AB.

x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x) A

(d) lim = x→a = , provided B 6= 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) B
x→a

Example: If lim f (x) exists, prove that it must be unique.

x→a

Solution: Must show that if lim f (x) = A1 and lim f (x) = A2 , then A1 = A2 .
x→a x→a

By hypothesis, given any ε > 0 we can find δ > 0 such that

ε
|f (x) − A1 | < when 0 < |x − a| < δ
2
ε
|f (x) − A2 | < when 0 < |x − a| < δ.
2
Then
ε ε
|A1 − A2 | = |A1 − f (x) + f (x) − A2 | ≤ |A1 − f (x)| + |f (x) − A2 | < + = ε.
2 2
i.e., |A1 −A2 | is less than any positive number ε (however small) and so must be zero. Thus A1 = A2 .

28
Example: Given lim f (x) = A and lim g(x) = B. Prove that
x→a x→a

lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = A + B

x→a x→a x→a
.

Solution: We must show that for any ε > 0, we can find δ > 0 such that |(f (x)+g(x))−(A+B)| < ε
when 0 < |x − a| < δ.

By hypothesis, given ε > 0, we can find δ1 > 0 and δ2 > 0 such that
ε
|f (x) − A| < when 0 < |x − a| < δ1
2
ε
|g(x) − B| < when 0 < |x − a| < δ2 .
2
Then
ε ε
|(f (x) + g(x)) − (A + B)| ≤ |f (x) − A| + |g(x) − B| < + = ε,
2 2
when 0 < |x − a| < δ where δ is chosen as the smaller of δ1 and δ2 .

You Try It: Given lim f (x) = A and lim g(x) = B. Prove that
x→a x→a

lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x) = AB

x→a x→a x→a
.

4.3 Special Limits

sin x 1 − cos x
1. lim = 1, lim = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x
 x
1 1
2. lim 1 + = e, lim+ (1 + x) x = e.
x→∞ x x→0

ex − 1 x−1
3. lim = 1, lim = 1.
x→0 x x→1 ln x

4.4 Methods of Calculating lim f (x)

x→a

If f (a) is defined

If x = a is in the domain of f (x) and a is not an endpoint of the domain, and f (x) is defined by a
single expression, then
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

29
Example: Find lim (x + 3).
x→1

Solution: lim (x + 3) = 1 + 3 = 4.
x→1

1
Example: Find lim .
x→1 x + 2

1 1 1
Solution: lim = = .
x→1 x + 2 1+2 3

Example: Find lim (x2 − 7x + 5).

x→8

Solution: lim (x2 − 7x + 5) = 82 − 7(8) + 5 = 13.

x→8

x2 − 4
Example: Find lim .
x→2 x − 2

x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
Solution: lim = lim = lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x−2 x→2

Functions Defined By More Than One Expression

Suppose that f (x) is defined by one expression for x < a and by a different expression for x > a.

|x|
Example: Show that lim does not exist.
x→0 x

Solution: Notice that  x

|x|  x = 1, if x ≥ 0
= x
x  − = −1, if x < 0.
x
i.e., you seek a limit at x = 0 of a function that is defined differently on either side of x = 0.

|x|
lim− = lim (−1) = −1.
x→0 x x→0−
|x|
lim+ = lim (1) = 1.
x→0 x x→0+

|x| |x| |x|

Since lim+ 6= lim− , then lim does not exist.
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x

sin 3x
Example: Find lim .
x→0 x

30
  
sin 3x sin 3x
Solution: Since =3 . Then
x 3x
 
sin 3x sin 3x sin 3x
lim = lim 3 = 3 lim = 3(1) = 3.
x→0 x x→0 3x x→0 3x

1 − cos 2x
Example: Find lim .
x→0 sin 3x
      
1 − cos 2x 1 − cos 2x 3x 1 2 1 − cos 2x 3x
Solution: Since = 2x = . Then
sin 3x 2x sin 3x 3x 3 2x sin 3x
   
1 − cos 2x 2 1 − cos 2x 3x 2
lim = lim lim = (0)(1) = 0.
x→0 sin 3x 3 x→0 2x x→0 sin 3x 3

sin x
Example: Find limπ .
x→ 4 cos x

π


sin x sin 4

Solution: limπ = π
= 1.
x→ 4 cos x cos 4

1 − cos θ
You Try It: Show that lim = 0.
θ→0 θ

Limits at Infinity

It sometimes happen that as x → a, f (x) increases or decreases without bound. We write

lim f (x) = +∞ or lim f (x) = −∞. We say that, lim f (x) = +∞, if for each positive number
x→a x→a x→a
M we can find a positive number δ (depending on M in general) such that f (x) > M whenever
0 < |x − a| < δ.

Similarly, we say that lim f (x) = −∞, if for each positive number M we can find a positive number
x→a
δ (depending on M in general) such that f (x) < −M whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.

31
 1 1
Note that lim = 0 and lim = 0.
x→∞ x x→−∞ x

Limits at Infinity of a Rational Function

pm (x)
A rational function is a quotient of two polynomials, f (x) = , where m and n are the degrees
qn (x)
of the two polynomials.

1. If m < n, then lim f (x) = 0.

x→∞
x+1
Example: Find lim .
x→∞ x2 + 4

Solution: The degree of the numerator is one, the degree of the denominator is two. Therefore
1
x+1 x
+ x12 0+0
lim 2 = 0, since lim 4 = = 0.
x→∞ x + 4 x→∞ 1 + 2 1+0
x

2. If m > n, then lim f (x) = ±∞ . (sign depends on the polynomials pm (x) and qn (x), if they
x→∞
are of the same sign as x gets larger, the quotient is positive, if they are of opposite signs, the
quotient is negative)
x3 − 2x2 + 3x + 4
Example: Find lim .
x→∞ 3x + 5
2
x3 − 2x2 + 3x + 4 1− x
+ x32 + x43 1
Solution: lim = lim 3 = = ∞.
x→∞ 3x + 5 x→∞
x2
+ x53 0
a
3. If m = n, then lim f (x) = , where a is the coefficient of xm in the numerator and b is the
x→∞ b
coefficient of xn in the denominator.
x3 − 4x + 1
Example: Find lim .
x→∞ 3x3 + 2x + 7

4 1
x3 − 4x + 1 1− x2
+ x3 1−0+0 1
Solution: lim 3
= lim 2 7 = = .
x→∞ 3x + 2x + 7 x→∞ 3 + + 3+0+0 3
x2 x3

a0 xm + a1 xm−1 + · · · + am
You Try It: What is lim , where a0 , b0 6= 0 and m and n are
x→∞ b0 xn + b1 xn−1 + · · · + bn
positive integers, when (a) m > n (b) m = n (c) m < n.
x−4
You Try It: Find lim √ .
x→4 x−2

4.5 Continuity

A function f (x) is continuous at a point x = a if

32
 1. f (a) is defined.

2. lim f (x) exists.

x→a

3. lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Notice that, for f (x) to be continuous at x = a, all three conditions must be satisfied. If at least
one condition fails, f is said to have a discontinuity at x = a. For example, f (x) = x2 + 1 is
continuous at x = 2 since lim f (x) = 5 = f (2). The first condition above implies that a function
x→2 √
can be continuous only at points of its domain. Thus, f (x) = 4 − x2 is not continuous at x = 3
because f (3) is imaginary, i.e., not defined.

A function f is right-continuous (continuous from the right) at a point x = a in its domain if

lim+ f (x) = f (a). It is left-continuous (continuous from the left) at x = a if lim− f (x) = f (a).
x→a x→a
A function is continuous at an interior point x = a of its domain if and only if it is both right-
continuous and left-continuous at x = a.

Example: Determine whether f (x) = x2 + 1 is continuous at x = 1.

Solution: lim x2 + 1 = f (1) = 12 + 1 = 2. Therefore f (x) = x2 + 1 is continuous at x = 1.

x→1

|x|
Example: Determine whether f (x) = is continuous at x = 0.
x

Solution: Since f (0) is not defined, f (x) is not continuous at x = 0.

Example: Determine whether

|x|
(
f (x) = , if x 6= 0
x
0, if x = 0,

is continuous at x = 0.

Solution: f (0) now defined. Then

Then lim f (x) must be considered in two steps,

x→0

lim f (x) = lim (−1) = −1.

x→0− x→0−
lim f (x) = lim (1) = 1.
x→0+ x→0+

Since the limits are not the same, lim f (x) does not exist and f (x) is not continuous at x = 0.
x→0

33
You Try It: Determine whether the function defined by
 2
 x, if x < 2
f (x) = 5, if x = 2
−x + 6, if x > 2,


is continuous at the point x = 2.

A function f (x) is discontinuous at x = a if one or more of the conditions for continuity fails
there.

1
Example: (a) f (x) = is discontinuous at x = 2, because f (2) is not defined (has a zero
x−2
denominator) and because lim f (x) does not exist (equals ∞). The function is, however, continuous
x→2
everywhere except at x = 2, where it is said to have an infinite discontinuity.

x2 − 4
(b) f (x) = is discontinuous at x = 2 because f (2) is not defined (both numerator and
x−2
denominator are zero) and because lim f (x) = 4. The discontinuity here is called removable since
x→2
x2 − 4
it may be removed by redefining the function as f (x) = for x 6= 2 and f (2) = 4. (Note the
x−2
discontinuity in (a) cannot be removed because the limit also does not exist.)

4.6 The ε − δ Definition of Continuity

f (x) is continuous at x = a, if for any ε > 0, we can find δ > 0, such that, |f (x) − f (a)| < ε
whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.

Example: Prove that f (x) = x2 is continuous at x = 2.

Solution: Must show that, given any ε > 0, we can find δ > 0, such that |f (x)−f (2)| = |x2 −4| < ε
when |x − 2| < δ.

Choose δ ≤ 1, so that |x − 2| < 1 or 1 < x < 3 (x 6= 2). Then |x2 − 4| = |(x − 2)(x + 2)| =
|x − 2||x + 2| < δ|x + 2| < 5δ. Taking δ = min{1, 5ε } whichever is smaller, then we have |x2 − 4| < ε
whenever |x − 2| < δ.

