ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Active filters:
An electric filter is often a frequency selective circuit that passes a specified band of
frequencies and blocks or alternates signal and frequencies outside this band. Filters may be
classified as
1. Analog or digital.
2. Active or passive
3. Audio (AF) or Radio Frequency (RF)
1. Analog or digital filters:
Analog filters are designed to process analog signals, while digital filters process analog signals
using digital technique.
2. Active or Passive:
Depending on the type of elements used in their construction, filter may be classified as passive
or Active elements used in passive filters are Resistors, capacitors, inductors. Elements used in
active filters are transistor, or op-amp.

Active filters offer the following advantages over passive filters:

1. Gain and Frequency adjustment flexibility:
Since the op-amp is capable of providing gain, the i/p signal is not attenuated as it is in a passive
filter. [Active filter is easier to tune or adjust].
2. No loading problem:
Because of the high input resistance and low o/p resistance of the op-amp, the active filter does
not cause loading of the source or load.
3. Cost:
Active filters are more economical than passive filter. This is because of the variety of cheaper
op-amps and the absence of inductors.
The most commonly used filters are these:
1. Low pass Filters
2. High pass Filters
3. Band pass filters
4. Band –reject filters

Frequency response of the active filters:

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Low pass filters:

 It has a constant gain from 0 Hz to a high cutoff frequency f1.
 At fH the gain in down by 3db.
 The frequency between 0 Hz and fH are known as the pass band frequencies where as
the range of frequencies those beyond fH, that are attenuated includes the stop band
frequencies.

High pass filter:

High pass filter with a stop band 0 <f< f L and a pass band f> f L
fL -> low cut off frequency
f -> operating frequency.

Band pass filter:

It has a pass band between 2 cut off frequencies fH and fL where fH > fL and two, stop
bands: 0<f< fL and f > fH between the band pass filter (equal to fH - fL).
Band –reject filter: (Band stop or Band elimination). It performs exactly opposite to the band
pass.It has a band stop between 2 cut-off frequency fL and fH and 2 pass bands: 0<f< fL and f>
fH fC -> center frequency.

First order LPF Butterworth filter:

First order LPF that uses an RC for filtering op-amp is used in the non inverting configuration.
Resistor R1 & Rf determine the gain of the filter. According to the voltage –divider rule, the
voltage at the non-inverting terminal (across capacitor) C is,

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Fig a) First order low pass filter b)frequency response

Gain A= (1+Rf/R1)
Voltage across capacitor V1= Vi / (1+j2πfRC)
Output voltage V0 for non inverting amplifier =A V1
= (1+Rf/R1) Vi/(1+j2πfRC)
Overall gain V0/Vi = (1+Rf/R1) Vi/(1+j2πfRC)
Transfer function H(s) =A/(jf/fh+1) if fh =1/2πRC
H (jω) = A/( jωRC+1) = A/( jωRC+1).

The gain magnitude and phase angle of the equation of the LPF can be obtained by converting
eqn. (1) b into its equivalent polar form as follows.
1. At very lowω)|frequency, f < fH
|H (jω) =A
2. At f =fH
|H (jω)| =A/√2=0.707A
3. At f> fH
|H (jω)|<<A ≅ 0
When the frequency increases by tenfold (one decade), the volt gain is divided by 10. The gain
falls by 20 dB (=20log10) each time the frequency is reduces by 10. Hence the rate at which
the gain rolls off fH = 20 dB or 6dB/octave (twofold Rin frequency). The frequency f = fH is
called the cut off frequency because the gain of the filter at this frequency is down by 3 dB
(=20 log 0.707).

Second order LP Butterworth filter:

A second order LPF having a gain 40dB/decade in stop band. A First order LPF can be
converted into a II order type simply by using an additional RC network.
• An improved filter response can be obtained by using a second order active filter.
• A second order active filter consists of two RC pairs & has roll off rate of -40db/decade.
• The op-amp is connected as non-inverting amplifier hence
= (1 + ) =AoVB
1

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐴𝑜 = (1 + )
1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐵 → 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝐵

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

KCL at node A,
(𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝐴)𝑍1 + (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝐴)𝑍3 + (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴)𝑍2 = 0
𝑉𝑖𝑍1 + 𝑉𝑜𝑍3 + 𝑉𝐵𝑍2 − 𝑉𝐴(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3) = 0
𝑉𝑖𝑍1 = 𝑉𝐴(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3) − 𝑉𝐵𝑍2 − 𝑉𝑜𝑍3
𝑉𝑜
𝐴𝑜 =

𝑉𝑜
=

𝑉𝑖𝑍1 = 𝑉𝐴(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3) − 𝑉𝐵𝑍2 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑍3-----(1)

𝐾𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝐵 ,
(𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴)𝑍2 + 𝑉𝐵𝑍4 = 0

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2 = ( 4 + 2)

𝑉𝐴𝑍2 = 𝑉𝑜 (𝑍4 + 𝑍2)------(2)

𝑉𝑜 (𝑍2 + 𝑍4)
𝑉=
2

𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝑉𝐴 (2) 𝑖𝑛 (1)

𝑉𝑜 (𝑍2 + 𝑍4) 𝑉𝑜
= (𝑍 + + 𝑍 ) − 𝑉 𝑍 − 𝑍
1 1 2 3 2 3
𝐴𝑜 2

(𝑍2 + 𝑍4)(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3) − 𝑍3(𝐴𝑜𝑍2) − 𝑍22

𝑉𝑖𝑍1 = 𝑉𝑜( )
𝐴𝑜 𝑍 2
1 2
=
𝑉𝑖 𝑍 1 𝑍 2 + 𝑍 2 2 + 𝑍 2 𝑍 3 + 𝑍1 𝑍 4 + 𝑍 2 𝑍4 + 𝑍 3 𝑍 4 − 𝐴 𝑜 𝑍2 𝑍 3 − 𝑍 2 2
1 2
= − −(3)
𝑉𝑖 𝑍1𝑍2+𝑍4(𝑍1+𝑍2+𝑍3)+𝑍2𝑍3(1−𝐴0)
1
𝑇𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 , 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑍1 = 𝑍2 = And 𝑍3 = 𝑍4 =

.
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (3), 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻(𝑠)𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑠

2
𝐻(𝑆) = 1 1 1 𝑆𝐶
( + 𝑆𝐶 ( + + 𝑆𝐶) + (1 − 𝐴𝑜))
2 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
,
𝐴𝑜
𝐻(𝑆) = -----(4)
𝑆2𝐶2𝑅2+𝑆𝐶𝑅(3−𝐴 𝑜)+1

(4),
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐴𝑜, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 = 0
𝐻(𝑠) = ∞ , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 = ∞
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠
𝐴 ɷ2
𝑜 𝑛
𝐻(𝑠) = -------(5)
𝑆2+𝛼ɷ 2
𝑛𝑆+ɷ

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐴𝑜 → 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

ɷ𝑛 → 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ sec
𝛼 → 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
(4)&(5)
1
ɷ = ,𝛼 = (3 − 𝐴𝑜)

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝛼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒
𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛
𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝑆 = 𝑗ɷ 𝑖𝑛 (5)
𝐴 ɷ2
𝑜 𝑛
𝐻(𝑗ɷ) =
(𝑗ɷ)2+𝛼ɷ𝑛𝑗ɷ+ɷ2
𝐴𝑜
𝐻(𝑗ɷ) = ɷ
2
𝑗ɷ + 𝑗𝛼 +1
(
ɷ𝑛) ɷ𝑛
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠
𝐴𝑜
𝐻(𝑗ɷ) = 2
𝑆 + 𝛼𝑆 + 1
ɷ
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑗( )
ɷ𝑛
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠
𝐴𝑜
20 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝐻(𝑗ɷ)| = 20 𝑙0𝑔( ɷ 𝑗ɷ 2 )
1+𝑗𝛼( )+( )
ɷ𝑛 ɷ𝑛