You Try It: (a) Prove that f (x) = x is continuous at any point x = x0 .
(b) Prove that f (x) = 2x3 + x is continuous at any point x = x0 .

34
 Theorems on Continuity

f (x)
Theorem 1. If f (x) and g(x) are continuous at x = a, so are the functions f (x) ± g(x), f (x)g(x) and
g(x)
if g(x) 6= 0.

Theorem 2. The following functions are continuous in every finite interval (a) all polynomials (b) sin x
and cos x (c) ax , a > 0.

Theorem 3. If y = f (x) is continuous at x = a and z = g(y) is continuous at y = b and if b = f (a), then

the function z = g[f (x)] called a function of a function or composite function is continuous
at x = a.
Briefly: A continuous function of a continuous function is continuous.

Theorem 4. If f (x) is continuous in a closed interval, it is bounded in the interval.

You Try It: Suppose that f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in an open interval containing a and
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L. Then, show that lim g(x) = L.
x→a x→a x→a

35
Chapter 5

Differentiation

Increments. The increment ∆x of a variable x is the change in x as it increases or decreases from

one value x = x0 to another value x = x1 in its domain. Here, ∆x = x1 − x0 and we may write
x1 = x0 + ∆x. If the variable x is given an increment ∆x from x = x0 (i.e., if x changes from x = x0
to x1 = x0 + ∆x) and a function y = f (x) is thereby given an increment ∆y = f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
from y = f (x0 ), then the quotient
∆y change in y
= ,
∆x change in x
is called the average rate of change of the function on the interval between x = x0 and x1 = x0 +∆x.

Let f (x) be defined at any point x0 in (a, b). The derivative of f (x) at x = x0 is defined as
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
h→0 h
if this limit exists. A function is called differentiable at a point x = x0 , if it has a derivative at
that point, i.e., if f 0 (x0 ) exists. If we write x = x0 + h, then h = x − x0 and h approaches 0 if and
only if x approaches x0 . Therefore, an equivalent way of stating the definition of the derivative, is
f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim .
x→x0 x − x0

Example: If f (x) = x3 − x, find a formula for f 0 (x).

Solution:
f (x + h) − f (x) [(x + h)3 − (x + h)] − [x3 − x]
f 0 (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
3 2 2 3 3
x + 3x h + 3xh + h − x − h − x + x
= lim
h→0 h
3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 − h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (3x + 3xh + h2 − 1) = 3x2 − 1.
2
h→0

36
 √
Example: If f (x) = x, find the derivative of f .

Solution:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0
√ h
√
x+h− x
= lim
h→0
√ h
√ √ √
x+h− x x+h+ x
= lim ·√ √
h→0 h x+h+ x
(x + h) − x
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x)
1
= lim √ √
h→0 x+h+ x
1 1
= √ √ = √ .
x+ x 2 x

dy d d
The derivative at x may be denoted by f 0 (x), y 0 , , (f (x)). The symbol is called differ-
dx dx dx
entiation operator because it indicates the operation of differentiation. The process of finding
derivatives of functions is called differentiation.

A function f is differentiable at x0 if f 0 (x0 ) exists. It is differentiable on an open interval (a, b)

[or (a, ∞) or (−∞, a) or (−∞, ∞)], if it is differentiable at every number in the interval.

Example: Where is the function f (x) = |x| differentiable?

Solution: If x > 0, then |x| = x and we can choose h small enough that x + h > 0 and hence
|x + h| = x + h. Therefore, for x > 0,

|x + h| − |x|
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 x
(x + h) − x h
= lim = lim = 1,
h→0 h h→0 h
and so f is differentiable for any x > 0.

Similarly, for x < 0, we have |x| = −x and h can be chosen small enough that x + h < 0 and so
|x + h| = −(x + h). Therefore, for x < 0,

|x + h| − |x|
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
−(x + h) − (−x) −h
= lim = lim = −1,
h→0 h h→0 h

and so f is differentiable for any x < 0.

37
For x = 0 we have to investigate
f (0 + h) − f (0)
f 0 (0) = lim
h→0 h
|0 + h| − |0|
= lim (if it exists).
h→0 h
Let’s compute the left and right limits separately;
|0 + h| − |0| |h|
lim+ = lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
|0 + h| − |0| |h|
lim− = lim− = lim− (−1) = −1.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

Since these limits are different f 0 (0) does not exist. Thus, f is differentiable at all x except 0.

5.1 Differentiation Techniques (Finding Derivatives)

1.
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
h→0 h
if this limit exists.

2. The derivative of any constant function is zero, i.e., c0 = 0.

3. For any real number n,

(xn )0 = nxn−1 .
When differentiating, results can be expressed in a number of ways. For example, (i) if
dy
y = 3x2 then = 6x, (ii) if f (x) = 3x2 then f 0 (x) = 6x, (iii) the differential coefficient
dx
of 3x2 is 6x.
√ 1 1 1 1 1
For example, if f (x) = x = x 2 , then f 0 (x) = x 2 −1 = 12 x− 2 = √ .
2 2 x
You Try It: Using the general rule, differentiate the following with respect to x :
4
(a) f (x) = 5x7 (b) f (x) = 2 .
x
4. For any constant c, (cf (x))0 = cf 0 (x). For example, (5x3 )0 = 5(x3 )0 = 5(3x2 ) = 15x2 .

5. The derivative of a sum (difference) is the sum (difference) of the derivatives,

(f (x) ± g(x))0 = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x).

For example,

(3x5 − 2x2 + 1)0 = (3x5 )0 − (2x2 )0 + 10 = 3(x5 )0 − 2(x2 )0 + 0 = 3(5x4 ) − 2(2x) = 15x4 − 4x.

6. Product Rule
(f (x)g(x))0 = f (x)g 0 (x) + g(x)f 0 (x).

38
 7. Quotient Rule 0
g(x)f 0 (x) − f (x)g 0 (x)

f (x)
= .
g(x) (g(x))2

8. Parametric Equations. If the coordinates (x, y) of a point P on a curve are given as

functions x = f (u) and y = g(u) of a third variable or parameter u, the equations x = f (u)
and y = g(u) are called parametric equations of the curve. For example, x = 12 t, y = 4 − t2 or
x = cos θ, y = 4 sin2 θ.
dy
The First Derivative is given by
dx
dy dy/du
= .
dx dx/du

d2 y
The Second Derivative is given by
dx2
d2 y
 
d dy du
2
= .
dx du dx dx

dy d2 y
Example: Find and 2 given x = θ − sin θ and y = 1 − cos θ.
dx dx
dx dy
Solution: Note that = 1 − cos θ and = sin θ, so
dθ dθ
dy dy/dθ sin θ
= = .
dx dx/dθ 1 − cos θ
Also
d2 y
 
d sin θ dθ
2
=
dx dθ 1 − cos θ dx
cos θ − 1 1 1
= 2
· =− .
(1 − cos θ) 1 − cos θ (1 − cos θ)2

dy d2 y
Example: Find and 2 given x = et cos t and y = et sin t.
dx dx
dx dy
Solution: Note that = et (cos t − sin t) and = et (sin t + cos t), so
dt dt
dy dy/dt sin t + cos t
= = .
dx dx/dt cos t − sin t
Also
d2 y
 
d sin t + cos t dt
=
dx2 dt cos t − sin t dx
2 1 2
= 2
· t = t .
(cos t − sin t) e (cos t − sin t) e (cos t − sin t)3

Theorem 5.1.1. If f (x) = c is a constant function, then f 0 (x) = 0 for all real numbers x.

39
 f (x + h) − f (x) c−c
Proof. Observe that f 0 (x) = lim = = 0.
h→0 h h
Theorem 5.1.2 (Product Rule). If f and g are both differentiable at x, then the product function
f g is also differentiable at x and (f g)0 (x) = f (x)g 0 (x) + g(x)f 0 (x).

Proof.
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
(f g)0 (x) = lim .
h→0 h
Trick of adding and subtracting f (x + h)g(x) to the numerator,

f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x + h)g(x) + f (x + h)g(x) − f (x)g(x)

limh→0
h
g(x + h) − g(x) f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim f (x + h) lim + g(x) lim
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h
= f (x)g 0 (x) + g(x)f 0 (x).

Theorem 5.1.3. If g is differentiable at x and g(x) 6= 0, then

 0
1 g 0 (x)
(x) = − .
g (g(x))2

Proof.
1 1
g(x+h)
− g(x) g(x) − g(x + h)
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h(g(x))(g(x + h))
−(g(x + h) − g(x)) 1
= lim
h→0 h g(x)g(x + h)
−(g(x + h) − g(x)) 1
= lim lim
h→0 h h→0 g(x)g(x + h)
1
= −g 0 (x) .
(g(x))2

f
Theorem 5.1.4. If f and g are differentiable at x and g(x) 6= 0, then is differentiable at x and
 0 g
0 0
f g(x)f (x) − f (x)g (x)
(x) = .
g (g(x))2

40
  
f 1
Proof. Since = f , we have
g g
 0  0
f 1
(x) = f· (x)
g g
 0
0 1 1
= f (x) + f (x) (x)
g(x) g
f 0 (x) g 0 (x)
 
= + f (x) −
g(x) (g(x))2
f 0 (x)g(x) − f (x)g 0 (x)
= .
(g(x))2

x2 − 1 0 (x2 + 1)(2x) − (x2 − 1)(2x) 4x

Example: f (x) = 2
, then f (x) = 2 2
= 2 .
x +1 (x + 1) (x + 1)2

x 0 (x2 + 1) − x(2x) 1 − x2
Example: If f (x) = , then f (x) = = .
x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2 (x2 + 1)2

1 1
Example: If f (x) = , then f 0 (x) = − 2 .
x x

dy
Example: If x = cos t and y = t sin t, find .
dx

Solution:
d
dy (t sin t) sin t + t cos t
= dt = .
dx d − sin t
(cos t)
dt

5.2 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Recall :
sin h 1 − cos h
lim = 1 and lim = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h

41
 sin(x + h) − sin x
(sin x)0 = lim
h→0 h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
sin x(cos h − 1) + cos x sin h
= lim
h→0
 h  
(1 − cos h) sin h
= lim − sin x + cos x
h→0 h h
= − sin x(0) + cos x(1).

Hence (sin x)0 = cos x.

dy
Example: Find if y = x3 sin x.
dx

dy
Solution: = (x3 sin x)0 = x3 (sin x)0 + sin x(x3 )0 = x3 cos x + 3x2 sin x.
dx

Example: Determine whether the function,

  
 3 1
x sin , if x 6= 0
f (x) = x
0, if x = 0,


is differentiable at x = 0.

Solution: Observe that

h3 sin h1 − 0 1
lim = lim h2 sin = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h

Logarithmic Functions. Assume a > 0 and a 6= 1. If ay = x, then define y = loga x. Let

ln x ≡ loge x (ln x is called the natural logarithm of x).

Basic Properties of Logarithms

1. loga 1 = 0 (In particular, ln 1 = 0).

2. loga a = 1 (In particular, ln e = 1).

3. loga uv = loga u + loga v.

u
4. loga = loga u − loga v.
v
5. loga ur = r loga u.

d x d 1 d x
Derivatives of ln x and ex are e = ex and ln x = . Also (a ) = ax ln x, a > 0.
dx dx x dx
42
 d
Example: Calculate the derivative [(sin x + x) · (x3 − ln x)].
dx

d d d 3 d 1
Solution: We know that sin x = cos x, x = 1, x = 3x2 and ln x = . Therefore, by
dx dx dx dx x
the addition rule,
d d d
(sin x + x) = sin x + x = cos x + 1
dx dx dx
and
d 3 d 3 d 1
(x − ln x) = x − ln x = 3x2 − .
dx dx dx x
Now we may conclude the calculation by applying the product rule;
d d d
[(sin x + x) · (x3 − ln x)] = (sin x + x) · (x3 − ln x) + (sin x + x) · (x3 − ln x)
dx dx  dx 
3 2 1
= (cos x + 1) · (x − ln x) + (sin x + x) · 3x −
x
1
= 4x3 − 1 + x3 cos x + 3x2 sin x − sin x − ln x cos x − ln x.
x

You Try It: Calculate the derivative

  
d x
sin x · cos x − x .
dx e + ln x

5.3 Derivative of a Composition [The Chain Rule]

We calculate the derivative of a composition by

[f ◦ g(x)]0 = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x).

If y = f (u) where u = g(x), then

dy dy du du
= · = f 0 (u) = f 0 (g(x))g 0 (x).
dx du dx dx
Similarly, if y = f (u) where u = g(v) and v = h(x), then
dy dy du dv
= · · .
dx du dv dx

d
Example: Calculate the derivative (sin(x3 − x2 )).
dx

Solution: This is the composition of functions, so we must apply the Chain Rule. It is essential
to recognize what function will play the role of f and what function will play the role of g. Notice

43
that, if x is the variable, then x3 − x2 is applied first and sin applied next. So it must be that
d d
g(x) = x3 − x2 and f (s) = sin s. Notice that f (s) = cos s and g(x) = 3x2 − 2x. Then
ds dx
sin(x3 − x2 ) = f ◦ g(x)

and
d d
(sin(x3 − x2 )) = (f ◦ g(x))
dx dx 
df d
= (g(x)) · g(x)
ds dx
= cos(g(x)) · (3x2 − 2x)
= [cos(x3 − x2 )] · (3x2 − 2x).

x2
 
d
Example: Calculate the derivative ln .
dx x−2

x2 x2
 
Solution: Let h(x) = ln . Then h = f ◦ g, where f (s) = ln s and g(x) = . So
x−2 x−2
d 1 d (x − 2) · 2x − x2 · 1 x2 − 4x
f (s) = and g(x) = = . As a result,
ds s dx (x − 2)2 (x − 2)2
d d
h(x) = (f ◦ g)
dx dx 
df d
= (g(x)) · g(x)
ds dx
1 x2 − 4x
= ·
g(x) (x − 2)2
1 x2 − 4x
= ·
x2 (x − 2)2
x−2
x−4
= .
x(x − 2)

You Try It: Calculate the derivative of tan(ex − x).

5.4 Continuity and Differentiation

What is the relationship between continuity and differentiation? It appears that functions that
have derivatives must be continuous.
Theorem 5.4.1. If a function f is differentiable at a point x, then it is continuous at x.

44
Proof. We want to show that f is continuous at x, i.e., lim f (t) = f (x) or lim f (x + h) = f (x),
t→x h→0
where h = t − x. It will be sufficient to show that lim [f (x + h) − f (x)] = 0.
h→0

Now,
 
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim [f (x + h) − f (x)] = lim h
h→0 h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim lim h
h→0 h h→0
= f 0 (x) · 0
= 0,

because f 0 (x) is finite. Thus f is continuous at x.

Converse is false: For example, the function f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0, but it is not
differentiable there.

5.5 Higher Order Derivatives

dy
If f (x) is differentiable in an interval, its derivative is given by f 0 (x), y 0 or where y = f (x).
dx

d2 y
 
0 00 d
00 dy
If f (x) is also differentiable in the interval, its derivative is denoted by f (x), y or = .
dx dx dx2

dn y
Similarly, the nth derivative of f (x), if it exists, is denoted by f (n) , y (n) or where n is called
dxn
the order of the derivative.

Example: Let y = f (x) = 12 x4 − 3x2 + 1.

d 1 4
Solution: Derivative y 0 = f 0 (x) = ( x − 3x2 + 1) = 2x3 − 6x.
dx 2

d2 y d
Second derivative y 00 = f 00 (x) = = (2x3 − 6x) = 6x2 − 6.
dx2 dx

000 d3 y
000 d
Third derivative y = f (x) = 3 = (6x2 − 6) = 12x.
dx dx

d4 y d
Fourth derivative y (4) = f (4) (x) = 4
= (12x) = 12.
dx dx

45
5.6 Implicit Differentiation

Compare

√
1. x2 − y 3 = 3 ⇐⇒ y = 3
x2 − 3.
√
2. x2 + y 2 = 1 ⇐⇒ y = ± 1 − x2 .

3. x3 + y 2 = 3xy ⇐⇒????????.

Implicit Functions. A function in which the dependent variable is expressed solely in terms of
the independent variable x, namely y = f (x), is said to be an explicit function, for example,
y = 12 x3 − 1. An equation f (x, y) = 0, on perhaps certain restricted ranges of the variables, is said
to define y implicitly as a function of x.

1−x
Example: (a) The equation xy + x − 2y − 1 = 0, with x 6= 2, defines the function y = .
√ x−2
(b) The equation 4x2 + 9y 2 − 36 = 0 defines the function y = 23 9 − x2 when |x| ≤ 3 and y ≥ 0
√
and the function y = − 23 9 − x2 when |x| ≤ 3 and y ≤ 0.

The derivative y 0 may be obtained by one of the following procedures:

1. Solve, when possible, for y and differentiate with respect to x.

2. Thinking of y as a function of x, differentiate both sides of the given equation with respect
to x and solve the resulting relation for y 0 . This differentiation process is known as implicit
differentiation.

dy
Example: Find if x2 + y 2 = 4.
dx

Solution: We differentiate both sides of the equation

d 2 d d
x + y2 = 4
dx dx dx
dy
2x + 2y =0 .
dx
Solving the derivative yields
dy x
=− .
dy y

d2 y
Example: Find if x2 + y 2 = 4.
dx2

46
Solution: From the above example, we already know that the first derivative is
dy x
=− .
dx y
Hence by the Quotient Rule

d2 y
 
d x
2
= −
dx dx y
dy
y·1−x·
= − dx
y2
 
x
y−x −
y dy
= − 2
Substituting for
y dx
y + x2
2
= − .
y3

Noting that x2 + y 2 = 4 permits us to write the second derivative as

d2 y 4
= − .
dx2 y3

dy
Example: Find if sin y = y cos 2x.
dx

Solution:
d d
sin y = y cos 2x
dx dx
dy dy
cos y = y(− sin 2x · 2) + cos 2x
dx dx
dy
(cos y − cos 2x) = −2y sin 2x
dx
dy 2y sin 2x
= − .
dx cos y − cos 2x

Example: Find y 0 , given xy + x − 2y − 1 = 0.

Solution: We have
d d d d d d
x (y) + y (x) + (x) − 2 (y) − (1) = (0)
dx dx dx dx dx dx
1+y
or xy 0 + y + 1 − 2y 0 = 0, then y 0 = .
2−x

Example: Find y 0 , given x2 y − xy 2 + x2 + y 2 = 0.

47
Solution:
d 2 d d 2 d 2
(x y) − (xy 2 ) + (x ) + (y ) = 0
dx dx dx dx
d d d d d 2 d 2
x2 (y) + y (x2 ) − x (y 2 ) − y 2 (x) + (x ) + (y ) = 0.
dx dx dx dx dx dx
y 2 − 2x − 2xy
Hence, x2 y 0 + 2xy − 2xyy 0 − y 2 + 2x + 2yy 0 = 0 and y 0 = .
x2 + 2y − 2xy

Example: Find y 0 and y 00 , given x2 − xy + y 2 = 3.

Solution:
d 2 d d 2x − y
(x ) − (xy) + (y 2 ) = 2x − xy 0 − y + 2yy 0 = 0. So y 0 = .
dx dx dx x − 2y
Then
d d
(x − 2y) (2x − y) − (2x − y) (x − 2y) (x − 2y)(2 − y 0 ) − (2x − y)(1 − 2y 0 )
y 00 = dx dx =
(x − 2y)2 (x − 2y)2
 
2x − y
3x − 3y
3xy 0 − 3y x − 2y 6(x2 − xy + y 2 )
= = =
(x − 2y)2 (x − 2y)2 (x − 2y)2
18
= .
(x − 2y)2

You Try It: Find y 00 , given x3 − 3xy + y 3 = 1.

5.7 Logarithmic Differentiation

Take natural logarithm (ln) both sides, differentiate implicitly and solve for y 0 .
√
2 3
x 7x − 14
Example: Compute y 0 if y = .
(1 + x2 )4

48
 √  2√
x2 3 7x − 14

x 3 7x − 14
Solution: y = ⇒ ln y = ln .
(1 + x2 )4 (1 + x2 )4
1
ln y = 2 ln x + ln(7x − 14) − 4 ln(1 + x2 )
  3 
1 (7x − 14)0 (1 + x2 )0
  
1 0 1
y = 2 + −4
y x 3 7x − 14 1 + x2
2 7 8x
= + −
x 3(7x − 14) 1 + x2
 
0 2 7 8x
y = y + −
x 3(7x − 14) 1 + x2
√
x2 3 7x − 14 2
 
7 8x
= + − .
(1 + x2 )4 x 3(7x − 14) 1 + x2

5.8 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

If x = sin y, the inverse function is written y = sin−1 x or y = arcsin x. The inverse trigonometric
functions are multivalued functions.

Example: Find the derivative of y = sin−1 x.

Solution: Differentiate implicitly with respect to x. Then sin y = x. Hence,

(sin y)0 = x0
cos yy 0 = 1
1
y0 =
cos y
1
y0 = p
1 − sin2 y
1
= √ .
1 − x2

d 1 d 1 d 1
Some Derivatives. (cos−1 x) = − √ , (cot−1 x) = − , (sec−1 x) = √ .
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 + x2 dx x x2 − 1

1
You Try It: Show that the derivative of tan−1 x = .
1 + x2

49
Chapter 6

Applications of the Derivative

6.1 Approximation by Differentials

A method for approximating the value of a function near a known value. The method uses the
tangent line at a known value of the function to approximate the function’s graph. Let ∆x and ∆y
represent the changes in x and y for the function and dx and dy represents the changes in x and y
for the tangent line.

This is also written as

f (x + ∆x) = f (x) + ∆y = f (x) + f 0 (x)∆x.

√
Example: Approximate 10 by differentials.

50
 √ √ √
Solution: 10 is near 9, so we will use f (x) = x with x = 9 and ∆x = 10 − 9 = 1. Note that
1
f 0 (x) = √ . Therefore
2 x
√
10 = f (x + ∆x)
≈ f (x) + f 0 (x)∆x
√ 1 √ 1
= x + √ ∆x = 9 + √ (1)
2 x 2 9
19
= .
6
√
Example: Find an approximate value of 3 9.
√ 2
Solution: We set f (x) = 3 x. Supposed to find f (9). Note that f 0 (x) = 31 x− 3 and hence, f (8) = 2
and f 0 (8) = 12
1
, where x = 8 and ∆x = 9 − 8 = 1. Therefore,
√
3 1
9 = f (9) ≈ 2 + (1)
12
25
=
12
≈ 2.0833.

Example: Find an approximate value for tan 46◦ .

π π
Solution: Radial measure 46◦ = 45◦ + 1◦ corresponds to + and note that f (x) = tan x, then
4 180
f 0 (x) = sec2 x and f ( π4 ) = 1, f 0 ( π4 ) = 2. Therefore
π π  π 2 π
 π  π
◦
tan 46 = tan + ≈ tan + sec =1+ ≈ 1.0349.
4 180 4 4 180 90

6.2 The Mean Value Theorem

Suppose f (x) is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Then, there exists a c in (a, b) at
which the tangent line is parallel to the secant line joining the points (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)), i.e., at
f (b) − f (a)
which f 0 (c) = ,
b−a

OR

If f (x) is continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b), then there exists a point c in (a, b) such
that
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = , a < c < b.
b−a

51
The word mean in The Mean Value Theorem refers to the mean (or average) rate of change of f
in the interval [a, b].

If f (a) = f (b) = 0, then the theorem says that there exists a c in (a, b) at which f 0 (c) = 0. The
graphs suggest that there must be at least one point on the graph, that corresponds to a number c
in (a, b), at which the tangent is horizontal. This special case of the Mean Value Theorem is called
Rolle’s Theorem 1 .

√
Example: Consider f (x) = x − 1 on [2, 5], f (x) is continuous when x − 1 ≥ 0, i.e., x ≥ 1. In
1
particular, f (x) is continuous on [2, 5] and f 0 (x) = √ , so differentiable when x > 1. In
2 x−1
particular, f (x) is differentiable on (2, 5).
√ √
f (b) − f (a) f (5) − f (2) 5−1− 2−1 1
= = = .
b−a 5−2 3 3
1
Michel Rolle, a French mathematician (1652-1719)

52
 1
The Mean Value Theorem asserts that, for some c in (2, 5), f 0 (c) = . Let us find it.
3
1
f 0 (x) =
3
1 1
√ =
2 x−1 3
√
2 x−1 = 3
4(x − 1) = 9
9
x−1 =
4
13
x = .
4
13 13
Notice that is in (2, 5), so we may take c = .
4 4

π
Example: Show that if f (x) = tan x on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ k where k < , then tan k ≥ k.
2

Solution: By the Mean Value Theorem

tan k − tan 0
= sec2 c,
k−0
for some c ∈ (0, k). But sec2 c ≥ 1 and tan 0 = 0. So
tan k
≥ 1 =⇒ tan k ≥ k.
k

Example: Use The Mean Value Theorem to show that | cos a − cos b| ≤ |a − b|.

Solution: The function cos x is continuous and differentiable for all x. By the Mean Value Theorem
cos a − cos b
(cos x)0 =
a−b
cos a − cos b
|(cos x)0 | = ,
a−b
but (cos x)0 = − sin x and |(cos x)0 | ≤ 1, therefore
| cos a − cos b|
≤ 1 =⇒ | cos a − cos b| ≤ |a − b|.
|a − b|

b−a b−a
Example: Prove that 2
< tan−1 b − tan−1 a < for a < b.
1+b 1 + a2

1 1
Solution: Let f (x) = tan−1 x. Since f 0 (x) = 2
, f 0 (c) = . By the Mean Value Theorem
1+x 1 + c2
f (b) − f (a) tan−1 b − tan−1 a 1
= = , a < c < b.
b−a b−a 1 + c2

53
Then, from a < c < b, we have
a2 < c2 < b2 =⇒ 1 + a2 < 1 + c2 < 1 + b2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
> 2
> 2
=⇒ 2
< 2
<
1+a 1+c 1+b 1+b 1+c 1 + a2
−1 −1
1 tan b − tan a 1 b−a b−a
2
< < 2
=⇒ 2
< tan−1 b − tan−1 a < .
1+b b−a 1+a 1+b 1 + a2

 
a b b
Example: Use the Mean Value Theorem, to prove that if 0 < a < b, then 1 − < ln < − 1.
b a a
1 1
Hence show that < ln 1.2 < .
6 5

1
Solution: Let f (x) = ln x and f 0 (x) = . By the Mean Value Theorem, there exists c ∈ (a, b)
x
such that
1 ln b − ln a
f 0 (c) = = .
c b−a
Then, from a < c < b we have
1 1 1
a < c < b =⇒ < <
b c a
1 ln b − ln a 1 b−a b−a
< < =⇒ < ln b − ln a <
b b−a a b   a
a b b
=⇒ 1 − < ln < − 1.
b a a

   
12 6
Now, ln(1.2) = ln = ln . Therefore a = 5 and b = 6. Substituting in
  10 5
a b b
1 − < ln < − 1, we have
b a a
 
5 6 6 1 1
1 − < ln < − 1 =⇒ < ln 1.2 < .
6 5 5 6 5

6.3 Some Corollaries of The Mean Value Theorem

Corollary 6.3.1. If f 0 (x) = 0 at all points of the interval (a, b), then f (x) must be a constant in
the interval.

Proof. Let x1 < x2 be any two different points in (a, b). By the Mean Value Theorem for
x1 < x < x 2 ,
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
= f 0 (x) = 0.
x2 − x1

54
Thus f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Since x1 and x2 are arbitrarily chosen, the function f (x) has the same value
at all points in the interval. Thus, f (x) is constant.

Corollary 6.3.2. If f 0 (x) > 0 at all points of the interval (a, b), then f (x) is strictly increasing.

Proof. Let x1 < x2 be any two different points in (a, b). By the Mean Value Theorem for
x1 < x < x 2 ,
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
= f 0 (x) > 0.
x2 − x1
Thus f (x2 ) > f (x1 ) for x2 > x1 and so f (x) is strictly increasing.

6.4 Indeterminate Forms

f (x) 0 ∞ f (x) 0
Happens when lim tends to or as x → a. Think of the situation lim →
x→a g(x) 0 ∞ x→a g(x) 0
where f (x) and g(x) are differentiable (and therefore continuous so f (a) = lim f (x) = 0 and
x→a
g(a) = lim g(x) = 0.), then
x→a

f (x) f (x) − f (a)

lim = lim
x→a g(x) x→a g(x) − g(x)

f (x) − f (a)
= lim x−a (provided the denominator is not zero)
x→a g(x) − g(a)

x−a
f (x) − f (a)
lim
=
x→a x−a
g(x) − g(a)
lim
x→a x−a
f 0 (a) lim f 0 (x)
x→a
= 0 = (provided f 0 (x) and g 0 (x) are also continuous.)
g (a) lim g 0 (x)
x→a

Example:
x2 − 4 (x2 − 4)0 2x
lim = lim 0
= lim = 2 · 2 = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2 (x − 2) x→2 1

f (x) f 0 (x) f (x) 0 ∞

Theorem 6.4.1. If lim = lim 0 provided that lim is of the type or , this is
g(x) g (x) g(x) 0 ∞
f (x) 0 ∞
called L’Hôpital’s Rule: if either lim = or .
g(x) 0 ∞

55
 sin 2x 2 cos 2x 2·1 2
Examples: (a) lim = lim = = .
x→0 sin 5x x→0 5 cos 5x 5·1 5
e3x 3e3x
(b) lim = lim = ∞.
x→∞ x x→∞ 1
x x
e −1 e
(c) lim 3
= lim 2 = ∞.
x→0 x x→0 3x

0 ∞
The form ∞ − ∞. A given limit that is not immediately or can be converted to one of these
0 ∞
forms by combination of algebra and a little cleverness.
 
1 + 3x 1
Example: Evaluate lim − .
x→0 sin x x

1 + 3x 1
Solution: We note → ∞ and → ∞. However, after writing the difference as a single
sin x x
0
fraction, we recognize the form .
0
3x2 + x − sin x
 
1 + 3x 1
lim − = lim
x→0 sin x x x→0 x sin x
6x + 1 − cos x
= lim
x→0 x cos x + sin x
6 + sin x
= lim
x→0 −x sin x + 2 cos x
6+0
= = 3.
0+2

The form 0 · ∞. By suitable manipulation, L’Hôpital’s Rule can sometimes be applied to the limit
form 0 · ∞.
 
1
Example: Evaluate lim x sin .
x→∞ x

Solution: Write the given expression as

 
1
sin
x
lim
x→∞ 1
x
0
and recognize that we have the form . Hence,
0
(−x−2 cos x1 )
 
1
lim x sin = lim
x→∞ x x→∞ (−x−2 )
1
= lim cos = 1.
x→∞ x

56
The form 00 , ∞0 , 1∞ . Suppose y = f (x)g(x) tends towards 00 , ∞0 , 1∞ as x → a or x → ∞. By
taking the natural logarithm of y ;

ln y = ln f (x)g(x) = g(x) ln f (x)

and we see
lim ln y = lim g(x) ln f (x)
x→a x→a

is of the form 0 · ∞. If it is assumed that lim ln y = ln(lim y) = L, then lim y = eL or

x→a x→a x→a

lim f (x)g(x) = eL .
x→a

1
Example: Evaluate lim+ x ln x .
x→0

1
Solution: The form is 00 . Now, if we set y = x ln x , then
1
ln y = ln x = 1.
ln x
Notice we do not need L’Hôpital’s Rule in this case since

lim ln y = 1.
x→0+

1
Hence, lim+ y = e1 or equivalently lim+ x ln x = e.
x→0 x→0

1
Example: Evaluate lim (1 + x) x .
x→0

1
Solution: The limit form is of the form 1∞ . If y = (1 + x) x , then
1
ln y = ln(1 + x).
x
ln(1 + x) 0
Now, lim has the form and so
x→0 x 0
1
ln(1 + x)
lim = lim 1+x
x→0 x x→0 1
1
= lim = 1.
x→0 1 + x

Thus,
1
lim (1 + x) x = e.
x→0

 2x
3
Example: Evaluate lim 1 − .
x→∞ x

57
  2x  
∞ 3 3
Solution: The limit form is 1 . If y = 1 − then ln y = 2x ln 1 − . Observe that the
x x
2 ln(1 − x3 )
 
3 0
form lim 2x ln 1 − is ∞ · 0, whereas the form of lim 1 is . Therefore,
x→∞ x x→∞
x
0
3
x2
2 ln(1 − x3 ) (1 − x3 )
lim 1 = lim 2
x→∞
x
x→∞ − x12
−6
= lim = −6.
x→∞ (1 − 3 )
x

Finally, we conclude that  2x

3
lim 1 − = e−6 .
x→∞ x

6.5 Extrema of Functions

Suppose a function f is defined on an interval I. The maximum and minimum values of f on I

(if there are any) are said to be extrema of the function.

Definition 6.5.1. (i) A number f (c1 ) is an absolute maximum of a function f if f (x) ≤ f (c1 )
for every x in the domain of f .

(ii) A number f (c1 ) is an absolute minimum of a function f if f (x) ≥ f (c1 ) for every x in the
domain of f .

Example: The function f (x) = x2 has the absolute minimum f (0) = 0 but has no absolute
maximum.

1
Example: f (x) = has neither an absolute maximum nor an absolute minimum.
x

The interval on which a function is defined is very important in the consideration of extrema.

58
Example: f (x) = x2 defined only on the closed interval [1, 2], has the absolute maximum f (2) = 4
and the absolute minimum f (1) = 1. On the other hand, if f (x) = x2 is defined on the open interval
(1, 2), then f has no absolute extrema. In this case, f (1) and f (2) are not defined.

Theorem 6.5.1 (Extreme Value Theorem). A function f continuous on [a, b] always has an absolute
maximum and an absolute minimum on the interval.

Definition 6.5.2. (i) A number f (c1 ) is a relative maximum of a function f if f (x) ≤ f (c1 )
for every x in some open interval that contains c1 .

(ii) A number f (c1 ) is a relative minimum of a function f if f (x) ≥ f (c1 ) for every x in some
open interval that contains c1 .

Definition 6.5.3. A critical value of a function f is a number c in its domain for which f 0 (c) = 0
or f 0 (c) does not exist.

Example: Find the critical values of f (x) = x3 − 15x + 6.

Solution:
f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 15.
√
The critical values are those numbers for which f 0 (x) = 0, namely ± 5.

2
Example: Find the critical value of f (x) = (x + 4) 3 .

Solution: By power rule for functions,

2 1 2
f 0 (x) = (x + 4)− 3 = 1 .
3 3(x + 4) 3

In this instance we see that f 0 (x) does not exist when x = −4. Since −4 is in the domain of f , we
conclude it is a critical value.

Theorem 6.5.2. If a function f has a relative extremum at a number c, then c is a critical value.

6.6 Graphing and the First Derivative

Knowing that a function does, or does not, possess relative extrema is a great aid in drawing its
graph.

Theorem 6.6.1. Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), except possibly at the
critical value c.

(i) If f 0 (x) > 0 for a < x < c and f 0 (x) < 0 for c < x < b, then f (c) is a relative maximum.

59
 (ii) If f 0 (x) < 0 for a < x < c and f 0 (x) > 0 for c < x < b, then f (c) is a relative minimum.
(iii) If f 0 (x) has the same algebraic sign on a < x < c and c < x < b, then f (c) is not an extremum.

Example: For each of the following functions, find all the critical points and classify each as a
5 2
relative maximum, relative minimum or neither. (a) f (x) = 3x 3 − 15x 3 and (b) f (x) = x3 − 3x2 +
3x − 1.

Solution: (a) Critical points:

2 1
f 0 (x) = 5x 3 − 10x− 3
1
= 5x− 3 (x − 2)
5(x − 2)
= 1 ,
x3
which is zero when x = 2 and undefined when x = 0. Therefore x = 0 is a relative maximum and
x = 2 is a relative minimum.

(b) Critical points:

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x + 3
= 3(x2 − 2x + 1)
= 3(x − 1)2 ,
which is defined everywhere and zero when x = 1. Therefore x = 1 is neither.

Sometimes there is an easier way to test a critical point. Our goal is to relate the concept of the
concavity of a graph with the second derivative of a function. Often a shape that is concave upwards
is said to “hold water” whereas a shape that is concave downwards “spills water”.
Definition 6.6.1. Let f be differentiable on (a, b).

(i) If f 0 is an increasing function on (a, b), then the graph of f is concave upwards on the
interval.

60
 (ii) If f 0 is a decreasing function on (a, b), then the graph of f is concave downwards on the
interval

Theorem 6.6.2 (Test for Concavity). Let f be a function for which f 00 exists on (a, b).

(i) If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x in (a, b), then the graph is concave upward on (a, b).

(ii) If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x in (a, b), then the graph is concave downward on (a, b).

Example: Determine the intervals on which the graph of f (x) = −x3 + 92 x2 is concave upward and
the intervals for which the graph is concave downward.

Solution: From

f 0 (x) = −3x2 + 9x
 
00 3
f (x) = −6x + 9 = 6 −x + ,
2

we see that f 00 (x) > 0 when 6 −x + 32 > 0 or x < 23 and that f 00 (x) < 0 when 6 −x + 23 < 0

or x > 32 . It follows that the graph of f is concave upward on (−∞, 23 ) and concave downward on
( 32 , ∞).

61
6.6.1 Point of Inflection

Definition 6.6.2. Let f be continuous at c. A point (c, f (c)) is a point of inflection if there
exists an open interval (a, b) that contains c such that the graph of f is either

(i) concave upward on (a, c) and concave downward on (c, b) or

(ii) concave downward on (a, c) and concave upward on (c, b).

As a consequence, we observe that a point of inflection (c, f (c)) occurs at a number c for which
f 00 (c) = 0 or f 00 (c) does not exist.

Example: Find any points of inflection of f (x) = −x3 + x2 .

Solution: The first and second derivatives of f are, respectively,

f 0 (x) = −3x2 + 2x and f 00 (x) = −6x + 2.
Since f 00 (x) = 0 at 31 , the point ( 13 , 27
2
) is the only possible point of inflection. Now,
 
00 1 1
f (x) = 6 −x + > 0 for x <
3 3
 
1 1
f 00 (x) = 6 −x + < 0 for x > ,
3 3
implies that the graph of f is concave upward on (−∞, 31 ) and concave downward on ( 13 , ∞). Thus
( 13 , f ( 13 )) or ( 31 , 27
2
) is a point of inflection.

Second Derivative Test. If c is a critical value of y = f (x) and, say, f 00 (c) > 0, then the graph
of f is concave upward on some interval (a, b) that contains c. Necessarily then, f (c) is a relative
minimum. Similarly, f 00 (c) < 0 at a critical value c implies f (c) is a relative maximum.
Theorem 6.6.3 (Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema). Let f be a function for which f 00
exists on an interval (a, b) that contains the critical number c.

(i) If f 00 (c) > 0, then f (c) is a relative minimum.

(ii) If f 00 (c) < 0, then f (c) is a relative maximum.

62
However, if f 00 (c) = 0 then nothing can be concluded about the nature of the critical point.

Example: for each of the following functions, find all of the critical points and classify each as
relative maximum, relative minimum or neither. (a) f (x) = x3 − 3x + 2 (b) f (x) = 21 x − sin x
on 0 < x < 2π.

Solution: (a)

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 3
= 3(x2 − 1) = 3(x − 1)(x + 1),

which is defined everywhere and zero at x = 1 and x = −1. Computing f 00 (x) = 6x, then

f 00 (−1) = −6 < 0 ⇒ relative maximum at x = −1.

f 00 (1) = 6 > 0 ⇒ relative minimum at x = 1.

(b) f 0 (x) = 12 −cos x which is defined everywhere and zero when cos x = 21 ⇒ x = π3 , 5π
3
. Computing
f 00 (x) = sin x, then
π  √
π 3 π
f 00 = sin = > 0 ⇒ relative minimum at x = .
3 3 2√ 3
 
5π 5π 3 5π
f 00 = sin =− < 0 ⇒ relative maximum at x = .
3 3 2 3

6.7 Sketching the graph of y = f (x)

WILL WRITE NOTES ON THE BOARD

63
Chapter 7

Integration

7.1 Anti-derivatives

In this chapter we shall see that an equally important problem is :

Given a f unction f, f ind a f unction whose derivative is the same as f.
That is, for a given function f , we wish to find another function F for which F 0 (x) = f (x) for all
x on some interval.
Definition 7.1.1. A function F is said to be an anti-derivative of a function f if F 0 (x) = f (x)
on some interval.

Example: An anti-derivative of f (x) = 2x is F (x) = x2 since F 0 (x) = 2x.

There is always more than one anti-derivative of a function. For instance, in the foregoing example,
F1 (x) = x2 −1 and F2 (x) = x2 +10 are also anti-derivatives of f (x) = 2x since F10 (x) = F20 (x) = f (x).
Indeed, if F is an anti-derivative of a function f , then so is G(x) = F (x) + C, for any constant C.
This is a consequence of the fact that
d
G0 (x) = (F (x) + C) = F 0 (x) + 0 = F 0 (x) = f (x).
dx
Thus, F (x) + C stands for a set of functions of which each member has a derivative equal to f (x).
Theorem 7.1.1. If G0 (x) = F 0 (x) for all x in some interval [a, b], then
G(x) = F (x) + C
for all x in the interval.

Examples: (a) The anti-derivative of f (x) = 2x is G(x) = x2 + C.

(b) The anti-derivative of f (x) = 2x + 5 is G(x) = x2 + 5x + C since G0 (x) = 2x + 5.

64
7.2 Indefinite Integral

For convenience let’s introduce a notation for an anti-derivative of a function. If F 0 (x) = f (x), we
shall represent the most general anti-derivative of f by
Z
f (x)dx = F (x) + C.
Z Z
The symbol is called an integral sign, and the notation f (x) is called the indefinite integral
of f (x) with respect to x. The function f (x) is called the integrand. The process of finding an
anti-derivative is called anti-differentiation or integration. The number C is called Z a constant
d
of integration. Just as () denotes differentiation with respect to x, the symbol ()dx denotes
dx
integration with respect to x.

7.3 The Indefinite Integral of a Power

When differentiating the power xn , we multiply by the exponent n and decrease the exponent by
1. To find an anti-derivative of xn , the reverse of the differentiation rule would be : Increase the
exponent by 1 and divide by the new exponent n + 1.

If n is a rational number, then for n 6= −1

xn+1
Z
xn dx = + C.
n+1

Proof. Notice that

xn+1 x(n+1)−1
 
d
+C = (n + 1) + 0 = xn .
dx n+1 n+1

Z Z
6 1
Example: Evaluate (a) x dx (b) dx.
x5

Solution:
x7
Z
(a) x6 dx = + C.
7
x−4
Z
1 1
(b) By writing 5 as x , we have x−5 dx =
−5
+ C = − 4 + C.
x −4 4x

√
Z
Example: Evaluate x dx.

65
 √
Z Z
1
Solution: We first write x dx = x 2 dx and therefore
Z 3
1 x2 2 3
x dx =
2
3 + C = x 2 + C.
2
3

The following property of indefinite integrals is an immediate consequence of the fact that the
derivative of a sum is the sum of derivatives.
Theorem 7.3.1. If F 0 (x) = f (x) and G0 (x) = g(x), then
Z Z Z
[f (x) ± g(x)]dx = f (x)dx ± g(x)dx = F (x) ± G(x) + C.

Z
1
Example: Evaluate (x− 2 + x4 )dx.

Solution: We can write

1
x5 x5
Z Z Z
− 21 4 − 12 4 x2 1
(x + x )dx = x dx + x dx = 1 + + C = 2x +
2 + C.
2
5 5
Theorem 7.3.2. If F 0 (x) = f (x), then
Z Z
kf (x)dx = k f (x)dx

for any constant k.

The anti-derivative, or indefinite integral, of any finite sum can be obtained by integrating each
term.
Z  
− 31 5
Example: Evaluate 4x − 2x + 2 dx.
x

Solution: It follows that

Z   Z Z Z
− 13 5 − 13
4x − 2x + 2 dx = 4 xdx − 2 x dx + 5 x−2 dx
x
2
x2 x3 x−1
= 4· −2· 2 +5· +C
2 3
−1
2
= 2x2 − 3x 3 − 5x−1 + C.

7.4 Some Ant-Differentiation Formulas

Z Z
1. cf (x)dx = c f (x)dx.

66
 Z Z Z
2. [f (x) ± g(x)] = f (x)dx ± g(x)dx.
Z
1
3. xn dx = xn+1 + C for n 6= −1.
n+1
Z
4. adx = ax + C.
Z
5. cos xdx = sin x + C.
Z
6. sin xdx = − cos x + C.
Z
7. sec2 xdx = tan x + C.
Z
8. ex dx = ex + C.
Z
1
9. dx = ln |x| + C.
x
Z
1
10. √ dx = sin−1 x + C.
1−x 2

Z
1
11. dx = tan−1 x + C.
1 + x2

Z 
5 √
3

Example: Evaluate 2
− 2 x dx.
x

Solution: We may write

Z 
5 √
3
 Z
1
Z
2
2
− 2 x dx = 5 dx − 2 x 3 dx
x x
1 5
= 5 ln |x| − 2 5 x 3 + C
3
6 5
= 5 ln |x| − x 3 + C.
5

67
7.5 u−Substitution

The Indefinite Integral of a Power of a Function

Theorem 7.5.1. If F is an anti-derivative of f , then

Z
f (g(x))g 0 (x)dx = F (g(x)) + C.

Z
x
Example: Evaluate dx.
(4x2 + 3)6

Solution: Let us rewrite the integral as

Z
(4x2 + 3)−6 xdx

and make the identifications

u = 4x2 + 3 and du = 8xdx.

−6
u
Z Z du
1 z 2 }| −6{ z }| {
(4x2 + 3)−6 xdx = (4x + 3) 8xdx
8
Z
1
= u−6 du
8
1 u−5
= · +C
8 −5
1
= − (4x2 + 3)−5 + C.
40

Z
Example: Evaluate x(x2 + 2)3 dx.

Solution: If u = x2 + 2 then du = 2xdx. Thus,

u3
Z Z du
1 z 2 }| {3 z }| {
x(x2 + 2)3 dx = (x + 2) 2xdx
2
Z
1
= u3 du
2
1 u4
= · +C
2 4
1 2
= (x + 2)4 + C.
8

68
 p
You Try It: Evaluate 3
(7 − 2x3 )4 x2 dx.
Z
Example: Evaluate sin 10x dx.

Solution: If u = 10x, we then need du = 10dx. Accordingly, we write

Z Z
1
sin 10x dx = sin 10x(10dx)
10
Z
1
= sin u du
10
1
= (− cos u) + C
10
1
= − cos 10x + C.
10

Z
You Try It: Evaluate sec2 (1 − 4x) dx.

7.6 Sigma Notation

It is helpful to introduce a special notation that enables us to write an indicated sum of constants
1 1 1 1
such as 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n, 22 + 42 + 62 + · · · + (2n)2 and + + + · · · + in a concise
3 4 5 2n − 1
manner.

Let ak be a real number depending on the integer k. We denote the sum

a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an
by the symbol
n
X
ak .
k=1
P
Since is the capital Greek letter sigma, it is called sigma notation or summation notation.
Xn
The variable k is called the index of summation. Thus, ak is the sum of all numbers of the
k=1
form ak as k takes on the successive values k = 1, k = 2, · · · , and concludes with k = n.

5
X
Examples: (a) (3k−1) = [3(1)−1]+[3(2)−1]+[3(3)−1]+[3(4)−1]+[3(5)−1] = 2+5+8+11+14.
k=1
4
X 1 1 1 1 1
(b) 2
= 2 + 2 + 2 + 2.
k=1
(k + 1) 2 3 4 5
100
X
(c) k 3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + · · · + 983 + 993 + 1003 .
k=1

69
The index of summation is often called a dummy variable since the symbol itself is not important,
it is the successive integer values of the index and the corresponding sum that are important. In
general,
X n Xn Xn Xn
ak = ai = aj = am
k=1 i=1 j=1 m=1

and so on.

7.6.1 Summation Formulas

The number n is a positive integer, then

n
X
1. c = nc.
k=1
n
X n(n + 1)
2. k= .
k=1
2
n
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
3. k2 = .
k=1
6
n
X n2 (n + 1)2
4. k3 = .
k=1
4
n
X n(n + 1)(6n3 + 9n2 + n − 1)
5. k4 = .
k=1
30

10
X
Example: Evaluate (k + 2)3 .
k=1

Solution: By the Binomial Theorem, we can write as

10
X 10
X
3
(k + 2) = (k 3 + 6k 2 + 12k + 8)
k=1 k=1
X10 10
X 10
X 10
X
= k3 + 6 k 2 + 12 k+ 8.
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1

With n = 10, it follows from the summation formulas, that

10
X 102 112 10(11)(21) 10(11)
(k + 2)3 = +6 + 12 + 10 · 8
k=1
4 6 2
= 3025 + 2310 + 660 + 80 = 6075.

70
7.7 Area Under a Graph

As the derivative is motivated by the geometric problem of constructing a tangent to a curve, the
historical problem leading to the definition of a definite integral is the problem of finding area.
Specifically, we are interested in finding the area A of a region bounded between the x−axis, the
graph of a non-negative function y = f (x) defined on some interval [a, b] and

(i) the vertical lines x = a and x = b.

(ii) the x−intercepts of the graph.

7.8 Riemann Sums

Thinking integral as area, you can approximate the value of an integral by approximating the area.
Z b
A Riemann Sum is a sum of areas of rectangles. To estimate f (x) dx, where a < b.
a

First, divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals, using x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn as endpoints for the
subintervals,
a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn−1 < xn = b.

71
The subintervals are then
[x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], · · · , [xn−1 , xn ].
b−a
For simplicity, let the subintervals have the same length, ∆x = . You then have xi = a + i∆x.
n
Choose a point c in each subinterval and construct a rectangle above the subinterval with height
f (c). For simplicity, above the ith subinterval [xi−1 , xi ] make the height of the rectangle f (xi ). The
Z b
sum of the area of the rectangles is an approximation to f (x) dx. The ith rectangle has width
a
∆x and height f (xi ), hence the area Ai = f (xi )∆x. Thus :
Z b
f (x) dx ≈ A1 + A2 + · · · + An
a
= f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + · · · + f (xn )∆x
Xn
= f (xi )∆x.
i=1
Z b
This is the Riemann Sum for the integral f (x) dx. In general, if you increase n, you will improve
a
your approximation.

Example: Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of f (x) = 2x, x = 0, x = 1 and the
x-axis by calculating the limit of the Riemann Sums.

Solution: First divide the interval [0, 1] into n subintervals of equal length,
b−a 1−0 1
∆x = = = .
n n n
Therefore,
1 i
xi = a + i∆x = 0 + i · = .
n n
The nth Riemann Sum is
n n  
X X i
f (xi )∆x = f ∆x
i=1 i=1
n
n   n   
X i X i 1
= 2 ∆x = 2
i=1
n i=1
n n
n
X 2
= i
i=1
n2
2
Inside the summation, does not involve i, and so you can pull it outside the summation.
n2
n n
X 2 2 X
i = i
i=1
n2 n2 i=1
2n2 + 2n
 
2 n(n + 1)
= =
n2 2 2n2
1
= 1+ .
n
72
Finally, you can find the limit of the Riemann Sums :
n  
X 1
lim f (xi )∆x = lim 1 + = 1.
n→∞
i=1
n→∞ n

Example: Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of f (x) = (x − 1)2 + 2, x = −1, x = 2
and the x-axis by finding the limit of the Riemann Sums.

2 − (−1) 3 3i
Solution: Divide [−1, 2] as follows ∆x = = , then xi = a + i∆x = −1 + . Then, the
n n n
nth Riemann Sum is
n n  
X X 3i 3
f (xi )∆x = f −1 + ·
i=1 i=1
n n
n
"  2 #
X 3i 3
= −1 + − 1 + 2 ·
i=1
n n
n
"  2 #
X 3i 3
= −2 +2 ·
i=1
n n
n
9i2 12i
 
X 3
= 2
− +4+2 ·
i=1
n n n
n  
X 27 2 36 18
= i − i +
i=1
n3 n2 n
n n n
27 X 2 36 X 18 X
= i − 2 i+ 1
n3 i=1 n i=1 n i=1
   
27 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 36 n(n + 1) 18
= 3
− 2 + (n)
n 6 n 2 n
9(n + 1)(2n + 1) 18(n + 1)
= − + 18.
2n2 n
The area is the limit of the Riemann Sum
n  
X 9(n + 1)(2n + 1) 18(n + 1)
lim f (xi )∆x = lim − + 18 = 9 − 18 − 18 = 9.
n→∞
i=1
n→∞ 2n2 n

You Try It: Find the area of the function f (x) = x on [0, 1] by finding the limit of the Riemann
Sums.

7.8.1 The Definite Integral

The geometric problems that motivated the development of the integral calculus (determination
of lengths, areas, and volumes) arose in the ancient civilizations of Northern Africa. Where so-
lutions were found, they related to concrete problems such as the measurement of a quantity of

73
grain. Greek philosophers took a more abstract approach. In fact, Eudoxus (around 400 B.C.)
and Archimedes (250 B.C.) formulated ideas of integration as we know it today. Integral calculus
developed independently, and without an obvious connection to differential calculus. The calculus
became a “whole” in the last part of the seventeenth century when Isaac Barrow, Isaac Newton,
and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (with help from others) discovered that the integral of a function
could be found by asking what was differentiated to obtain that function.
Definition 7.8.1. Let f be a function defined on a closed interval [a, b]. Then the definite integral
Z b
of f from a to b, denoted by f (x) dx, is defined to be
a
Z b n
X
f (x) dx = lim f (xi )∆x.
a n→∞
i=1

The numbers a and b are called the lower and upper limits of integration, respectively. If the
limit exists, the function f is said to be integrable on the interval.

7.8.2 Properties of the Definite Integral

The following two definitions prove to be useful when working with definite integrals.
Theorem 7.8.1. If f (a) exists, then
Z a
f (x)dx = 0.
a

Theorem 7.8.2. If f is integrable on [a, b], then

Z a Z b
f (x)dx = − f (x)dx.
b a

Example: By definition Z 1
(x3 + 3x)dx = 0.
1

Theorem 7.8.3. Let f and g be integrable functions on [a, b]. Then,

Z b Z b
(i) kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx where k is any constant.
a a
Z b Z b Z b
(ii) [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx.
a a a
Z b Z c Z b
(iii) f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx, where c is any number in [a, b].
a a c

74
The independent variable x in a definite integral is called a dummy variable of integration. The
value of the integral does not depend on the symbol used. In other words,
Z b Z b Z b Z b
f (x) dx = f (r) dr = f (s) ds = f (t) dt
a a a a

and so on.

Theorem 7.8.4. For any constant k,

Z b Z b
k dx = k dx = k(b − a).
a a

Theorem 7.8.5. Let f be integrable on [a, b] and f (x) ≥ 0 for all x in [a, b], then
Z b
f (x) dx ≥ 0.
a

7.9 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

In this theorem we shall see that the concept of an anti-derivative of a continuous function provides
the bridge between the differential calculus and the integral calculus.

Theorem 7.9.1. Let f be continuous on [a, b] and let F be any function for which F 0 (x) = f (x).
Then Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).
a

The difference is usually written

b
F (x) ,
a
that is,
Z b Z b b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx = F (x) .
a a a
| {z } | {z }
definite integral indefinite integral

Z 3
Example: Evaluate x dx.
1

x2
Solution: An anti-derivative of f (x) = x is F (x) = . Consequently,
2
3 3
x2
Z
9 1
x dx = = − = 4.
1 2 1 2 2

75
7.10 Techniques of Integration

7.10.1 Integration by Parts

Useful
Z for integrands
Z involving products of algebraic and exponential or logarithmic functions, such
as x2 ex dx and x ln x dx. This is the inverse operation of differentiating a product. If u and v
are functions of x, then
d dv du
(uv) = u + v .
dx dx dx
du dv
Integrate both sides, if and are continuous, then
dx dx
Z Z
dv du
uv = u dx + v dx
dx dx
Z Z
dv du
u dx = uv − v dx
dx dx
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du.

Z
Example: Evaluate xex dx.

Z Z
x
Solution: Let u = x, du = dx and dv = e dx ⇒ v = dv = ex dx = ex . Then,
Z
xex dx = xex − ex + C.

Z
Example: Evaluate x2 ln x dx.

Solution: x2 is more easily integrated than ln x. So choose dv = x2 dx. Then,

x3
Z Z
dv = x dx ⇒ v = dv = x2 dx = .
2
3
1
and u = ln x ⇒ du = dx. Therefore,
x
x3
Z Z  3 
2 x 1
x ln x dx = ln x − dx
3 3 x
x3
Z
1
= ln x − x2 dx
3 3
x3 x3
= ln x − + C.
3 9
76
 Z
Example: Evaluate ln x dx.

Z Z
1
Solution: Choose dv = dx ⇒ v = dv = dx = x and u = ln x ⇒ du = dx, therefore
x
Z Z
1
ln x dx = x ln x − x· dx
x
Z
= x ln x − dx
= x ln x − x + C.

Z
You Try It: Evaluate x tan−1 x dx.

7.11 Using Integration by Parts Repeatedly

Z
Example: Evaluate x2 ex dx.

Solution: Notice that the derivative of x2 becomes simpler, whereas the derivative of ex does not.
So you should let u = x2 and dv = ex dx. So
Z Z
dv = e dx ⇒ v = dv = ex dx = ex
x

u = x2 ⇒ du = 2x dx.

Integrating by parts one time we get,

Z Z
x e dx = x e − 2xex dx.
2 x 2 x

Apply integration by parts a second time, where

Z Z
x
dv = e dx ⇒ v = dv = ex dx = ex
u = 2x ⇒ du = 2 dx.

Then,
Z Z
2 x 2 x
x e dx = x e − 2xex dx
 Z 
2 x x x
= x e − 2xe − 2e dx

= x2 ex − 2xex + 2ex + C
= ex (x2 − 2x + 2) + C.

77
7.12 Evaluating a Definite Integral

Z e
Example: Evaluate ln x dx.
1

Solution:
Z e e
ln x dx = (x ln x − x)
1 1
= (e ln e − e) − (1 · ln 1 − 1)
= (e − e) − (0 − 1)
= 1.

7.13 Reduction Formulas

These are formulas in which a given integral is expressed in terms of similar integrals of simpler
form.

Example: Let n be a positive integer. Use integration by parts to derive the reduction formula
Z Z
x e dx = x e − n xn−1 ex dx + C.
n x n x

Z Z
n x
Solution: Let u = x , dv = e dx. Then du = nx n−1
,v= dv = ex dx = ex . So
Z Z
n x n x
x e dx = x e − ex (nxn−1 ) dx
Z
= x e − n xn−1 ex dx + C.
n x

Z
To illustrate the use of the reduction formula we calculate xn ex dx for n = 1, 2.
Z Z
x x
n=1 : ex dx = xex − ex + C.
xe dx = xe −
Z Z
n=2 : x e dx = x e − 2 xex dx = x2 ex − 2xex + 2ex + C.
2 x 2 x

Z
Example: Evaluate sinn x dx.

78
 Z Z
n
Solution: Rewrite as sin x dx = sinn−1 x sin x dx.
ThenZ u = sinZn−1 x ⇒ du = (n − 1) sinn−2 x cos x dx and dv = sin x ⇒
v = dv = sin x dx = − cos x. Then ,
Z Z
n n−1
sin x dx = − sin x cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x cos x cos x dx
Z
n−1
= − sin x cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x cos2 x dx
Z
n−1
= − sin x cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x(1 − sin2 x) dx
Z 
n−1 n−2 n
= − sin x cos x + (n − 1) sin x dx − sin x dx
Z Z Z
n n n−1
sin x dx + (n − 1) sin x dx = − sin x cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x dx
Z Z
n n−1
n sin x dx = − sin x cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x dx

sinn−1 x cos x n − 1
Z Z
n
sin x dx = − + sinn−2 x dx.
n n

7.14 Partial Fractions

This technique involves the decomposition of a rational function into the sum of two or more
simpler rational functions. We will consider rational functions (quotients of polynomials) in which
the numerator has a lower degree than the denominator. If this condition is not meet, we first
carry out long division process, dividing the denominator into the numerator, until we reduce the
problem to an equivalent one involving a fraction in which the numerator has a lower degree than
the denominator.

x+7 2 1
Example: = − , then
x2 −x−6 x−3 x+2
Z Z  
x+7 2 1
dx = − dx
x2 − x − 6 x−3 x+2
Z Z
1 1
= 2 dx − dx
x−3 x+2
= 2 ln |x − 3| − ln |x + 2| + C.

Z
2x + 1
You Try It: Evaluate dx.
(x − 1)(x + 3)

79
7.14.1 Integrating with Repeated Factors

5x2 + 20x + 6
Z
Example: Find dx.
x3 + 2x2 + x

Solution: Factorise the denominator as x(x + 1)2 . Then write the partial decomposition as
5x2 + 20x + 6 A B C
2
= + + .
x(x + 1) x x + 1 (x + 1)2
Substituting we get, A = 6, B = −1, C = 9, then
5x2 + 20x + 6
Z Z Z Z
6 1 9
3 2
dx = dx − dx + dx
x + 2x + x x x+1 (x + 1)2
9(x + 1)−1
= 6 ln |x| − ln |x + 1| + +C
−1
x6 9
= ln − + C.
x+1 x+1

6x − 1
Z
You Try It: Evaluate dx.
x3 (2x− 1)

7.14.2 Integrating an Improper Rational Function

x5 + x − 1
Z
Example: Find dx.
x4 − x3

Solution: This rational is improper, its numerator has a degree greater than that of its denomi-
nator. Carrying out long division, we have
x5 + x − 1 x3 + x − 1
=x+1+ .
x4 − x3 x4 − x3
Now, applying partial fraction decomposition produces
x3 + x − 1 A B C D
3
= + 2+ 3+ .
x (x − 1) x x x x−1
We see that A = 0, B = 0, C = 1 and D = 1. So now we can integrate,
Z 5
x3 + x − 1
Z  
x +x−1
dx = x+1+ dx
x4 − x3 x4 − x3
Z  
1 1
= x+1+ 3 + dx
x x−1
x2 1
= + x − 2 + ln |x − 1| + C.
2 2x
80
 x3 − 2x
Z
You Try It: Evaluate dx.
x2 + 3x + 2

7.14.3 Quadratic Factors

Z
dx
Example: Find .
x2 − 4x + 5

Solution: Here we cannot find real factors, but we can complete the square,
x2 − 4x + 5 = (x − 2)2 + 1,
therefore Z Z
dx dx
2
= = tan−1 (x − 2) + C.
x − 4x + 5 (x − 2)2 + 1

Z
(x + 3)dx
Example: Find .
x2 − 4x + 5

x+3 x+3
Solution: Completing the square, = . Now since x + 3 = x − 2 + 5, we
x2 − 4x + 5 (x − 2)2 + 1
have
(x − 2 + 5) dx
Z Z
(x + 3)dx
=
x2 − 4x + 5 (x − 2)2 + 1
(x − 2) dx
Z Z
5 dx
= 2
+
(x − 2) + 1 (x − 2)2 + 1
1
= ln((x − 2)2 + 1) + 5 tan−1 (x − 2) + C.
2

Z
(x + 1) dx
Example: Find .
x(x2 + 1)

Solution: Decompose into partial fractions,

x+1 A B + Cx
2
= + 2 .
x(x + 1) x x +1
Then A = 1, B = 1, C = −1, and our integral is
Z Z Z Z
(x + 1) dx 1 dx x dx
2
= dx + 2
−
x(x + 1) x x +1 x2 + 1
1
= ln |x| + tan−1 x − ln(x2 + 1) + C.
2

Z
4x
You Try It: Evaluate dx.
(x2 + 1)(x2 + 2x + 3)

81
7.15 Integration of Rational Functions of Sine and Cosine

Integrals of rational expressions that involve sin x and cos x can be reduced to integrals of quotients
of polynomials by means of the substitution
x
t = tan .
2
1 − t2 2t dx 2
It then follows that cos x = 2
, sin x = 2
and = .
1+t 1+t dt 1 + t2
Z
dx
Example: Evaluate .
2 + 2 sin x + cos x

Solution: We see that Z Z

dx 2 dt
= 2
.
2 + 2 sin x + cos x t + 4t + 3
Since t2 + 4t + 3 = (t + 1)(t + 3), we use partial fractions,
Z Z  
dx 1 1
= − dt
2 + 2 sin x + cos x t+1 t+3
= ln |t + 1| − ln |t + 3| + C
t+1
= ln +C
t+3
1 + tan x2
= ln + C.
3 + tan x2

Z
dx
Example: Evaluate .
5 + 3 cos x

Solution: The integral becomes

Z Z 2dt
dx 1+ t2 
=
5 + 3 cos x 1 − t2
5+3
1 + t2
Z 2dt Z
1 + t2 2dt
= 2 2 =
5(1 + t ) + 3(1 − t ) 8 + 2t2
Z 1 + t2  
dt 1 −1 t
= 2
= tan +C
t +4 2 2
 
1 −1 1 x
= tan tan + C.
2 2 2

Z
dx
You Try It: Evaluate .
5 + 4 cos x

82
7.16 Integration of Powers of Trigonometric Functions

With the aid of trigonometric identities, it is possible to evaluate integrals of the type
Z
sinm x cosn x dx.

We distinguish two cases.

Case 1: m or n is an odd positive integer. Let us first assume that m is an odd positive
integer. By writing
sinm x = sinm−1 x sin x,
where m − 1 is even, and using sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x, the integrand can be expressed as a sum of
powers of cos x times sin x.
Z
Example: Evaluate sin3 x dx.

Solution:
Z Z
3
sin x dx = sin2 x sin x dx
Z
= (1 − cos2 x) sin x dx
Z Z
= sin x dx + cos2 x(− sin x) dx
1
= − cos x + cos3 x + C.
3

Z
Example: Evaluate sin5 x cos2 x dx.

Solution:
Z Z
5 2
sin x cos x dx = cos2 x sin4 x sin x dx
Z
= cos2 x(sin2 x)2 sin x dx
Z
= cos2 x(1 − cos2 x)2 sin x dx
Z
= cos2 x(1 − 2 cos2 x + cos4 x) sin x dx
Z Z Z
= − cos x(− sin x) dx + 2 cos x(− sin x) dx − cos6 x(− sin x) dx
2 4

1 2 1
= − cos3 x + cos5 x − cos7 x + C.
3 5 7
83
If n is an odd positive integer, the procedure for evaluation is the same except that we seek an
integrand that is the sum of powers of sin x times cos x.
Z
Example: Evaluate sin4 x cos3 x dx.

Solution:
Z Z
4 3
sin x cos x dx = sin4 x cos2 x cos x dx
Z
= sin4 x(1 − sin2 x) cos x dx
Z
= sin4 x(cos x) dx − sin6 x(cos x) dx
1 5 1
= sin x − sin7 x + C.
5 7
Z
You Try It: Evaluate sin2 x cos3 x dx.

Case II: m and n are both even non-negative integers. When both m and n are even
non-negative integers, the evaluation of the integral relies heavily on the identities,
1 1 − cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
sin x cos x = sin 2x, sin2 x = , cos2 x = .
2 2 2

Z
Example: Evaluate cos4 x dx.

Solution:
Z Z
4
cos x dx = (cos2 x)2 dx
Z  2
1 + cos 2x
= dx
2
Z
1
= (1 + 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x) dx
4
Z  
1 1 + cos 4x
= 1 + 2 cos 2x + dx
4 2
Z  
1 3 1
= + 2 cos 2x + cos 4x dx
4 2 2
3 1 1
= x + sin 2x + sin 4x + C.
8 4 32
Z
You Try It: Evaluate sin2 x cos2 x dx.

Instead of sin8 x cos6 x, suppose you have sin 8x cos 6x.

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 Z 2π
Example: Find sin 8x cos 6x dx.
0

Z 2π
More generally, find sin px cos qx dx. Use the identity
0

1 1
sin px cos qx = sin(p + q)x + sin(p − q)x.
2 2
1 1
Thus sin 8x cos 6x = sin 14x + sin 2x. Separated like this, sine are easy to integrate,
2 2
Z 2π   2π
1 cos 14x cos 2x
sin 8x cos 6x dx = − − = 0.
0 2 14 4 0

With two sines or two cosines, the addition formula, derive these formulas,
1 1
sin px cos qx = − cos(p + q)x + cos(p − q)x.
2 2
1 1
cos px cos qx = cos(p + q)x + cos(p − q)x.
2 2

Z
You Try It: Evaluate sin 2x sin 4x dx.

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