= 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ɷ2
𝐴𝑜
ɷ 2 )
(1− )2+(𝛼 )
ɷ2 ɷ𝑛

First order HP Butterworth filter:

High pass filters are often formed simply by interchanging frequency-determining
resistors and capacitors in low-pass filters. (i.e) I order HPF is formed from a I order LPF by
interchanging components R & C. Similarly, II order HPF is formed from a II order LPF by
interchanging R & C.

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Here I order HPF with a low cut off frequency of fL. This is the frequency at which the
magnitude of the gain is 0.707 times its passband value.
Here all the frequencies higher than fL are passband frequencies.
The output voltage V0 of the first order active high pass filter is

 At high frequencies f>fL gain = A.

 At f= fL gain = 0.707 A.
 At f < fL the gain decreases at a rate of -20 db /decade. The frequency below cutoff
frequency is stop band.

Second – order High Pass Butterworth Filter:

I order Filter, II order HPF can be formed from a II order LPF by interchanging the frequency

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Band pass filters

 Filters that pass band of frequencies and attenuates others. Its high cutoff frequency
and low cutoff frequency are related as fH >fL and maximum gain at resonant
frequency
 fr= √ fHfL
 Figure of merit Q= fr/ (fH- fL) = fr/B where B= bandwidth.
 2 types of filters are Narrow band pass and wide band pass filters
Wide band pass filter:
It is connection of a low pass filter and a high pass filter in cascade.
The fH of low pass filter and fL of high pass filter are related as fH > fL

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Adder:
Op-amp may be used to design a circuit whose output is the sum of
several input signals.Such a circuit is called a summing amplifier or a summer
or adder.An inverting summer or a non-inverting summer may be discussed
now.
Inverting Summing Amplifier:

A typical summing amplifier with three input voltages V1, V2 and

V3 three input resistors R1, R2, R3 and a feedback resistor Rf is shown in figure
2.The following analysis is carried out assuming that the op-amp is an ideal one,
AOL= ∞.Since the input bias current is assumed to be zero, there is no voltage
drop across the resistor Rcomp and hence the non-inverting input terminal is at
ground potential.
I= V1/R1+V2/R2…..+Vn/Rn;
Vo= - Rf
I=Rf/R( V1+V2+….Vn).
To find Rcomp, make all inputs V1 = V2 = V3 = 0.
So the effective input resistance Ri = R1 || R2 || R3.
Therefore, Rcomp = Ri || Rf = R1 || R2 || R3 || R,f.

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Non-Inverting Summing Amplifier:

A summer that gives a non-inverted sum is the non-inverting summing amplifier

of figure Let the voltage at the (-) input terminal be Va. which is a non-inverting
weighted sum of inputs.
Let R1 = R2 = R3 = R = Rf/2, then Vo = V1+V2+V3
Subtractor using Operational Amplifier
If all resistors are equal in value, then the output voltage can be derived
by using superposition principle.
Subtractor:

A basic differential amplifier can be used as a subtractor as shown in the above

figure. If all resistors are equal in value, then the output voltage can be derived
by using superposition principle.
To find the output V01 due to V1 alone, make V2 = 0.

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Then the circuit of figure as shown in the above becomes a non-inverting

amplifier having input voltage V1/2 at the non-inverting input terminal and the
output becomes
V01 = V1/2(1+R/R) = V1 when all resistances are R in the circuit.
Similarly the output V02 due to V2 alone (with V1 grounded) can be
written simply for an inverting amplifier as
V02 = -V2
Thus the output voltage Vo due to both the inputs can be written as
V0 =V01 - V02 = V1 - V2
Adder/Subtractor:

It is possible to perform addition and subtraction simultaneously with a single

op-amp using the circuit shown in figure 2.16.The output voltage Vo can be
obtained by using superposition theorem. To find output voltage V01 due
to V1 alone, make all other input voltages V2, V3 and V4 equal to zero.
The simplified circuit is shown in figure 2.17. This is the circuit of an inverting
amplifier and its output voltage is, V01= -R/(R/2) * V1/2= - V1 by Thevenin‘s

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

equivalent circuit at inverting input terminal).Similarly, the output voltage

V02 due to V2 alone is,
V02= - V2
Now, the output voltage V03 due to the input voltage signal V3 alone applied at
the (+) input terminal can be found by setting V1, V2 and V4 equal to zero.
V03=V3
The circuit now becomes a non-inverting amplifier as shown in fig.(c).So,
the output voltage V03 due to V3 alone is
V03 = V3
Similarly, it can be shown that the output voltage V04 due to V4 alone is
V04 = V4
Thus, the output voltage Vo due to all four input voltages is given by
Vo = V01 = V02 = V03 = V04
Vo = - V1 -V2 +V3+ V4
Vo = (V3 +V4) – (V1 +V2)
So, the circuit is an adder-subtractor.

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Comparator
A comparator compares a signal voltage on one input of an op-amp with a known
voltage called a reference voltage on the other input. Comparators are used in circuits such as,
 Digital Interfacing
 Schmitt Trigger
 Discriminator
 Voltage level detector and oscillators

Non-inverting Comparator:

A fixed reference voltage Vref of 1 V is applied to the negative terminal and time
varying signal voltage Vin is applied to the positive terminal.
When Vin is less than Vref the output becomes V0 at –Vsat
[Vin < Vref => V0 (-Vsat)].
When Vin is greater than Vref, the (+) input becomes positive, the V0 goes to +Vsat.
[Vin > Vref => V0 (+Vsat)].
Thus the V0 changes from one saturation level to another.
The diodes D1 and D2 protect the op-amp from damage due to the excessive input voltage Vin.
Because of these diodes, the difference input voltage Vid of the op-amp diodes are called clamp
diodes.
The resistance R in series with Vin is used to limit the current through D1 and D2. To
reduce offset problems, a resistance Rcomp = R is connected between the (-ve) input and Vref.

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Inverting Comparator:

This fig shows an inverting comparator in which the reference voltage Vref is applied to
the (+) input terminal and Vin is applied to the (-) input terminal.

In this circuit Vref is obtained by using a 10K potentiometer that forms a voltage divider
with DC supply volt +Vcc and -1 and the wiper connected to the input. As the wiper is moved
towards +Vcc, Vref becomes more positive. Thus a Vref of a desired amplitude and polarity can
be got by simply adjusting the 10k potentiometer.

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Applications:
Zero Crossing Detector: [ Sine wave to Square wave converter]

One of the applications of comparator is the zero crossing detector or ―sine wave to Square
wave Converter. The basic comparator can be used as a zero crossing detector by setting Vref
is set to Zero.This Fig shows when in what direction an input signal Vin crosses zero volts. (i.e.)
the o/p V0 is driven into negative saturation when the input the signal Vin passes through zero
in positive direction. Similarly, when Vin passes through Zero in negative direction the output
V0 switches and saturates positively.
Drawbacks of Zero- crossing detector:
In some applications, the input Vin may be a slowly changing waveform, (i.e) a low
frequency signal. It will take Vin more time to cross 0V, therefore V0 may not switch quickly
from one saturation voltage to the other.
Because of the noise at the op-amp‘s input terminals the output V0 may fluctuate between 2
saturations voltages +Vsat and –Vsat. Both of these problems can be cured with the use of

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

regenerative or positive feedback that cause the output V0 to change faster and eliminate any
false output transitions due to noise signals at the input Inverting comparator with positive
feedback This is known as Schmitt Trigger.

EC3451 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS