Subject Code : OEE351

Subject Name : Renewable Energy System

UNIT - 1

71
INTRODUCTION

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY

Energy is the capacity for doing work, generating heat and emitting light. It is measured
the total amount of work that the body can do. Energy is measured in units of calorie andjoule.
A kilocalorie is the amount of energy or heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water
from 14.5°C to 15.5°C. The joule is defined as the amount of energy it takes to apply a force
of one newton through a distance of one meter.

Energy is the primary and most universal measure of all kind of works by human beings
and nature. Everything what happens the world is the expression of flow of energy in one of
its forms.
'
Energy is one of the major building blocks of modern society. Energy pervades all sectors
of society such as economics, labour, environment and the international relations in addition to
our own personal livings i.e., housing, food, transportation, recreation and quality of life. The
use of energy resources has relieved us from much hard work and made our efforts more
[ 1.2 J Renewable Energy System

productive. Human beings once had to depend on their own muscles to provide the energy
necessary to do work. Today our muscles supply less than 1 % of the work done in the
industrialized world.

Energy is a basic concept in all the science and engineering discipline. A very important
principle is that energy is a conserved quantity, i.e., the total amount of energy in the universe
is constant. As per the law of conservation of energy "Energy cannot be newly created. Energy
cannot be destroyed. In a closed system, the total mass and energy remains unchanged. In a
closed system, the energy is conserved". Energy is not created or destroyed but converted or
redistributed from one form to another such as from the wind energy into electrical energy or
from chemical energy into heat etc.

1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY

(a) Based on nature of availability of energy:

t
On the basis of nature of availability of energy source, the energy can be classified as
follows:

(i) Primary resources:

Primary energy sources can be defined as sources which are either found or stored in
nature. These energy sources provide a net supply of energy. Examples: Coal, natural gas, oil,
biomass, solar, tidal, hydro and nuclear energy.

(ii) Secondary resources

Secondary sources of energy are derived. from the· primary energy sources. Producing
electrical energyfrom coal and producing hydrogen from hydrolysis of water are examples of
this type of energy.

(b) Based on utilisation of energy:

On the basis of utilisation of energy, the energy can be classified as follows:
(i) Direct source of energy

The direct sources of energy are those which release the energy directly such as human
labour, bullocks, stationary and mobile mechanical or electric power units such as diesel
engines, electric motor, power tiller and tractors.

(ii) Indirect sources of energy

The indirect sources of energy are those which do not release energy directly but release
it by conversion process. Some energy is invested in producing indirect sources of energy.
Introduction 1 1.3

Seeds, manures (farm yard and poultry), chemicals, fertilizers and machinery can be classified
under indirect sources of energy. Again, on the basis of their replenishment, it can be further
classified into renewable and non-renewable indirect source of energy.

(iii) Supplementary sources of energy

Supplementary sources are defined as the ene rgy sources whose net energy yield is zero.
Those energy sources requiring highest investment in terms of energy insulation (thermal) is
an example for this source.

(c) Based on traditional use:

On the basis oftraditional use of energy source, the energy can be classified as follows:
.
(i) Conventional energy
4

Conventional energy source can be defined as source which are used traditionally and
provides a net supply of energy. Examples: Thermal energy and hydro power energy.

(ii) Non-conventional energy

Neu-conventional energy sources are developed in recent past and produce no net energy.
Though it may be necessary for the economy, these may not yield net energy. Examples of
non-conventional energy sources are: solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy and biomass
energy.

(d) Based on long term availability:

On the basis of long term availability of energy source, the energy can be classified as
follows:

(i) Non-renewable energy sources

These are the energy sources that are derived from finite and static stocks ofenergy. Coal,
oil, fossil fuels and nuclear fuels are example of conventional sources of energy. It cannot be
produced, grown, generated or used on a scale that can sustain its consumption rate. These
resources often exist in a fixed amount and are consumed much faster than nature can create
them. The supply ofthese fuels is limited. It becomes very essential to use these fuels sparingly.

(ii) Renewable energy sources

In this category, the energy sources which are direct in nature but can be subsequently
replenished are grouped. The energies which may fall in this group are solar energy, wind
energy, tidal energy, biomass energy, etc.
[ 1.4 Renewable Energy System

(e) Based on origin:

On the basis of origin of energy source, the energy can be classified as follows:

() Fossilfuels energy- energy obtained from fossil fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas
etc.

(ii) Nuclear energy- energy obtained from nuclear fuels such as Uranium, Plutonium,
Thorium etc.
(iii) Hydro energy - energy obtained from water.
(iv) Solar energy- energy obtained from solar radiation.
. .

() Wind energy- energy. obtained from natural wind force.

(vi) Biomass energy- energy obtained from biomass fuels such as cow dung, vegetable
waste etc.

(vii) Geothermal energy - energy obtained from natural temperature variation of

present in the various depth ofthe earth.
(viii) Tidal energy - energy obtained from tides and waves.
(ix) Ocean thermal energy - energy obtained from natural temperature variation
present in the various depth of the ocean.

1.3. SOURCES OF ENERGY

Today, every country draws its energy needs from a variety of sources. There are six
sources of useful energy utilised by human beings on planet Earth. These sources are given
below:

(a) Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum products and natural gases which produces
thermal, mechanical and electrical energy
(b) Chemical energy from reactions among mineral sources
(c) Nuclear energy from nuclear reactions ofthe nuclear fuels available on the earth
(d) The sun which produces solar energy in the form of mechanical or electrical energy
(e) Geothermal energy from cooling, chemical reactions and radioactive decay in the
earth

(f) The gravitational potential and planetary motion among sun, moon and earth which
produces wind, tidal and wave energies.
I
Non-renewable energy is derived from sources (a), (b) and (c) whereas renevable energy
is obtained from sources (d), (e) and (D). '
Introduction [ 1.5

1.4. PRIMARY (NON-RENEWABLE or CONVENTIONAL) ENERGY SOURCES

Conventional energy sources are as follows:

(a) Fossil fuel energy

(b) Hydraulic energy
(c) Nuclear energy.

(a) Fossilfuel energy:

Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are called fossil fuel as these are formed by the
decomposition of the remains of dead plants and animals buried under the earth for a long time.
These are non-renewable sources of energy, if exhausted, which cannot be replenished in a·
short time. Their potentials are limited and are considered very precious. These should be used
with care and caution to let them last long: They are also contributing to the global
environmental pollution.
(i) Coal
Since the advent of industrialization, coal has been the most common source of energy. In
last three decades, the world switched over from coal to oil as a major source of energy because
it is simple and clean to obtain useful energy from oil. Coal is a complex mixture of compounds
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Small amount of nitrogen and sulphur compounds are also
present in coal. On strong heating, coal breaks up to produce coal gas, ammonia, coal tar and
coke. Coke is 98% carbon, obtained after tossing all its volatile constituents during destructive
distillation of coal. It can be used as smoke free fuel.

(ii) Petroleum
It is a dark coloured, viscous and foul-smelling crude oil. The petroleum means rock oil.
It is normally found under the crust of earthtrapped in rocks. The crude oil is a complex mixture
of several solid, liquid, gaseous hydrocarbons mixed with water, salt and earth particles. It is a
natural product obtained from oil wells.

The crude petroleum is refined by the process. of fractional distillation to obtain more
useful petroleum products. The crude petroleum is heated to a temperature of about 400°C in a
furnace and vapors. Thus, they are passed into a tall fractioning column from near its bottom.
As the mixture of hot vapours rises in the column, it starts getting cooled gradually.

The products obtained from crude petroleum as follows:

(i) Petroleum gas (below 40°C) used as LPG.
(ii) Petrol (40°C to l 70°C) for light vehicles.
[ 1.6 Renewable Energy System

(iii) Kerosene (170 to 250°C) for household and industrial use.

(iv) Diesel oil (250 to 350°C) for heavy vehicles.
(v) Residual oil: (a) Lubrication oils (b) paraffin wax and (c) asphalt
(vi) Fuel oil (350 to 400°C) for boilers and furnaces.

(iii) Natural gas

It consists of about 95% methane and rest ethane and propane. It occurs deep under the
crust of the earth either alone or a long with oil above petroleum deposits. It is a product of
petroleum mining.

The gas is available in Tripura, Jaisalmer, off-shore areas of Bombay High and in the
Krishna - Godavari delta. It is used as a domestic and industrial fuel. The natural gas is now
also available as CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) a substitution of petrol in automobiles.

(b) Hydraulic energy (or) water power:

Water power is developed by allowing water to fall under the force of gravity. It is used
almost exclusively for large scale electric power generation. Potential energy of water is
converted into mechanical energy by using prime moves known as hydraulic turbines. Water
power is quite cheap where water is available in abundance. Although the capital cost of
hydroelectric power plants is high as compared to other types of power plants· but their
operating costs are quite low as no fuel is required in this case.

(c) Nuclear energy:_

According to modern theories. of atomic structure, a matter consists of minute particles
known as atoms. Heavier unstable atoms such as U"" and Th"" liberate large amount of heat
energy. The energy released by the complete fission of one kg of Uranium (U235) is equal to the
heat energy obtained by burning 4500 tonnes of coal (or) 220 tonnes of oil. The heat produced
by nuclear fission of atoms of fissionable material is utilized in special heat exchangers for the
production of steam which is then used to drive turbo-generators as in conventional power
plants.

However, there are some limitations in the use· of nuclear energy namely high capital cost
of nuclear power plants, limited availability of raw materials, difficulties associated with
disposal of radioactive waste and shortage of well-trained personnel to handle the nuclear
power plants.

About 3% of the energy produced in India is obtained from nuclear power plants.
Introduction 1 1.1

1.5. RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

The sources. of energy which are being produced continuously in nature and are
inexhaustible called renewable sources ofenergy or non-conventional energy.

1.5.1. Types of Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Some of the renewable energy sources are as follows:

(a) Solar energy
(b) Wind energy
(c) Tidal energy
(d) Wave energy
(e) Geothermal energy
(f) Biomass energy.

1. Solar energy:
Solar energy is collected from sunlight. It can be used in many ways such as generating
electricity using photovoltaic cells, generating electricity using flat plates and concentrating
solar power. Photovoltaic cells have a low efficiency factor.

2. Wind energy
Winds are caused because ofthe following two factors.
1. The absorption of solar energy on the earth's surface and in the atmosphere.
2. The rotation ofthe earth about its axis and its motion around the Sun.
A wind mill converts the kinetic energy of moving air into mechanical energy which can
be either used directly to run the machine or to run the generator for producing electricity.

3. Tidal energy:
Tides are generated primarily by the gravitational attraction between the earth and moon.
They arise twice a day in Mid-Ocean. The tidal range is only a Meter. Basically in a tidal power
station, water at high tide is first trapped in an artificial basin and it is allowed to escape at low
tide. The escaping wateris used to drive water turbines which in tum drive electrical generators.

4. Wave energy:-
Ocean waves are created by the interaction of winds with the surface of sea water. Wave

.
energy is the energy of interchanging potential and kinetic energy in the wave. Ocean wave
energy can be either converted into mechanical energy or electrical energy through wave
[ 1.8 Renewable Energy System

energy conversion plants. Ocean wave energy is needed to be developed in coastal areas.
Usually, power extracted from ocean energy is in the range of 10 kWIm to 70 kIm with respect
to amplitude and wave length.

5. Geothermal energy:
-
Geothermal energy is obtained by tapping the heat of the earth below its surface. Hot
underground water or steam is used to produce electricity. Its use covers a range ofoption from
power generation to space heating or air conditioning.

6. Biomass energy:
Bioenergy is another important rene wable energy source which covers a wide spectrum
of energy activities from direct production heat through combustion of fuel wood and other
biomass residues to generate electricity and the production of gases, liquid fuel and chemicals.
It is globally used.
Various sources of biomass energy are as follows:

1. Biogas
It is produced from wastes of paper and sugar industries, animals and so on. CH, is the
product.

2. Bio fuel
Biodiesel, ethanol etc. are derived from plants.

3. Solid biomass
Wood fuel, biogenic portion of municipal waste and certain plants are solid biomass.
Biomass mass may be used in a number ofways to produce energy. The common methods are
gasification, combustion, fermentation and anaerobic digestion. India is very rich in biomass.

1.5.2. Advantages of Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

(i) Non-conventional sources are available in nature at free of cost.

(ii) Th ey produce no or little pollution. Thus, they are environment friendly.
(iii) Renewable energy sources have simple plant design and hence, it is easy to
operate and no specialized workforce is required in these plants.
(iv) Being simple in design, the maintenance cost of these plants is very less and
these plants can thus produce electricity at much lower cost than other plants.
(v) They are inexhaustible.
Introduction . [ 1.9

(vi) They have a low gestation period.

(vii) They do not deplete natural resources.
(viii) They can sustain energy supply for many generations.
(ix) These plants can be installed remotely and at locations completely off grid.
Hence, it is a better choice for single plant use.

1.5.3. Limitations of Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

(i) The energy available in dilute form from these sources.

(ii) Though available freely in nature, the cost of harnessing energy from a non-
conventional source is generally high.
(iii) Availability is uncertain which means that the energy flow depends on various
natural phenomena beyond human control.
(iv) Difficulty in transporting such forms of energy.
(v) Low energy density is another problem in these plants. Energy per unit area is
.
small which makes them big in size and hence, large area is required to install
them.

1.6. RENEWABLE VS. NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

S. No. Renewable Energy Sources Non-renewable Energy Sources

1. Renewable energy sources are Non-renewable energy sources are

inexhaustible because they originate limited and exhaustible over the
from natural resources and processes period of time.
that are constantly being renewed.

2. Renewable resources are those - Non-renewable resources are those

which can be used again and again. which are used only for a limited
time and rate.

3. Examples ofrenewable energy Examples of non-re newable energy

sources are: wind, water, sunlight, sources are fossil fuels such as coal,
tides, biomass, etc. oil and natural gases.

4. Renewable resources have a higher Non-rene wable resources have a

rate of decomposition than their rate lower rate of decomposition than the
of consumption. rate of consumption.
 [ 1.10 Renewable Energy System

5. Renewable sources do not emit Non-renewable sources release toxic

greenhouse gases, which are the gases in the air when burnt which
primary cause of climate change. are the major cause for global
Therefore, they are considered as warming.
environment friendly.

6. Renewable energy sources are Nonrenewable energy sources are

newer, less established, and cheap and relatively accessible.
typically more expensive.

7. Infrastructure for harvesting Cost-effective and accessible

renewable energy is prohibitively infrastructure is available for non-
expensive and not easily accessible renewable energy across most
in most countries. countries.

8. Renewable energy sources require Comparatively lower area

large land/ offshore area, especially requirements for installation of a
for wind farms and solar farms. power plant.

9. Renewable energy sources are not Nonrenewable energy sources are

reliable as they are dependent on the also far more reliable than
nature or climate changes. renewable energy sources, which
depend on the elements.
10. They are sustainable sources. They are exhaustible sources.

1.7. INTERNATIONAL (GLOBAL) ENERGY SCENARIO

Global energy consumption is the total amount ofenergy used by all humans on the planet
(measured on a per-year basis). This measurement is the sum ofall energy sources and purposes
in use.

Several organizations publish this data including the International Energy Agency (IEA),
the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) and the European Environment Agency.

Energy production and utilization directly affect living standards and prosperity. They are
the heart of prosperity everywhere in the world. There are many factors influencing future
energy consumption which includes population growth, industrial structure changes,
technological progress and shifts in the energy use mix.
Introduction [ 1.11

One of the main priorities of countries in the 21c entury may develop the environmental
technologies to solve the major environmental challenges to be faced in future. The major
world energy production: patterns have changed slowly through the end of the 20" century. In
the first two decades ofthe 21c entury, global environmental issues could significantly affect
the patterns of energy use around the world with the primary environmental focus being
towards the reduction in carbon emissions. The world of energy has been slowed to evolve and
the major changes regarding consumption and production patterns geographically are slowed
to take a hold.

In last 50 years, the global energy demand has tripled due to the number of developing
countries and innovations in technology. It is projected to triple again over the next 30 years.
In 2020, total worldwide.energy consumption was 176282 terawatt hour (TWh). Global energy
consumption rebounded with a 5% growth in 2021, after a 4.5% decline in 2020, in a context
of global pandemic.

300000
259749
247000
250000 233109
219657
.c 206674
195625
2000oo 181704476282
168633
C: 153540
9 150000
¥
:::J
(I)
103981
118987

g 100000
O

50000

0
1990 2000 2010 2015 2018 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050
Year

(Source: US. Energy Information Administration (EIA))

Figure 1.1 Global energy consumption from 1990 to 2020, with a forecast until 2050

Oil remains the most used fuel in the energy mix which accounts for 29% ofworld energy
consumption. Coal is the second largest fuel with a share of 25 .2%, its lowest level in 15 years.
The share of natural gas increased to 22.9%, such that the gap between coal and gas has
narrowed to 3% points. Th e contribution of hydro and nuclear remained relatively flat in 2021
at 6.33% and 4%, respectively. Strong growth pushed up renewables share to 6.3%, almost
[1.12 Renewable Energy System

equal to hydro. Carbon emissions grew by 2.0%, the fastest growth for seven years. Average
global energy consumption per capita increased to 20,993 kWh in 2021.

According to US Energy Information Administration (EIA), the demand for global

energy is projected to grow 44% between 2005 and 2030, driven by robust economic growth
and expanding populations in the world's developing countries. Figure 1.1 shows the world
energy consumption growth from the year from 1990 to 2020, with a forecast until 2050.

In the Envision Tomorrow (ET) scenario, global demand for liquid fuels such as oil,
biofuels, and other liquid fuels increases by around 13 million barrel/day (Mbld), reaching
109 Mbld by 2040. Growth in liquids demands gradually wanes and plateaus towards the end.

Global liquids supply increases by a little less by reflecting the excess supply ofliquids in
2016. Supply increase is driven initially by US tight oil with OPEC taking over from the late
2020s as Middle-East producers adopt a strategy of growing market share. OPEC output
increases by around 6 Mbld by 2040.

1.7.1. Energy Consumption by Primary Energy Source.

60000

50000

s
4ono
0
E.
5n soooo
r::
0
(J
> Other
El 20000 renewables
ll)
c Solar Biofuels
llJ

0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Year

(Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2022)

Figure 1.2 Growth ofglobal primary energy consumption by fuel sources

Introduction [1.1s

Global primary energy consumption reached over 165278 TWh in 2021. It-represented an
increase of roughly 5.5% in comparison to 2020 when the COVID pandemic and its impact on
transportation fuel demand and overall economic performance lead primary energy
consumption declining to 2016 levels. It represented the fastest energy consumption growth
since the early 1970s and is a reflection of strong global demand bouncing back from 2020's
Covid-19 energy consumption decline.

Primary energy consumption is calculated on the basis of the 'substitution method' which
takes account of the inefficiencies in fossil fuel production by converting non-fossil energy into
the energy inputs required if they had the same conversion losses as fossil fuels.

Global primary energy grew by 8611 TWh in 2021, the largest increase in history and
more than reversing the sharp decline seen in 2020. Primary energy in 2021 was 2222 TWh
above 2019 levels. The increase in primary energy in 2021 was driven by emerging economies,
which increased by 3611 TWh, with China expanding by 2778 TWh.
Biofuels, 0.71% r Solar, 2.06%
Other renewables, 1.44%

Oil, 31.57%

Coal, 26.73%

(Source: Energy Institute Stastistical Review of World Engery 2023)

Figure 1.3 Global primary energy consumption by fuel sources in 2022
[ 1.14 Renewable Energy System

Taking years of 2020 and 2021 together, primary energy consumption in emerging
economies increased by 4167 TWh, largely reflecting growth in China (2778 TWH ). In contrast,
energy demand in developed economies in 2021 was 1944 TH below 2019 levels.

The increase in primary energy between 2019 and 2021 was entirely driven by renewable
energy sources. The level offossil fuel energy consumption was unc hanged betw een 2019 and
2021, with lower oil demand (-2222 TW) offset by higher natural gas (1389 TWh) and coal
(1833 TWh) consumption.

AII fuels grew faster than their 10-year averages apart from renewables although
renewables still accounted for the second largest increment to energy growth. Figure 1.2 shows
the world energy consumption growth in TWh by various primary fuel sources from the year
1980 to 2021.

Figure 1.3 provides a picture of the world's primary energy consumption by source in
2022. In Figure 1.3, 'Other renewables' includes geothermal, biomass and waste energy. It
introduces and summarizes the broad international spectrum of energy.

Most types of the primary resources of energy consumed by the world in different years
are given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Global primary energy consumption byfuel sources 2021

Energy in Th (Substituted energy)

Energy source
1980 2000 2010 2021
Oil 35514.42 42880.93 47895.07 51170.47

Coal 20857.61 27427.52 41996.39 44473.20

Natural Gas 14236.96 23994.258 31588.863 40374.605

Hydropower 5120.47 7826.17 9518.04 11183.23

Nuclear power 2020.10 7323.34 7373.73 7031.34

Wind power 0.03 92.87 961.53 4872.09

.
Solar power 0.00 3.13 94.12 2701.72

Traditional Biomass 10000 12500 11667 11111

Biofuels 29.86 125.52 691.16 1139.92

Introduction [ 1.15

Others renewables 153.79 571.18 1180.30 2373.10

Total 87933.23 122744.91 152966.21 176430.68

(Source: BP Statistical Review of Global Energy 2022)

In 2003, Fossil Fuels (FF) accounted for 87% of global primary energy consumption. In
2021 also, FF accounted for82% of global primary energy consumption but down from 83%
in 2019 and 85% five years ago. It shows that FF energy continues to be the highest energy
consumption source.

Global coal consumption has been on a downward trend since peaking in 2014 but the
coal consumptionjumped by 6.3% in 2020, nearly reaching 2014 levels. The report reveals that
the coal remained the dominant fuel for global power generation in 2021 with its share
increasing to 36%, up from 35.1% in 2020. The dependency on coal has increased sharply by
developing countries in the last few years and it will continue to increase unless these nations
change their existing laws and strategies and particularly those related to greenhouse gas
emissions, robust growth in coal use is likely to continue. These projections are driven by
strong long-term economic growth in the world's developing nations. Growth was particularly
marked by increased consumption in Asia. China's coal consumption in 2021 grew by 4.9% to
reach a new all-time high. China remains by far the world's largest producer and consumer of
coal, with a 53.8% global share in consumption and a 50.8% share in production. Coal demand
in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries grew in 2021.
U.S. coal demand in 2021 also rebounded but it was still the second-lowest level since the
Review began tracking it in 1965.

·. .
About 35% ofthe world's energy comes from oil but oil prices are dependent on uncertain
factors such as availability, politics, and world events. In 2021, the world consumed 94.1
million barrels per day (BPD) of oil. It was an increase of 6.0% from 2020 but it is still 3.7%
lower than consumption in 2019. Global oil production grew by 1.4 million BPD in 2021 but
it is still 5.0 million BPD below 2019 levels. U.S. production remains 529,000 BPD below
2019 levels. Refinery capacity declined by nearly 500,000 BPD in 2021 which was the first
decline in over 30 years. It is one factor exacerbating the upward pressure on finished product
prices such as gasoline and diesel. The United States alone uses 24% ofthe world's oil per year,
until now it makes up only 4.5% of the world's population.

Natural gas has been. the fastest-growing fossil fuel in recent years, with a global 2.2%
average annual growth rate over the past decade. After falling in 2020, global natural gas
consumption grew by 5.3% in 2021 to a new all-time high. In 2021, the U.S. remained the
 [1.16 Renewable Energy System

global leader in both natura l gas production and consumption. The U.S. produced 23% of the
world's natural gas in 2021. Russia was in the second place with a 17% global share.

Nuclear consumption grew in 2021 by 4.2% to the highest level since 2006. The U.S.
remains the world's _largest consumer of nuclear power, with a 29% share of the global total.
China continues to increase consumption at a rapid pace and now has a 14.6% global share.
For perspective, in 2010 China had a mere 2.7% global share of nuclear power consumption.

Renewable energy continues to grow rapidly. Global renewable energy consumption grew
by an impressive 15% in 2021 to a new record high.

Solar electricity consumption rose by a record 1.7 exajoules (EJ), an increase of22% but
wind power (+2.5 EJ) provided the largest contribution to renewables growth.

Together, wind and solar power provided 2,894 Terawatt-hours (TWh) of electricity in
2021. For perspective, it was 380 TWh in 2010.

Wind and solar reached a 10.2% share of power generation in 2021 which was the first-
time wind and solar power exceeded more than 10% of global generation.

If the trend continues in a steady rate, then the projection can be made for the year 2035
as shown in Figure 1.4.

Nuclear 6.7%

Renewable
sources
14.2%
Petroleum
29.3%

Natural gas
22.7%

Figure 1.4 Projectedgrowth ofglobal energy consumption by fuel sources in 2035

Figure 1.5 provides a picture ofthe India's primary energy consumption by fuel source in
2021. Primary energy consumption increased from 8889 TWh to 9722 TWh which is a 10%
annual increase. The combined share of energy consumption from oil, gas and coal stood at
Introduction [ 1.17

90% which is similar to its pre-pandemic level. Coal was the fastest-growing fuel, increasing
16%, and 8% above its 2019 level. The share of coal in primary energy was 57% compared to
24% at a global level. India accounts for 12.5% of global coal consumption. India was the
second-largest producer of coal in the world. Total electricity· generation increased from
1,563 TWh to 1,715 Th, an increase of 10%. Coal's share in power generation increased from
72% in 2019 to 74%.

Renewables grew by 13.2% but their share of primary energy increased only by 0.1 %
points to 5%. Renewables (excluding hydro) generation increased from 152 TWh to 172 TWh,
reaching the 10% share threshold for the first time, and surpassing hydro. India installed
10.3 GW of solar and 1.5 GW of onshore wind with the solar additions being a record amount
for India. The total installed capacity at the end of 2021 amount to 49.3 GW for solar and
40.1 GW for onshore wind.
Wind, 1.8%
Solar, 1.8%
Hydroelectric, 6.3%
Nuclear energy, 1.1%

Oil,27%

Coal, 57%

(Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2022)

Figure 1.5 India's energy consumption by fuel sources in 2021

The report also finds that with the increase in prices of fossil fuels, energy security and
greenhouse emissions will drive the country towards the development of nuclear generating
capacity.
[ 1.18 Renewable Energy System

1.7.2. Consumption by Country

Globally, primary energy consumption has increased nearly every year for at least half a
century. But it is not the case everywhere in the world. Global energy consumption continues
to grow but it does seem to be slowing, averaging around 1% to 2% per year.

Energy consumption is rising in many countries where incomes are rising quickly and the
population is growing. But in many countries, particularly richer countries trying to improve
energy efficiency, energy consumption is actually falling.

When we look at total energy consumption, the difference across countries often reflect
difference in population size in which-countries with lots of people inevitably consume more
energy than tiny· countries.

In terms of overall energy consumption, the United States and China dwarf all other
countries, with China using the most electricity and the U.S. consuming the most oil. Although
many factors contribute to a given country's energy consumption such as level of industrial
development, geographical size, standard of living, etc. The single most influential factor is
population.

The largest energy consumers include Iceland, Norway, Canada, the United States and
wealthy nations in the Middle East such as Oman, Saudi Arabia and Qatar. The average person
in these countries consumes as much as 100 times more than the average person in some ofthe
poorest countries.

When consumption totals are divided by the population to determine the per capita use of
energy, the highest consumer is neither the United States, China, nor any other country in the
top 10. Instead, it is Iceland.

In 2019, Iceland ranked 73" in the world in electricity consumption and tied for 139 in
oil consumption. But the country's average energy use per capita in 2020 was more than
167,000 kWh per person per year. For comparison, China had the highest overall energy
consumption in the world but also the highest population, resulting in a comparatively
minuscule average energy use of28,072 kWh per person per year.

The world's top three electricity consumers constitute the countries with the largest
population. China leads both rankings. India, on the otherhand, nearly matches China in terms
ofpopulation, while recording less than one fifth ofthe annual Chinese electricity consumption.
Meanwhile, countries such as Nigeria, which boasted the seventh-largest population worldwide
didn't even rank among the top 20 electricity consumers.
Introduction [ 1.19 )

Brazil South korea

Jar 2.0%
5.

China
EU 10.8%
18.4%

us
24.7%

(a) in 2000

Other countries,
22.9% China,26.6%

South korea,
6.3%
Brazil, 2.1%
Canada, 2.5%

Europien
Union, 13.8%

(b) in 2021
(Source: BP Stastistical ReviewofWorld Energy 2022)
Figure 1.6 World energy consumption by countries
 [ 1.20 Renewable Energy System

Countries with a high GDP per capita as the United States provide their residents greater
average purchasing power. Countries with higher-income residents tend to be more urbanized,
leading to higher electricity consumption. The U.S. stands amongst the ten-largest electricity
consumers per capita in the world, with Iceland and Norway leading the ranking.

Consumption of energy is loosely correlated with gross national product and climate but
there is a large difference even between most highly developed countries such as Japan and
Germany with 6 kWh per person and United States with 11.4 kWh per person. In developing
countries, particularly those that are subtropical or tropical such as India, the per person energy
use is closer to 0.7 kWh. Bangladesh has the lowest consumption with 0.2 kWh per person.

In 2021, the US consumes 15.6% of the world's energy with a share of global GDP at
15.2% and a share of the world population at 4.25%. The United States ranked as the second-
e

leading electricity consumer that year, with nearly 4,000 Th consumed. India followed but
by a wide margin.

The most significant growth of energy consumption is currently taking place in China
which has been growing at 5.5% per year over the last 25%. Its population of 1.4 billion people
which accounts for 18.5% of world population is consuming energy at a rate of 4,475 kWh per
person per year. China consumes by far the most electricity of any country in the world, with
more than 7.8 TWh consumed in 2021.

The major consuming countries at the end of 1990 remain in those positions in 2000 but
this scenario has been changed in the first two decades of the 21 century. Figure 1.6 shows
the world total energy consumption by countries for two different years 2000 and 2021.

Both China and India were consuming an average of 10% of world's total energy
consumption in 1990 and it was increased to 14% in 2000 but in 2021 their combined share
was 32.4%. It reveals that both China and India will be the key energy consumers in future.
Strong economic growth in both countries continues over the projection period with their
combined energy use increasing nearly up to 37% of world energy consumption in 2030. At
the same time, it is evident that the energy consumption has been considerably reduced in
developed nations such as US, European Union, Japan, Canada, etc.

1.8. NON-RENEWABLE (CONVENTIONAL) ENERGY RESOURCES IN INDIA

India, the world's second most populated country with a population of more than 1.34
billion, has a land area of about 3 .3 million sq.km. The GDP for Financial Year (FY) 2020 was
estimated at $3.75 trillion. India consists of 28 states and 8 union territories is gifted with a
 Introduction
[1.21

large work force including persons skilled in all areas of the minerals industry. Under India's
constitution, the exploration and production ofmost minerals have fallen withiri thejurisdiction
of the Central Government. Accordingly, the Mineral Industry of India primarily has been
owned and administered by the Government either directly or through public-sector endeavours
and most mining companies has remained nationalized.

As of May 31, 2023, India is the third-largest producer and consumer of electricity
worldwide with an installed power capacity of 417.67 GW. India accounts for about 6% ofthe
world's total annual energy production. The primary energy consumption in India grew by
10.4% in 2021 and is the third biggest with 6% global share after China and USA.

Over the past decades energy demand has steadily increased across all sectors, including
'
agriculture, industry, commercial and residential, and it is expected to continue to grow.
Nonetheless, India's per capita electricity consumption was 1255 kWh in 2021-22 which is
around one-third ofthe global average of per capita electricity consumption:

In 2021, India's Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) was 888.5 mtoe with nearly two-
thirds being covered by domestic production (554 mtoe). Industry accounted for the largest
share of India's Total Final Consumption {TFC), followed by the residential sector, transport
and service sector including agriculture.

1.8.1. Conventional Energy Mix in India

India's energy system is largely based on the use of coal for power generation, oil for
transport and industry, and biomass for residential heating and cooking. Coal dominates the
energy mix in India, contributing to 57% of the total primary energy consumption and 52.8%
ofelectricity generation in 2022. Peak demand reached 207 GW for the first time in April 2022,
and consumption is projected to rise. Supported by industrial growth, urbanization, government
policies, and favorable geopolitics over the past decade, India has installed capacity exceeding
I • ,

400 GW. Fossil fuels dominate India's power sector with coal comprising over 70% but the
country aims to significantly increase the share of renewable and nuclear energy.

India has huge coal reserves. As on 01.04.22, the estimated reserves of coal were
361.4 billion tonnes. The estimated total reserves of lignite as on 01.04.22 was 46.2 billion
tonnes. India is the second largest coal producing country in the world. Coal production in India
has been increasing over recent years. In 2022, coal production totalled 9377 million tonnes
(mtoe).
[ 1.22 Renewable Energy System

Oil remains an essential energy source for India. It is the second-largest source in the
country's Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) and the largest in its total final consumption
(TFC). Oil accounts for 26.3 % oflndia's total energy consumption. Oil demand has increased
rapidly over the last several decades and India is now the third-largest oil-consuming country
in the world 4,489,000 thousand barrels per day (kb/d), accounting for 4.6% of the world's
total consumption of 97,103,871 thousand barrels per day (kbld). The country's annual crude
oil production decreased from 580 thousand barrels per day in February from 601 thousand
barrels per day in January of 2023. India's fuel consumption is expected to go up by 4.7 %
between April 2023 and March 2024 according to estimates by the country's Ministry of
Petroleum and Natural Gas.

According to official data, India's total petroleum consumption in 2019-20 was

194.3 million metric tonnes (MMT) which rose by about 5% to 204.2 MMT. The annualised
consumption growth in April-September 2022 was 107.7 MMT about 13.6% growth as
compared to 95 MMT in the April-September months of2022 according to provisional data of
the Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell (PPAC).

India relies heavily on crude oil imports as domestic production is not sufficient to meet
the country's demand. India is the world's third-largest importer of crude oil after the US and
China which imports about 55% of its natural gas requirements and 85% of the crude oil it
processes. India imports most of its oil (52.7%) from the Middle· East with Iraq and Saudi
Arabia being primary.

The Indian government has set a goal to increase the share of natural gas in the country's
total energy mix to 15% by 2030 from about 6% in 2022. India consumed 5.12 billion cubic
metres (BCM) of natural gas in March 2023, down 5.9% year-by-year. The production of
natural gas in FY22-23 was 34.45 BCM, up 1.3%. In March 2023, India produced 2.95 BCM
of gas, up 2.4%. India meets almost half of its gas demand through LNG imports.

The estimated reserves of natural gas in India as of 1April 2021 was 1,372.62 BCM of
which 61 % are located offshore. The total balance recoverable reserve of natural gas resource
in North-Eastern States is about 198 BCM. The largest reserves are found in the Western
Offshore (37%) and Assam (27%).

Nuclear energy is the 5" largest source of electricity for India which contributes about 3%
ofthe total electricity generation in the country. As-of March 2022, India has over 22 nuclear
reactors in 7 power plants across the country which produces 6780 MW of nuclear power. Out
 Introduction [1as
of which, 18 reactors are Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and 4 are Light Water
Reactors (LWRs). It includes the 700 MW pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR), unit 3 of
the Kakrapar nuclear power plant (KAPP-3) that was synchronised with the grid in January
2021. 15 more such units are expected to follow in fleet mode. Nuclear power plants with a
capacity of 8,700 MW are under construction. In 2021, the government stated in the Parliament
that nuclear power generation capacity would increase· to 22,480 MW by 2031.

1.8.2. Energy Consumption

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), where India is an Association

country since March 2017, Total Energy Consumption (TEC) in an economy is a good indicator'
of efficient or non-efficient end-use in economic activities and it may indicate course-
correction measures to sustainability. It is defined to include the sum ofthe consumption in the
end-use sectors and for non-energy use. Energy used for transformation processes and for own
use of the energy producing industries is excluded. Thus, final consumption reflects for the
most part, delivers to consumers and represents the quantity of all energy necessary to satisfy
inland consumption.

Total energy consumption per capita remains around 0. 7 toe (2021 ), half the Asian
average. Electricity consumption per capita reached 920 kWh in 2021 about a third ofthe Asian.
average.

Total energy consumption increased by 9% in 2021 to 951 Mtoe after a 5.9% drop in 2020.
It had increased rapidly over 2010-2019 (3.7%/year).

Coal is the country's top energy source with a share of46% in 2021 followed by oil (23%)
and biomass (21%). Natural gas covers 6% and primary electricity (hydro, nuclear, solar, and
wind) 4%.

Coal and lignite consumption reached 1.1 Gt (+17%), its highest level in 2021, after a
5.5% decline in 2020. Between 2015 and 2018, its progression had been significant (around
5%/year). In 2021, power generation and industry were the main consumers ofcoal and lignite
with 76% and 20%, respectively (3% only for households arid services).

As a consequence of the Covid-19 crisis, oil product consumption fell sharply in 2020 (-
8.8%) and rebounded by 5.2% in 2021 to 213 MT which is still below the 2019 level. Of the
total consumption for 2021, 42% was used in transport, 30% in industry (including non-energy
uses) and 21% in the residential, services, and agriculture sector. The remainder is consumed
in power plants (1 %) and in the hydrocarbon industry (6%).
[ 1.24 Renewable Energy System

Gas consumption increased by 2. 7% to 64 BCM in 2021 after a 4% reduction in 2020.

Between 2014 and 2019, gas consumption increased by 4.8%/year. Industry is the main
consumer of gas with 51% in 2021 (mainly fertiliser plants). It is followed by electricity
production (23%) and, to less extent, transport (5%) and the residential and services sector
(6%). Electricity consumption increased by 8% in 2021 to 1282 TWh, after a 6.7% contraction
in 2020. It grew rapidly over 2010-2019 (7%/year).

India's primary energy consumption increased by 5.3% in 2022 in comparison to the

previous year. Between 1999 and 2022, primary energy consumption in the South Asian
country oscillated with the greatest consumption increase seen in the latter year. The total
primary energy consumption from coal (5581.43 Th; 55.33%), crude oil (2791.58 TWh;
27.67%), natural gas (581.84 TWh; 5.77%), nuclear energy (115.57 TWh; 1.15%),
hydroelectricity (456.05 TWh; 4.52%) and renewable power (560,77 TWh; 5.56%) is 10087.25
TWh (excluding traditional biomass use) in 2022. Figure 1.7 shows India's primary energy
consumption by source from 1990 to 2022.
6000

,»
I
, I

§ 5000 ,,--,, :
.,,,,,,' \,,,/
I-
r:0 , ,- --
goo ,,.,
I
I
I

-
,
::i
II) , ,,
c
0
u --
> 3000
e>
Cl)
c
s% o".' .--
COal
-
Cl)
.·' 4«oO
oso .- q' ·'
_,---- -----°' ---' ox s)'
·;::
a.
--

;
- -

.. , ·
♦- • • - ·
· - . ,,,... ..
qO -'

Renewables Nuclear
1000
- .. - Hydro • consumptiion ,
consumption
;-- • · - · · . consumpt10,n. . _ \._ /-- . _ . _
Natural gas consumption
~ -. -;::...:-,.- - .-..... ----.---.. .: =--• ;-- 4'."" -
. -=i. ---I--;...
'..!!.: ~.•~ .:•••••u••••- ••u•••u••••·•
♦

0
1990 1995 2000. 2005 2010 2015 2020
Year

(Source: Energy Institute Stastistica/ Review of World Engery 2023)

Figure J. 7 India's primary energy consumption by source, 1990-2022

 Introduction [ 1.25

1.8.3. Primary Energy Supply

The rapid growth in TFC as well as in power generation to supply rising electricity demand
has led to a rapid increase in Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES). From 2012 to 2022 TPES
increased by 45.4%, largely met by fossil fuels. Coal met 55.33% of TPES in 2022 and
accounted for almost halfofthe total growth in energy supply in the past decade.

is
Oil the second-largest primary energy source by providing 27.67% of TPES in 2022.
Increased oil supply represented 37% oftotal growth in TPES in the last decade. In opposite,
natural gas was not able to satisfy growing demand and its share ofpower generation. So, TPES
has decreased in the past five years. Hydropower supply has also been relatively stable with
around 43.6% growth in the past decade. India also has a nuclear power fleet which contributes
around 1.15% to TPES.

1.8.4. Energy Production

Coal and biomass dominate India's domestic energy production. In 2022 coal accounted
for nearly halfoftotal production while bioenergy and waste were estimated to provide another
third. India's oil and gas production is relatively low and the country is dependent on imports,
especially for oil.

Coal production in the country during the year 2021-22 was 778.19 MT as compared to
716.08 MT during 2020-21. There is an increase of 8.67%. The overall trend of production in
the last ten years i.e. 2012-13 to 2021-22 has shown a steady increase, except 2020-21 with a
Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of3.80%.

The Lignite production during 2021-22 has been increased to 47.49 MT from the number
of 37.90 MT in 2020-21; an increase of 25.32% over 2020-21. However, the production of
crude oil for 2021-22 came out to be 29.69 MT as compared to 30.49 MT during FY: 2020-21
which is a decline of2.63%.

The CAGRs for Crude Oil and Natural Gas with respect to FY: 2012-13 are having
negative CAGR of -2.66% and --1.97% respectively. Electricity (generated from Hydro,
Nuclear and other Renewable energy sources) has the highest CAGR of6.83% by showing the
remarkable growth ofRenewable Energy in India.

India still depends heavily on Coal as the major source of energy. During the FY :2021-
22, the energy generated from coal accounted for 72.92% of the total generation of energy
followed by Electricity (from Hydro, Nuclear and other Renewable energy sources) (8.24%)
4 and Natural Gas (8.16%).
 [1.26 Renewable Energy System

In the year 2020-21, the production of petroleum products in the country was 233.51 MT
as against 254.31 MT during 2021-22 with increase of 8.90%.

Electricity (From Hydro,

Nuclear and other
RES), 8.24%

Lignite, 2.81 %

Coal, 72.92%

(Source: Energy Statistics India, 2023, Ministry ofStatistics and Programme Implementation,
National Statistical Office, Government of India)

Figure 1.8 Share oftotal energy generated in India (in Petajoules)from differentfuel
sources during FY:2021-22 ·

Net production of natural gas for consumption increased from to 27. 78 Billion Cubic
Meters (BCM) in 2020-21 to 33.13 BCM in 2021-22 registering an increase of 19.25%.

India has experienced a steady growth in terms of gross electricity generation (from
Utility)over time except 2020-21. The CAGR grew at a rate of4.41 % in the last 10 years from
2012-13 to 2021-22.

1.9. RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES IN INDIA

The need for renewable energy arises as energy security is important to our country. As
per the World Energy Outlook report, India will become the third largest net importer of oil
before 2025 after the United States and China. It will not be sustainable in the long run given
the high volatility of international crude oil prices. Coal imports are also likely to increase from
12% in 2005 to 28% in 2030. In order to insulate itself from any future supply disruption and
price shocks of fossil fuels and furthermore to achieve energy security and also meet global
climate change objectives, renewable sources are a must and has indeed caught the imagination
 Introduction [ 1.27

of India. Riding on the crest of a high growth trajectory and in pursuit of sustainable· sources
to meet it s rising domestic energy demand and access to energy for overall development, the ,
country is focusing on harnessing renewable energy production through maximising the
utilisation of renewable energy.

India's population is growing at an annual rate of i.58%. As fossil fuel energy becomes
scarcer, India will face energy shortages significantly due to increase in energy prices and
energy insecurity within the next few decades.

The renewable energy sources such as wind energy, solar energy, geothermal energy,
ocean energy, biomass energy and fuel cell technology can be used to overcome energy
shortage in India. To meet the energy requirement for such a fast-growing economy, India will
require an assured supply of 3 - 4 times more energy than the total energy consumed today.

The renewable energy is one of the options to meet this requirement. As of 31.10.2022,
renewable account for about 42.3% of India's total installed generation capacity. India is
increasingly adopting responsible renewable energy techniques and taking positive steps
towards carbon emissions, cleaning the air and ensuring a more sustainable future. In India ,
' from the last two and half decades there has been a vigorous pursuit of activities relating to
research, development, demonstration, production and application of a variety of renewable
energy technologies for use in different sectors .

The past few years saw a rewrd addition of renewable energy sources i.e. solar, wind,
biomass, geothermal, hydro, etc. which could make important contributions to sustainable
development. India stands 4 globally in Renewable Energy Installed Capacity (including
Large Hydro), 4 in Wind Power capacity & 4 in Solar Power capacity (as per REN2I
Renewables 2022 Global Status Report). A total of 14.21 GW of Renewable Energy (RE)
capacity was added, during the period Jan. to Oct. 2022 as compared to capacity of 11.9 GW
added during the period Jan to Oct. 2021. A total of 151. 94 BU has been generated from RE
sources during the period Jan to Sept. 2022 as compared to the 128.95 BU during the period
Jan. to Sept. 2021.

Table 1.2 Current status and targets of renewable energy capacity in India (in MW)

Source Installed Installed Installed Installed as

ason ason ason on
March 2012 March 2015 31.10.2018 28.02.2023
Solarpower 941 3,383 24,330 66700
[1.26 Renewable Energy System

Windpower 17,352 22,645 34,980 42600

Biomass power 3,225 4,183 9,540 10200
Small Hydro 3,395 4,025 4,500 4940
Total 24,914 34,351 73,350 1,24,440

As ofFeb. 2023, renewable energy sources including large hydropower (46850 MW) have
a combined installed capacity of 178. 79 GW. The achievements of various renewable energy
sources in India during 2012 to 2023 are shown in Table 1.2.

India has set a target to reduce the carbon intensity of the nation's economy by less than
45% by the end of the decade to achieve 50 % cumulative electric power installed by 2030
from renewables and achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2070.

India's target is to produce five million tonnes of green hydrogen by 2030. It will be
supported by 125 G of renewable energy capacity. 57 solar parks of aggregate capacity
39.28 GWhave been approved in India. Wind Energy has an off-shore target of30 GW by 2030
with potential sites identified.

India's approach is to meet its energy needs in a responsible, sustainable and eco-friendly
manner. The country has made a remarkable growth in recently in the field ofrenewable energy
power generation.

The Indian Government has been at work, making a comprehensive policy for compulsory
use of renewable energy resources through biomass, hydro-power, wind, solar and municipal
waste in the country particularly for commercial establishments as well as Government
establishments.

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is focused on nation-wide resource

assessment, setting up ofcommercial projects, renovation and modernization, development and
up-gradation of water mills and industry-based research and development.

Currently, renewable energy exploitation in commercial markets is low being constrained

by costs and uncompensated benefits as well as intermittent supplies and other technical and
institutional considerations.

1.9.1. Biomass Energy

Ministry has been promoting biomass power with an aim to recover energy from biomass
such as surplus agricultural residues, wood produced from energy plantation, wood waste from
 Introduction
[1as }
industrial operations, agro-based industrial residue, forest residue, weeds, palm leaves, coconut
shells and husk etc.

Energy production from food wastes or food processing wastes, especially from waste
edible oils, seems to be attractive based on bio-resource sustainabiiity, environmental
protection and economic consideration.

Biomass power generation in India is an industry which attracts investments of over Rs.
600 crores every year, generating more than 5000 million units of electricity and yearly
employment of more than 10 million man-days in the rural areas.

Biomass energy has 25 G of potential out of which around 9.54 GW has been realised.
A total capacity of 9.54 GW of grid connected bio-power has been installed in the country as
on October 2018 against a target of IO GW bio-power by 2022. It includes 8. 73 GW from
bagasse cogeneration, 0.68 G from non-bagasse cogeneration and 0.13 GW from waste to
energy.

Rural electrification to meet unmet demand through renewable energy is a priority by

itself. 150 villages have been covered in last 2 years through mini grid by rice-husk based
gasification systems in Bihar. There are plans to cover about 10,000 villages from biomass-
based systems and over 1000 villages from solar power by 2022.

Achievements of bioenergy:
More than 800 ofbiomass Independent Power Producer (IPP) and bagasse or non-bagasse
cogeneration-based power plants with aggregate capacity of 10209 MW have been installed in
the country mainly in the states ofMaharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal and Punjab upto December 2022. It includes 7562 MW
from Bagasse cogeneration sector, 1871 MW from Biomass IPP Sector and 776 MW from
biomass (non-bagasse) cogeneration sectors.

1.9.2. Hydropower

Hydropower is the today's main source of low-carbon electricity with equipped to become
the lead provider ofgrid flexibility due to mote reliable, safe, and decarbonised power systems.
Region wise list of hydropower potential and installed capacity of on-going projects in SHP
sector (as on 31.12.2022) are shown in Table 1.3 below.

The Ministry ofNew and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is conferred with the responsibility
of developing hydro power projects of capacity up to 25 MW, categorized as Small Hydro
Power (SHP) Projects: These projects have the potential to meet power requirements of remote
[ 1.30 Renewable Energy System

and isolated areas in a decentralized manner besides providing employment opportunity to local
people. Small Hydro Power projects are further categorized into small, mini and micro hydel
projects based on their capacity as follows.
(i) Micro Rydel which produces less than or equal to 0.1 MW power
(ii) Mini Hyde! which produces from 0.10 MW to 2.00 MW power
(iii) Small Hydel which produces from 2.00 M to 25.00 MW power

Table 1.3 Region wise hydropowerpotential and installed capacity (as on 31.12.2022)

S.No. Region Potential of Installed

hydropower (G) capacity (GW)
1. East Asia and Pacific 1100 464

2. South and Central Asia 600 157

3. Africa 630 37

4. North & Central America· 620 184

5. South America 500 179

6. Europe 350 202

The estimated potential of small/mini/micro-Hyde! projects in the country is

21133.61 MW from 7133 sites located in different States of India. The SHP projects in the
country are being set-up both in public and private sectors. Setting up ofSHP projects normally
-
require about 3-4 years depending upon its size and location. An aggregate capacity of
4935.65 MW been achieved as on 31st December, 2022 through 1167 Small Hydro Power
projects. In addition, 102 projects of about 53 8.05 MW are at various stages of implementation.
Table 1.4 provides state-wise details of top 5 and tamilnadu identified potential, projects
completed and under execution.

For the year 2022-23, a target of commissioning of 100 MW small hydro projects was set,
against which 13 projects of aggregate capacity of 86.75 MW have been synchronized to the
grid by 31st December 2022.

Small hydro plants are supposed to have a 15 GW potential out of which about 4.5 GW
has been realised. A total capacity of 4.5 GW of grid connected small hydro power has been
installed in the country as on October 2018 against a target of 5 GW small hydro power by
Introduction [ 1.31

2022. Further, 126 number of projects of capacity 0.73 GW are under various stages of
implementation.

U nder the 'Ladakh Renewable Energy Initiative (LREI)', Kargil Renewable Energy
Development Agency (KREDA) and Ladakh Renewable Energy Development Agency
(LREDA) are implementing Small/ Mini hydro projects in their respective regions. A total of
7 Hydro projects with aggregate capacity of 10.55 MW are being implemented by KRE DA, out
of which 4 projects with aggregate capacity of 4.55 MW has been commissioned by KRE DA
till date. LREDA is implementing 06 nos. of projects with aggregate capacity of 3.65 MW, out
of which 02 projects with aggregate capacity of 0.95 MW has been commissioned by LREDA
till date. Actual physical achievement from 01.01.2022 to 31.12.2022 is 95.75 MW and
estimated physical achievement from 01.01.2023 to 31.03.2023 is 13.25 MW.

Table 1.4 State wise list ofpotential sites, installedprojects and on-goingprojects in SHP
sector (as on 31.12.2022)

s. States Total potential Projects installed Projects under

No. implementation
Nos. Total Upt o 2021-22 Upto 2022-23 Nos. Total
capacity, capacity,
MW Nos. Total Nos. Total
MW
, capacity, capacity,
MW MW
1. Andhra 359 409.32 44 162.11 0 0 2 2.40
pradesh

2. Arunacha 800 2064.92 156 131.11 I 2 5 4.65

pradesh

3. Assam 106 201.99

. 6 34.11 0 0 0 0
4. Bihar 139 526.98 29 70.7 0 0 0 0
5. Chhattis 199 1098.2 10 76 0 0 0 0
-garh
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
 [ 1.32 Renewable Energy System

191 1604.46 TT w 0 0 0 0
I I
1.9.3. Solar Energy

Among various renewable energy resources, India possesses a very large solar energy
- resource which is having the highest potential for the future. The country currently has the fifth
highest solar installed capacity in the world with total installed capacity of 24.33GW as on
October, 2018 against a target of 100 G by 2022. Further, 22.8 G capacity is under
implementation or have been tendered out. The Government has revised the target of Grid
Connected Solar Power Projects from 20,000 MW by the year 2021-22 to 100,000 MW by the
year 2021-22 under the National Solar Mission.

Ministry is implementing a Scheme for "Development of Solar Parks and Ultra Mega
Solar Power Projects" with an objective to set up at least 50 Solar Parks with an aggregate
capacity of40,000 MW of solar power projects. All the States and Union Territories are eligible
for getting benefit under the scheme. As on 31-12-2022, Ministry have approved 57 Solar Parks
in 13 States including one Solar Park in NER under the Solar Park Scheme.

The MNRE has planned a detailed trajectory to meet the target of 100 GW by 2022. A
capacity of 23.12 G was installed up to July 2018. Projects of around 10 GW are under
implementation and tenders for additional 24.4 GW are issued. India has a good level of solar
radiation receiving the solar energy equivalent of more than 5000 trillion kWh/yr.

The MNRE working in conjunction with the Indian Renewable Energy Development
Agency (IREDA) to promote the utilization of all forms of solar power and to increase the
share of renewable energy in the Indian market. This promotion is being achieved through
R&D, demonstration projects, government subsidy programs, and also private sector projects.
The 2018 manufacturing capacity of solar cells and solar modules in India was 1,590 MW and
5,620 MW, respectively.

Solar buildings have been promoted by the MNRE in an effort to increase energy
efficiency. The state government in Himachal Pradesh has actively promoted the incorporation
of passive solar design into building design. The Solar PV Program promoted by the Ministry
for the past two decades, has been aimed particularly at rural & remote areas.

As on 31-12-2022, a cumulative solar power of 63.30 GW has been installed in the

country. It includes 53 GW from ground-mounted solar, 8.08 GW from rooftop solar and
Introduction [ 1.33

2.22 G from off-grid solar. In addition to this, a capacity of around 51.13 GW is under
implementation and 31.4 GW is under tendering stage. It is expected that the solar power
projects ofcapacity around 15 GW will be commissioned during this Financial Year (FY) 2022-
23. Based upon availability of land and solar radiation, the potential solar power in the country
has been assessed to be around 750 GWp. State-wise cumulative solar installed capacity (as on
31-12-2022) is given in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5 State-wise cumulative solar installed capacity in the country (as on 31-12-2022)

S. No. State Cumulative Capacity

ill 31-12-2022 (MW)

1. Rajasthan 16340.75

2. Gujarat 8500.74

3. Karnataka 7885.56

4. Tamil nadu 6412.36

5. Telangana 4650.93

6. Andhra Pradesh 4524.72

7. Maharashtra 3646.13
,

8. Madhya Pradesh 2774.78

9. Uttar Pradesh 2485.16

.

10. Punjab 1153.21

It is expected that a capacity of around 15,000 MW will be installed under different solar
programmes during the Financial Year 2022-23.

1.9.4. Wind Energy

India's wind energy sector is led by indigenous wind power industry and has shown
consistent progress. The expansion of the wind industry has resulted in a strong ecosystem,
project operation capabilities and manufacturing base of around' 12,000 MW per annum. The
country currently has the fourth highest wind installed capacity in the world with total installed
[ 1.34 l Renewable Energy System

capacity of 41.93 GW (as on 31st December, 2022) of which 1.85 GW was added during
January to December, 2022. The number of units generated from wind power projects during
January to November, 2022 were 66.05 billion units.

Wind is an intermittent and site-specific source of energy and an extensive Wind Resource
Assessment (WRA) is essential for the selection of potential sites. Over a period of time, the
Ministry, through National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE), has installed 993 wind-
monitoring stations all over the country as on 31.12.2022.

1. Installed capacity ofwindpower in the country:

The installed capacity of grid-interactive wind power in the country ason 31.12.2022 is
41.93 GW and state-wise installed capacity (in MW) is shown in Table 1.6.

Table 1.6 State wise wind power installed capacity as on 31.12.2022

S. No. State Installed capacity (MW)

1. Andhra Pradesh 4096.65

2. Gujarat 9866.62
3. Kamataka 5269.65
4. Madhya Pradesh 2844.29
5. Maharashtra 5012.83
6. Rajasthan 4681.82
7. Tamil Nadu 9963.02
8. Telangana 128.10
9. Other states 4.30

Total 41929.78

The year-wise electricity generation from wind energy source is shown in Table1.7.

Table 1. 7 Year wise electricity generation from wind energy sources

S. No. Year Generation (MW)

1. 2014-15 33768
2. 2015-16 33029
Introduction [ 1.35

3. 2016-17 46004

4. 2017-18 52666

5. 2018-19 62036

6. 2019-20 64639

7. 2020-21 60149

8. 2021-22 68640

9. 2022-23 (upto December, 2022) 59532

2. Offshore wind development in India:

India's mainland is blessed with a coastline of about 7600 km surrounded by seawater on
three sides and has tremendous power generation potential from offshore wind energy. The
Government had notified the National Offshore Wind Energy Policy as per the Gazette
Notification dated 6th October, 2015. As per the policy, Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy will act as the nodal Ministry for development of Offshore Wind Energy in India and
work in close coordination with other government entities for Development and Use of
Maritime Space within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the country in an effective
manne r for production of enormous quantity grid quality electrical power for national
consumption.

National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE), Chennai has been designated as the nodal
agency to execute various pre-feasibility activities relating to resource assessment, surveys and
studies within EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone), demarcation of offshore potential blocks and
facilitating offshore wind ene rgy project developers for setting up offshore wind energy farms.

3. Present status:
Based on the preliminary assessment from satellite data and data available from other
sources, potential zones in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu have been identified for exploitation of
offshore wind energy. Initial assessment ofoffshore wind energy potential within the identified
zones has been estimated to be 70 G off the coast ofGujarat and Tamil Nadu only.

In order to attract the large investment needed for development of the sector in India,
Government of India has already announced its intention of developing 30 GW of offshore
wind energy project by 2030.
 [ 1.36 Renewable Energy System

Data collection (wind, geophysical, geotechnical and oceanographic) for 1.0 GW project
capacity equivalent area off Gujarat coast has been completed and the rapid environmental
impact assessment studies are also completed.

1.9.5. Geothermal Energy

Only a few are suitable for generating electricity. The power generation potential at these
locations is estimated to be around 10,000 MW. Around 350 geothermal energy locations have
been discovered in India by the Geological Survey of India. The Puga valley in Ladakh is the
most promising of them. The Himalayas, Sohana, West Coast, Cambay (Gujarat), Godavari,
Mahanadi, and Son-Narmada-Tapi (SONATA) geothermal provinces, as well as a number of
geothermal springs, make up India's geothermal provinces.

According to the Ministry ofNew and Renewable Energy, geothermal resources in India
have been mapped, and a broad estimate suggests that there could be a IO GW geothermal
power potential (MNRE).

The government of Chhattisgarh decided in 2013 to build the country's first geothermal
power plant at Tattapani in the Balrampur district. An agreement to establish the first
geothermal power project in Ladakhwas signed in 2021.

1.9.6. Biogas Energy

In India, the use of biogas derived from animal waste,· primarily cow dung, has been
promoted for over three. decades now. Biogas is the only technology that has put cooking in
rural areas on technological ladder and has made cooking a pleasure with associated social and
environmental benefits including zero indoor pollution. India's National Project on Biogas
Development (NPBD) has been one ofthe well organized and systematic program to provide
logistic and institutional support for that has been under implementation since early 1980s.

India Biogas program is one of the most successful programs if we compare with other
such program implemented in Rural India. The ultimate goal ofthis program is to set up biogas
plants in around 12 million households that have enough cattle to maintain a regular supply of
dung.

With the announcement of the biogas programme on 2" November, 2022, a target of
setting up 22500 small biogas plants has been allocated to the States/ UTs for the FY 2022-23.
During the month ofNovember, 2022, a national seminar in the presence of Shri R.K Singh,
Honourable Union Minister for Power, New and Renewable Energy on National Bioenergy
 Introduction 1 1.37

Programme was conducted for ease of application, centralized management of biogas

beneficiary's requests, monitoring of installation, and maintenance on installed biogas plants
etc.

The Biogas Programme is being implemented through the Agriculture Farmers Welfare
and Rural Development Departments ofthe States, Dairy Co-operatives, State Nodal Agencies
(SNAs), Biogas Development and Training Centres (BDTCs), Khadi and Village Industries
Commission (KVIC) and National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) etc. For inclusion of
simple, cost effective and portable pre-fabricated designs of small biogas plants under the
Biogas Programme of MNRE, the Ministry has approved the specifications and parameters for
three designs of flexi domestic biogas plant. For implementation of biogas programme, the
Sardar Swaran Singh National Institute of Bio-Energy (SSS-NIBE), Kapurthala has been
nominated as the Central Nodal Agency (CNA) for managing the fund flow.

1.9.7. Tidal Power

India has a long coastline with the estuaries and gulfs where tides are strong enough to
move turbines for electrical power generation. The Gulf of Cambay and the Gu If of Kutch in
Gujarat on the west coast have the maximum tidal range of 11 m and 8 m with average tidal
range of 6.77 m and 5.23 m respectively. The Ganges Delta in the Sundarbans is approximately
5 m with an average tidal range of 2.97 m. A detailed project report for a 3 MW tidal power
plant in Sunderbans area of West Bengal has been prepared through West Bengal Renewable
Energy Development Agency.

A committee was constituted under the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) on 900 MW
Kutch tidal power project for estimating the cost of the project. A techno-economic feasibility
study was carried out by the CEA in 1988 for a 900 MW tidal power project. A revised estimate
of INR 6184 crores was worked out for the execution ofthis project in 1993.

A feasibility study for setting up this power project in Kutch district of Gujarat was
conducted by National Hydro Power Corporation Ltd. (NHPC) in the early nineties. However,
the project was not found to be commercially viable due to high capital cost as well as high
cost of electricity generation. No tidal power generation plant has been installed in India due
to its high cost of generation of electricity and lack oftechno economic viability.

On Septembe r 15, 2022, New Jersey legislature said ocean energy represents the third largest
source of renewable ene rgy and the largest source of under-utilised renewable energy.
[ 1.38 l Renewable Energy System

1.10. CURRENT USAGE OF ENERGY IN VARIOUS SECTORS IN INDIA

As per Energy statistics India 2023 report, the estimated electricity consumption increased
from 8,24,301 GWh during 2012-13 to 12,96,300 GWh during 2021-22 showing a Compound
Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 5.16%.

Domestic, 26%

Industry, 41%

Figure 1.9 Consumption of electricity by sectors in India during 2021-2022

Out of the total consumption of electricity in 2021-22, industry sector accounted for the
largest share (41.16%), followed by domestic (25.77%), agriculture (17.67%) and commercial
sectors (8.29%). The domestic sector has experienced the highest CAGR of 6.87 between
FY:2012-13 to FY:2021-22.

In 2021, the industrial sector accounted for 35% of total U.S end-use energy consumption
and 33% of total U.S. energy consumption. Consumption of electricity by various sectors is
shown in Figure 1.9. It shows that the highest energy consumer is industrial sector, the second
highest is domestic sector, followed by agriculture sector, commercial sector, other sectors and
transport sectors.

Yearwise electricity consumption by different sectors for better understanding is shown

in Table 1.8 below.
Introduction [ 1.39

Table 1.8 Year-wise consumption ofelectricity by various sectors in Gh

Year Industry Agriculture Domestic Commercial Transport· Others

2012-13 3,65,989 1,47,462 1,83,700 72,794 14,100 40,256

2013-14 3,84,418 1,52,744 1,99,842 74,247 15,540 47,418

2014-15 4,18,346 1,68,913 2,17,405 78,391 16,177 49,289

2015-16 4,23,523 1,73,185 2,38,876 86,037 16,594 62,976

2016-17 4,40,206 1,91,151 2,55,826 89,825 15,683 68,493

2017-18 4,68,613 1,99,247 2,73,545 93,755 17,433 70,834

2018-19 5,19,196 2,13,409 2,88,243 98,228 18,837 72,058

2019-20 5,32,820 2,11,295 3,08,745 1,06,047 19,148 70,031

2020-21 5,08,776 2,21,303 3,30,809 86,950 14,668 67,701

2021-22 5,33,500 2,29,000 3.34.000 1,07,500 19,800 72,500

% 43.34 17.99 24.81 6.41 1.58 5.86

distribution

1.10.1. Current Usage of Non-renewable

·
(Conventional) Energy Sources by Various
Sectors

Conventional energies of various forms are tabulated for different industrial sectors given
below.

1. Industrial sectors:

Year-wise conventional energy consumption for industrial sectors is given in Table 1.9
below.

Table 1.9 Year-wise consumption of coal in million tonnes - Industry wise

Year Electricity Steel & Cement Paper Textile Sponge Fertilizer Brick Others
other iron &
Industr chemical
ies
2012-13 446.76 51.70 13.11 2.12 0.30 20.90 2.86 2.01 173.62
[ 1.40 Renewable Energy System

2013-14 448.95 53.05 11.94 1.91 0.36 18.49 2.64 4.01 198
2014-15 497.70 56.24 11.36 1.65 0.42 17.77 2.70 0.09 234.22
2015-16 517.77 57.08 8.99 1.21 0.27 7.76 2.62 0.07 240.95
2016-17 535.04 51.98 6.36 1.18 0.24 5.56 2.45 0.10 234.31
2017-18 585.49 58.45 7.71 1.51 0.24 8.53 2.16 0.12 234.30
2018-19 621.64 64.65 8.82 1.64 0.20 12.09 1.79 0.09 257.44
2019-20 626.15 63.74 8.57 1.33 0.10 10.53 1.76 0.03 243.72
2020-21 581.23 60.17 6.75 1.05 0.08 0.57 1.53 0.03 245.93
2021-22 709.86 65.38 7.29 1.25 0.08 8.67 1.46 0.02 234.10
% 64.05 6.69 1.045 0.17 0.026 1.275 0.253 0.075 26.4
distribution

Table 1.10 Year-wise consumption ofLignite in million tonnes - Industry wise

Year Electricity Steel & Cement Paper Textile Bricks Others

other
Industries

2012-13 37.2 0.05 1.1 0.69 3.47 0.87 2.94

2013-14 36.34 0.03 1.49 1.29 0.73 1 3.02
2014-15 39.47 0.02 1.27 0.65 2.89 0.67 1.98
2015-16 37.56 0.01 0.23 0.43 1.73 0.39 1.87
2016-17 38.82 0.04 0.29 0.53 1.29 0.42 1.77
2017-18 38.84 0.12 1.09 0.76 2.46 0.38 2.67
2018-19 37.73 0.09 1.8 0.6 2.61 0.63 2.34
2019-20 36.33 0.02 1 0.55 0.16 0.47 3.75
2020-21 32.94 0.02 0.81 0.57 0.29 0.43 3.44
2021-22 38.76 0.27 1.55 0.78 3.40 0.54 3.78
% 84.13 0.15 2.39 1.54 4.28 1.30 6.20
distribution

Similarly, year-wise consumption of petroleum products for various industries are

reported in Energy statistics India 2023 report on Page 59-62 ofchapter 6 (Table 6.6(A) -Table
6.6(G)). Also, year-wise consumption of natural gas for energy purpose and non-energy
purposes of various industries are reported in Energy statistics India 2023 report on Page 63
ofchapter 6 (Table 6. 7).
Introduction [1a]

2. Agricultural sectors:

Modem agriculture requires much greater energy input than conventional agriculture,
which heavily depends on fossil fuels for drying grain, manufacturing fertilizers, driving
machinery and generating electricity used for heating and lighting purposes. These energy-
intensive activities at or off the farm level are major contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions.

As per April 2022, annual energy use in EU open-field agriculture is at least 1431 PJ,
equivalent to around 3.7% of total EU annual energy consumption with the majority of energy
sourced from non-renewable energy sources. Our meta-analysis finds that the production of
fertilizer is the largest energy consuming activity in EU agriculture, accounting for around 50%
of all energy inputs. On-farm diesel use accounts for 31% of total energy inputs while the
production pesticides and seeds accounts for 5% of total energy inputs. Other energy uses,
mainly irrigation, storage and drying, account for 8% of total energy inputs. Energy use in EU
agriculture is significantly underreported and that around 55% oftotal energy inputs, associated
with· the production of fertilizers and pesticides, come from indirect sources which can be
assigned to the agricultura l sector but is used prior to reaching farms.

3. Domestic/House hold energy consumption:

Energy consumption by appliances and equipment continues to grow, driven largely by
increasing numbers of buildings and expanding ownership and use of energy-consuming devices,
especially in emerging economies.

Heating and cooling appliances are the largest power consumers in an average household, and
HVAC (Heating, ventilation and air conditioning) system must be at the top ofthe list. Central air
conditioners and heaters consume a lot of energy to keep your residence at the perfect temperature.
The money spent on household electricity consumption could be saved if HV AC system is well-
serviced and home is well-insulated.

3. Transport sectors:
In 2020, 105 EJ of energy was consumed in the transport sector. Crude oil and oil products
contribute 90% of the energy needs for the transport sector. The energy consumption in
transport is more than the energy use for electricity globally.

Electrification is an important option for decarbonizing the transport sector but the
contribution to the overall share in transport is 1.4%. The share ofrenewables in the electricity
is only 30%. So, the overall share of renewable electricity is much lower. At the same time,
liquid biofuels and biogas currently offer commercial and renewable fuel for the sector right
now. Biofuels have a share of 3.6% in the overall energy use in the transport sector.
 [1.42 Renewable Energy System

The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEF) reported that the transport sector contributes to
18% of total energy consumption in India, representing 94 million tonnes of oil equivalent
(Moe). IfIndia continues this trend, it would require an expected 200 Mtoe of energy stock in
2030 (Government oflndia, 2021).

Table 1.11 Various energies in EJ used by transport sectorfrom 2000-2020

S.No. Year Coal Oil Gas Nuclear
1. 2000 0.03 78.6 2.42 0.42

2. 2005 0.01 88.1 3.10 0.81

3. 2010 0.01 94.5 3.74 2.37

4. 2015 0.00 104 4.12 3.29

5. 2020 0.04 95.0 4.67 3.81

1.10.2.Current Usage of Renewable Energy Sources by Various Sectors

The highest penetration was in the general use of electricity (such as for lighting and
appliances but excluding electricity for heating, cooling and transport) which accounted for
around 17% of TFEC. Energy use for transport represented around 32% of TFEC and had the
lowest share of renewables (3. 7%). The remaining thermal energy uses which include space
and water heating, space cooling and industrial process heat accounted for more than half
(51%) of TFEC which is around 11.2% was supplied by renewables.

I. Renewables in power sector:

The greatest success for renewables in 2021 was the power sector. A record 315 GW of
new renewable power capacity was added sufficiently to power every household in Brazil. The
biggest success stories are solar PV and wind which figure out for 90% of all new renewable
power additions. So far, current deployment of renewable power is still far from keeping the
world on track to reach net zero emissions by 2050.
2. Renewables in commercial sector:

The energy used in buildings accounts for around one third of the global final energy
demand adequate renewables to heat and cool our homes. So far renewables are progressing
only slowly in this sector (only 14.7% of energy use in buildings), representing only a 4%-
point increase from a decade before.
.fntroduction [_1.4s

3. Renewables in industry and agriculture sectors:

The industry sector is the largest energy user which needs more than three times of global
final energy demand. So far, the large potential to meet industrial energy demand with
renewables is not enough (especially for low-temperature process heat) but little progress has
been made on shifting the sector to renewables. Interest in renewables is picking up in
agriculture.

30
26.0%

25

16.1%
14.7%

10.7%

3.6%
5

0
2009 2019 7909_2019 2009 2or9 zoos zo19

' Power
sector
Commercial
sector

Figure I.JO
sector
L
Industry & Agriculture
Transport
sector

4. Renewables in transport sector:

Progress in the transport sector remains slow. The share ofrenewables in the sector's final
energy consumption grew only 1.2 % points between 2011 and 2019 to 3.7%. In spite of a
temporary reduction in transport energy demand related to COVID-19, the overall trend is
towards rapidly rising demand with a whopping 24% increase during the decade. The overall
contribution ofrenewables in transport sector is shown in Table 1.12 below. The statistics show
the involvement of renewables in transport sector is increased progressive from year 2000-
2020 by indicating that further increase in renewables will continue in future.
 [ 1.44 Renewable Energy System

Table 1.12 Contribution ofrenewables in transport sectorfrom 2000-2020

S.No. Year Renewables %

1. 2000 0.79 0.7
2. 2005 0.93 1.1
3. 2010 1.06 2.5
4. 2015 1.21 3.2
5. 2020 1.47 4.0

As per Global Bioenergy Statistics 2022, in 2020, 4,23 EJ ofrenewable energy was used
in the transport sector globally and liquid and gaseous biofuels accounted for 90% of all
renewable energy used in the sector. The share of renewable electricity is calculated based on
the share of renewables in overall electricity sector which had a share of 10% shown in Table
1.13 below.
Table 1.13
S.No. Year Biofuels in Renewable Total in %
EJ electricity EJ
inEJ
1. 2000 0.42 0.15 0.57 74
2. 2005 0.81 0.17 0.98 82
3. 2010 2.37 0.21 2.59 92
4. 2015 3.29 0.28 3.57 92
5. 2020 3.81 0.42 4.23 90

1.11. FUTURE GLOBAL POTENTIAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY IN POWER

PRODUCTION

International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)'s World Energy Transitions Outlook

shows half of the energy consumed in 2050 coming from electricity. 90 % of all
decarbonisation will involve renewable energy through direct supply of low-cost power,
efficiency, electrification, sustainable bioenergy and green hydrogen. However, achieving the
2050 climate target will depend on sufficient action by 2030.

IRENA's new analysis finds that by 2030, countries are targeting to reach 5.4 terawatts
(TW) of installed renewable power capacity. It would only be half of the 10.8 TW of installed
Introduction [ 1.45

capacity needed according to IRENA's 1.5C Scenario. To achieve net zero, the targeted
renewable power capacity by 2030 would have to double compared to the level of ambition in
current targets. It is readily achievable today as current renewable power targets lag recent
deployment levels, IRENA's report finds. To achieve current targets by 2030, countries would
need to add 2.3 TW of capacity, equivalent to average yearly additions of 259 gigawatts (GW)
in the next nine years. It is below the actual installed capacity added in the past two years: in
2020 and 2021, despite the complications that resulted from the pandemic and consequent
supply chain disruptions, the world added almost 261 GW each year.

12
10.8

"
>
u
~
Q.
G
u
»
8
Targeted capacity needs to be
double to meet 1.5C goal

(!.)
e 5.4
c
QJ
(!.)
:E
cu 4
3.1
.;:
cu
C
(!.)

et: 2

0
2021 2031 2031
Installed Targeted IRENA 1.5°C
capacity capacity Scenario

Figure 1.11 IRENA analysis ofglobal potential ofrenewable energy

Furthermore, renewable power targeted by 2030 remains concentrated in a few regions

globally. Asia makes up half of the global targeted capacity, followed by Europe and North
America. In comparison, the Middle East and North Africa account for just 3% of global
deployment targets for 2030 even though the region's high potential. Also, Sub-Saharan Africa
accounts for just over 2% of total global for 2030.
[ 1.46 Renewable Energy System·

1.11.1. Hydroelectric Potential

Hydroelectricity is the predominant form of renewable energy in the world. Countries and
areas with mountainous or plateau regions make for prime locations of hydroelectric plants and
have the greatest potential for hydropower.
.
The recent estimates (in 2017) confirm that the world hydroelectricity production and
consumption is about 4185 TWh. The worldwide total hydropower installed capacity at the end
of2017 is approximately 1,267 GW. Hydroelectric power is contributing 16.4% of the world's
electricity from all sources. Global additions to hydropower capacity in 2017 were an estimated
19 G. The leading countries for cumulative capacity (China, the United States, Brazil,
Canada, the Russian Federation, India and Norway) remained the same as in the past several
years, and together they represented about 68% of installed capacity at the end of year 2017.

Globally a theoretical hydropower potential of 25.48 Peta watt-hours per year (PWhlyr)
at 95% flow dependability to 184.1 7 PWhlyr at 30% flow dependability was estimated.

As per study of global water forum 2022, the available theoretical, technical and
exploitable·hydropower potential was assessed and evaluated for 30%, 75% and 95% flow
dependability levels. Here, flow dependability means the probability of occurrence of available
river flow used in the analysis expected to be equaled or exceeded for the mentioned percentage
of days in a year in a specific location. A 30% and 95% flow dependability for the available
potential in high flow and low flow seasons was considered to evaluate. 75% flow
dependability was used to assess and evaluate the available potentials in intermediate flow
conditions. The analysis of the possible hydropower energy under 30% flow dependability
assumes that the design discharge is available only during the first two or three months of the
rainy season and does not continue throughout the year. On the other hand, 95% flow
dependability result indicates the firm hydropower potential available throughout the year.

The theoretical installed capacity of global hydropower potential ranges from

2.9 terawatts (TW) in the dry season at 95% flow dependability to 21.01 TW in wet season
(30% flow dependability). Therefore, the corresponding available annual energy can be 25.48-
petawatt hour in a year (PWh/yr) at 95% to 184.17 PWhlyr at 30% dependability. However,
due to several constraints, such as the efficiency of the power plant components, topographical
constraints, capacity factor of the power plant, all the available theoretical potential would not
be technically feasible. Also, the annual energy that can be produced from technical potential
sites ranges from 7.06 PWhlyr to 49.05 PWhlyr, for 95% to 30% flow dependability
respectively. Hydropower potential for various states in India is shown in chapter 1.9.2 on Page
1.31.
Introduction [ 1.47

Continent-level hydropowerpotential availability:

Asia is the highest contributor in the world having more exploitable hydropower potential
than anywhere else with an average contribution of 46.53%. 38.47% of exploitable global
potential is available in the North and South American continents. Africa accounts for an
average of 11.4% contribution out of which a significant amount is still undeveloped. The
remaining 3.6% would be from Europe, and countries in Oceania. China, Russia, Canada,
Brazil, United States, Myanmar, India, Peru, Pakistan, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Colombia, Indonesia will have the highest contributions at a country level.

1.11.2. Wind Energy Potential

Wind energy is actually a form of solar energy because winds arise primarily from
temperature difference on the earth's surface because ofunequal exposure of(or absorption of)
solar radiation. Wind energy is separately discussed from solar energy because the technology
is different and its potential use is also different.

The power available in the wind over the earth surface is estimated to be 1.6x10' MW
which is more than the present energy requirement of the world. Wind power has emerged as
the most economical of all renewable energy sources. The installation cost of wind power is
Rs. 4 crore / MW which is almost same of conventional thermal power plant. Wind power
generation is the fastest growing energy source and it is expanding at a rate of more than 30%
annually.

Asia was the largest regional market for the ninth consecutive year, representing nearly
48% of added capacity (with a total exceeding 235 GWby the endof year 2017), followed by
Europe (over 30%), North America (14%) and Latin America and the Caribbean (almost 6%).
By the end of 2017, more than 90 countries had seen commercial wind power activity, and 30
countries had more than 1 GW in operation.

There has been remarkable growth of wind power installation in the world. Maintaining
rapid growth, wind power generating capacity grew by 10% with capacity increasing by 52
GWto reach the cumulative capacity of 539 GWby the end of 2017. In the year 2017, China
recorded the largest addition of new wind capacity (19.7 GW) and followed by the US (7 G),
Germany (6.1 GW), India (4 GW) and UK (4.1 GW).

As per the report of REN2I, China leads the world in terms oftotal installed wind capacity
(188.4 GW) and followed by the US (89 GW),. Germany (56.1 GW), India (32.8 G), Spain
.

(20 GW), the UK (18.9 G) and France (13.8 GW) at the end of 2020.
[ 1.48 Renewable Energy System

Wind power generation grew by more than 10% in 2020to reach 1120 TWh. Wind power
is contributing 5.6% of total world electricity generation. It is more than the total power
generation of Russia which is the world's fourth largest power generator.

Wind has become an important contributor to European electricity generation. In

Denmark, wind power provided 48% of power generation in 2020. Wind power now provides
15% or more bf power generated in Ireland, Lithuania, Germany, Portugal, and Spain. Wind
has a much smaller share in the US where it contributed just under 6% of power generation in
2020 and in China, where wind provided just under 4% of power.

1.11.3. Bioenergy Potential

Biomass energy (bioenergy) can be produced from a wide range of feedstocks of

biological origin using a number of different processes to produce heat, electricity and transport
fuels (biofuels).

Bioenergy as solid fuels (biomass), liquids (biofuels) or gases (biogas or biomethane) can
be used to produce heat for cooking and for space and water heating in the residential sector,
in traditional stoves or in modern appliances such as pellet-fed central heating boilers. The
direct use of biomass for heating and cooking etc. is the largest part of the bioenergy end use.
In effect, more than 80% of the biomass supply is used for direct heating and cooking,
predominantly in Asia and African continents.

As per IRENA study 2022, bioenergy makes up the largest share of renewable energy use
today accounting around 9% of the world's total primary energy supply. More than half of
bioenergy is consumed for cooking and heating buildings in the traditional and inefficient way.
Modern uses of bioenergy include biomass and biogas/biomethane for industrial heat, power
generation and liquid biofuels road transport. However, they only contribute small shares of
the final energy consumption of end uses: 7% of heating for buildings and industry and 3% of
transport fuels.

Modem bioenergy has a major role to play in the energy transition. IRENA's 1.5°C
scenario suggest that it will make up a quarter of the total primary energy supply or 17% of
final energy demand by 2050. Bioenergy will need to be scaled up to provide heat for both
industrial processes and buildings, as well as fuels for transport. It will also be needed as
feedstock in the petrochemical industry to produce chemicals and plastics. Combined with
carbon capture and storage technologies in the power sector and some industrial sectors,
bioenergy can deliver the negative emissions needed to achieve the net-zero emission goal.
Introduction [ 1.49

Modern bioenergy is the largest source of renewable energy globally accounting for 55% of
renewable ene rgy and over 6% ofglobal energy supply. The Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario
sees a rapid increase in the use of bioenergy to displace fossil fuels by 2030. Use of modern
bioene rgy has increased on average by 7% per year between 2010 and 2021. It is on an upward
trend. More efforts are needed to accelerate modern bioenergy deployment to get on track with the
Net Zero Scenario which sees deployment increase by 10% per year between 2021 and 2030 while
simultaneously ensuring that bioenergy production does not incur negative social and
environmental consequences.
In recent years, the interest in using biomass as an energy source has increased and it
represents approximately 14% of world final energy consumption. 15%-50% of the world's
primary energy use could come from biomass by the year 2050.

1.11.4. Solar Energy Potential

Solar energy can be a major source of power and it can be utilized by using thermal and
photovoltaic conversion systems. Solar radiation received on the earth's surface on a bright
day, at noon is approximately 1 kW/m2 • The earth continuously intercepts solar power of
178 billion MW which is about 10,000 times the world's demand. But so far, it could not be
developed on a large scale. According to an estimate, if all buildings of the world are covered
with solar PV pane l, it can fulfill electrical power requirements of the world. At present, the
capital cost of solar PV system is Rs. 200 per WW which is five times more than the coal fired
thermal power generation cost.

There are major advantages in using solar energy for a variety of energy needs including
electrical generation and space heating. The availability of solar radiation is extremely high in
some localities of the world. .The technology is also readily available and easily installed in
most countries of the world. Furthermore, the lifetime cost of solar energy is cheaper than
conventional energy sources. In some areas, any excess energy produced during the day may
be sold to local utility companies or stored for the use at night and on cloudy days:

Solar PV generation increased by a record 179 TWh (up 22%) in 2021 to exceed
1 000 TWh. It demonstrated the second largest absolute generation growth of all rene wable
technologies in 2021 after wind. Solar PV is becoming the lowest-cost option for new
electricity generation in most ofthe world which is expected to propel investment in the coming
years. However, the average annual generation growth of 25% in the period 2022-2030 is
needed to follow the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario. It corresponds to a more than
threefold increase in annual capacity deployment until 2030 requiring much greater policy
 [ 1.50 Renewable Energy System

ambition and more effort from both public and private stakeholders, especially in the areas of
grid integration and the mitigation of policy, regulation and financing challenges. This is·
particularly the case in emerging and developing countries.

China was responsible for about 38% of solar PV generation growth in 2021 to large
capacity additions in 2020 and 2021. The second largest generation growth (17% share of the
total) was recorded in the United States, and third largest in the European Union (10% ). Solar
PV proved to be resilient in the face of Covid-19 disruptions, supply chain bottlene cks and
commodity price rises experienced in 2021 and achieved another record annual increase in
capacity (almost 190 GW). Therefore, it should lead to further acceleration of electricity
generation growth in 2022.

(i) African giants:

Namibia has the highest overall global PV output potential, according to the World Bank's
ranking with a nationwide average PV power output (PVOUT) measurement of 5.38
kWh/kWp/day.

Egypt, Botswana, Morocco and Sudan also feature in the global PVOUT top 20 to similar
solar radiation totals and land availability, suggesting African nations could· come to dominate
global solar production rankings if all the region's ambitious renewable energy development
plans take root.

(ii) Middle east contenders:

Similarly, high amounts ofsolar radiation and large swaths ofusable land, several Middle East
countries also place highly on PVOUT potential despite current low levels of solar installations.

Jordan, Yemen and Oman are the top three Middle East nations in terms of PVOUT,
followed by Saudi Arabia. Large investments in green energy infrastructure throughout the
Middle East mean, the region will soon realise much ofthat latent solar potential which should
help the area's economies continue to grow despite the uncertainty tied- to the outlook for oil
and gas exports from the same region.

(iii) Asian majors:

China's relatively slowly ranking on the PVOUT scale might suggest the country is not well
suited to solar production.

But as the PVOUT measurement is a nationwide average, low measurements from

congested and cloudy areas in the north and east tend to offset the higher readings from the
Introduction [_1.st

sunny and spacious western hubs where the country has developed its world-leading expertise
in the solar space.

Even if it is, China's overall PVOUT reading of 3.88 kWhlkWp/day is well below the
national averages of other countries in Asia including dry and sunny Mongolia (4.76 PVOUT
measurement), India (4.32) and Afghanistan (5.02), the region's top overall PVOUT potential
leader.

(iv) European growth:

While Germany is the top current solar producer in Europe, Spain has the region's highest
PVOUT reading to year-round sunshine and suitable space for solar farm installations.

As a result, the country is likely to sharply increase installed solar capacity which in 2022
was roughly a third of Germany's.

Portugal and Turkey also rank in the top 100 PVOUT list compared to Germany's ran of
196.

() The Americas:
Within the Americas, Chile has by far the top overall PVOUT reading, and ranks second
globally to concentrations of bright sunshine and suitable space for utility-scale installations.

Bolivia, Peru and Mexico also score in the global top 30 while the United States ranks 90
but it has favourable solar potential pockets in the Southwest which are comparable to other
high-scoring areas elsewhere.

Altogether, the PVOUT metric highlights the vast potential for solar power in all regions
especially in areas that currently lag global leaders but they have the right combination of
abundant sunshine and space to potentially emerge as the new global solar leaders in the
coming decades.

1.11.5. Geothermal Energy Potential

During the 25" International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) Council meeting held
in Abu Dhabi, UAE on 23-24 May 2023, the Agency organised a dedicated Programmatic
Discussion on the Global Status of Geothermal Market and Technology to promote the role of
geothermal in the energy transition.
In recent years, the geothermal market growth has been driven by developments in
Indonesia, Kenya, Turkiye and the United States. Although data on new plants commissioned
in 2021 shows that geothermal energy competitively generated electricity at a Ievelised cost of
 [ 1.52 Renewable Energy System

electricity of USD 0.068/kWh, countries still face challenges in attracting investments to

geothermal development.

Electricity generation from geothermal energy has grown at a modest rate of around 3.5%
annually by reaching a total installed capacity ofapproximately 15.96 gigawatts electric (GWe)
in 2021.

Binary technology allows geothermal power plants to be operated in a flexible way which
is ideal for the stabilisation of grids with high penetration of variable renewable electricity
sources. As a result, the deployment ofbinary power plants has increased to over 50% for new
plants commissioned between 2015 and 2021 compared to only 12% before 2000.
'
At the same time, the use ofgeothermal for heating and cooling applications for agri-food
and industry as well as for district heating and cooling among others is also growing. Driven
by decarbonisation agenda and the need to secure domestic sources of energy, countries are
likely to increase the development and utilisation of low-medium temperature resources.

Geothermal power runs at a much higher load factor than wind or solar as its source is
continuous rather than intermittent. So, geothermal energy produces significantly more
electricity per MW of capacity. However, due to the conditions required for geothermal power
the development has been concentrated in a relatively small number of countries.
The installed capacity of geothermal energy has gradually increased worldwide over the
last decade, reaching some 14.9 GW in 2022. Geothermal technologies are among the growing
renewable energy trend occurring across the world, as environmentally friendly technologies
are sought after due to lower emissions· and the use of a renewable source.

Geothermal Power Market is Projected to Reach USD 6.17 billion, at a 5.26% CAGR by
2030 as per Report by Market Research Future (MRFR). It projects that 1,400 TWh of
electricity per year could come from geothermal power by 2050, up from 67 TWh at present.

A quarter of the world's geothermal generation capacity is located in Southeast Asia,

mostly deployed in just two countries such as Indonesia and Philippines. Located astride the
Pacific Typhoon Belt, the country is no stranger to the impact of climate change with regular
and increasingly violent typhoons, storms and flooding constant threats.

The Department of Energy is targeting an additional 900 MW of geothermal capacity by

2025 and a further 288 MW in the five years to 2030. If fully realized, new capacity combined
with existing installed capacity in the Philippines would challenge US as current global leader
in geothermal deployment.
Introduction [_1.ss

1.11.6. Ocean Tidal Energy Potential

The potential in ocean tides resource is estimated as 550 billion kWh/year (120 GW
power). It is in the developing stage. The global market for Ocean Energy (Tidal Stream and
Wave) estimated at 86.2 Million Kilowatts in the year 2022 is projected to reach a revised size
of 1.3 Million Kilowatts by 2030 growing at a CAGR of39.7% over the analysis period 2022-
2030. The major limitation for the development of tidal power station is huge capital
investment per kW ofpower generation. A 20 MW tidal plant is located at Nova Scotia, Canada
and a 400 kW capacity plant is located at Kislaya Cuba and Russia on the Barents Sea. Many
sites have been identified in USA, Argentina, Europe, India and China for development oftidal
power.

World Recent Past, Current and Future Analysis for Ocean Energy (Tidal Stream and Wave)
by Geographic Region such as USA, Canada, Japan, China, Europe and Rest of World Markets -
Independent Analysis of Annual Capacity Additions in KW for Years 2022 through 2030 and
percentage CAGR.

1.11.7. Ocean Wave Energy Potential

There is no major development programme carried out till now due to limited availability
and uncertainty of power generation capability. The world's first commercial wave energy
plant having 0.5 MW is located in Isle of Islay and Scotland. Some small prototype devices
have been tested. The resource is more concentrated in deep sea where it is difficult to harness
and deliver. The estimated potential is 2000 GW. It has been estimated that the total available
US wave energy resource is 23 GW which is more than twice as much as Japan and nearly five
times as much as Great Britain. It has been estimated that improving technology and economies
of scale will allow wave generators to produce electricity at a cost comparable to wind-driven
turbines which produce energy at about Rs. 3.5 per kWh.

According to Polaris Market Research report, the global Ocean Power Market size & share
expected to generate revenue of USD 3,763.92 million by 2030 and estimated to be valued at
USD 670.5 million in 2021 at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of21.2% from 2022 to
2030.

1.11.8. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Potential

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) technologies use the temperature difference
between warm seawater at the surface of the ocean and cold seawater between 800-1000 m
depth to produce electricity. This technology is inthe preliminary stage. Conceptual designs of
( 1.54 Renewable Energy System

small OTEC plant have been installed. Their commercial prospects are quite uncertain. The
potential is likely to be more than tidal or wave energy. The resource potential for OTEC is
considered to be much larger than other ocean energy forms. Up to 88,000 TWh/yr of power
could be generated from OTEC without affecting the ocean's thermal structure. The first
operational OTEC system was built in Cuba in 1930 and generated 22 kW. So far, only
commercial OTEC plant up to 1 MW has been built. It is located in Hawaii which ran from
1993 to 1998. Although it is technically feasible to build 10 MW plants using current design,
manufacturing, deployment techniques and materials, the actual operating experience is still
lacking.
'.
OTEC has the highest potential when comparing all ocean energy technologies and as
many as 98 nations and territories have been identified that have viable OTEC resources.
Recent studies suggest that the total worldwide power generation capacity could be supplied
by OTEC. Furthermore, a large number of island states in the Caribbean and Pacific Ocean
have OTEC resources within 10 km of their shores. The existing barriers are high up-front
capital costs and the lack of experience building OTEC plants at scale.

1.12. FUTURE POTENTIAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY IN POWER PRODUCTION IN

INDIA

There is high potential for generation of renewable energy from various sources such as
wind, solar, biomass, small hydro and cogeneration bagasse.

India has a vast supply of renewable energy resources and it has one of the largest
programs in the world for deploying renewable energy products and systems. The Indian
renewable energy sector is the fourth most attractive renewable energy market in the world as
per the Renewable Energy Attractiveness Index 2018. India had its largest ever increase in
renewables in power generation (+20%) making the fifth-largest contribution to global growth.

The Union government of India announced a plan to add 250 GW of renewable energy
capacity in the next five years to achieve its target of 500 GW of clean energy by 2030.

1.12.1. Solar Power Potential

India is one ofthe best recipients of solar energy due to its favourable location in the solar
belt (40° S to 40° N). With about 300 clear, sunny days in a year, India has a vast potential for
solar power generation since about 58% ofthe total land area (1.89 million km') receives annual
average global insolation above 5 kWhlm2 /day. India's theoretically calculated solar energy
incidence on its land area alone is about 5,000 trillion kilowatt-hours (kWh) per year. The
Introduction [_1.ss

Gangetic plains (trans, middle and upper), plateau (central, western and southern) region,
western dry region, Gujarat plains and hill region as well as the west coast plains and Ghat
region receive annual global insolation above 5 kWh/m 2 /day. These zones include states of
Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu,
Haryana, Punjab, Kerala, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. The eastern part of Ladakh
region (Jammu & Kashmir) and minor parts of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Sikkim
which are located in the Himalayan belt also receive similar average global insolation annually.
The eastern Himalayan states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Assam receive annual
average global insolation below 4 kWh/m 2 /day.

Solar potential of India stands at 649 GW. The solar energy available in a year exceeds
the possible energy output of all fossil fuel energy potential in India. The daily average solar
power plant generation capacity over India is 0.25 kWh per m of used land area which is
equivalent to about 1,500-2,000 peak (rated) capacity operating hours in a year with the
available commercially-proven technologies.

Based upon availability ofland and solar radiation, the potential solar power in the country
has been assessed to be around 750 Gp. State-wise details of estimated solar energy potential
in the country (as on 31-12-2022) are given in Table 1.14.
. I
Table 1.14 State-wise estimated solar energy potential in the Country

S.No. State Solar Potential (Gp)

1. Rajasthan 142.31
2. - Jammu & Kashmir 111.05

3. Maharashtra 64.32

4. Madhya Pradesh 61.66

5. Andhra Pradesh 38.44

6. Gujarat 35.77

7. Himachal Pradesh 33.84

8. Odisha 25.78

9. Karnataka 24.70

10. Uttar Pradesh 22.83

[ 1.56 Renewable Energy System

11. Telangana 20.41

12. Chhattisgarh 18.27

13. Jharkhand 18. 18

14. Tamil Nadu 17.67

# Assessed by National Institute ofSolar Energy, Indio

power capacity would have to rise to over 5,600 G,

For India to reach its bold target of having net-zero emissions by 2070, the country's solar
coal use particularly in the power sector
will have to drop by 99 % by 2060 and crude oil would need to peak by 2050 and fall
substantially by 90% in the two decades.

Solar-based generation capacity must rise to 1,689 G by 2050 and 5,630 GW by 2070.
Wind-based solar electricity generation capacity must increase to 557 GW by 2050 and
1792 G by 2070.

1.12.2. Wind Energy Potential

India's 7,600 kilometer-wide coastline has the potential to generate approximately

140 GW of electricity from offshore wind. Offshore wind is significant in India's goal of
achieving 500 gigawatts of renewable energy capacity by 2030 and achieving its target of
becoming net zero by 2070. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is the nodal
ministry for developing and using maritime space within the country's exclusive economic
zones (EEZ) for offshore wind energy. The National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE)
conducts resource assessments, surveys, and studies in EEZ demarcate blocks and facilitates
developers to set up offshore wind energy farms.

National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE), has assessed the gross wind power potential
of 695.50 GW in the country at 120 m respectively above ground level. Most of this potential
exists in eight windy States as given in Table 1.15.
Table 1.15 Windpowerpotential in India at 120 m above ground

S.No. State ind Power Potential

at 120 mtr agl (GW)

1. Andhra Pradesh 74.90

-
2. Gujarat 142.56
 Introduction [_1.s7

3. Karnataka 124.15

4. Madhya Pradesh 15.40

5. Maharashtra 98.21

6. Rajasthan 127.75

7. TamilNadu 68.75

8. Telangana 24.83

9. Other states 18.95

Total 695.50

India has a long coastline of about 7,600 kilometers and good prospects for harnessing
offshore wind energy. The country has set a target of installing 30 GW ofoffshore wind projects
by 2030. The government estimates that the states of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu alone have
around 70 GW of potential for offshore wind power, enough to power over 50 million homes.
The progress in this sector bas been slow primarily due to the high initial cost compared to
solar and onshore wind. Several offshore projects have been in the pipeline for many years but
none are operational.

The development of wind power in India began in 1990s and it has significantly increased
in the last few years. Wind power has seen a phenomenal growth of around 33% CAGR
(compound annual growth rate) in the last 5 years. With the total wind power capacity (as on
31.08.2018) of 34986.35 MW, India now ranks fourth in the world. Most of the capacity
(8594.39 MW) is installed in the state of Tamil Nadu in India. Other states contribute most of
the wind power are: Gujarat (5852.67 M), Maharashtra (4788.13 MW), Karnataka
(4672.30 MW) and Rajasthan (4299.72 MW). Th e recent assessment conducted by National
Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) indicates a gross wind power potential of 302 GW in the
country at 100 m above ground level. National targets for offshore wind capacity additions of
5 GWby 2022 and 30 GWby 2030 declared.

1.12.3. Biomass Energy Potential

About 32% of the total primary energy use in the country is still derived from biomass
and more than 70% ofthe country's population depends on it for its energy needs. The current
availability of biomass in India is estimated about 500 million metric tonnes per year covering
6 agricultural and forestry residues corresponding to a potential of about 18 GW. Additional
 [1.s_] Renewable Energy System

7.3 GW power could be generated through bagasse-based cogeneration in the country. Thus,
the total estimated potential for biomass power is about 25 GW.

Table 1.16 provides the State-wise installed biomass power capacity as on 31.12.2022
provided by MNRE.

Table 1.16 State-wise potential ofbiomass energy

S.No. State Potential (MW)

1. Maharashtra 1970
2. Uttar Pradesh 1765
3. Kamataka 1222
4. Tami!Nadu 1164
5. Andhra Pradesh 739
6. West Bengal 530
7. Punjab 3178
8. Telangana 645
9. Other states 7387
Total 18600

Of the total global bioenergy demand in 2050, around 60% is solid bioenergy. Almost
30% is liquid biofuels including energy use for their production and over 10% is biogases.
Demand is concentrated in sectors that are either hard to electrify or require a low-cost
dispatchable source of renewable energy.

In the electricity sector, solid bioenergy demand in 2050 is around 35 EJ. Bioenergy
provides only 5% of total electricity generation in 2050 but it is an important source of low-
emissions flexibility to complement variable generation from solar PV and wind. In the
industry sector, where solid bioenergy demand reaches 20 EJ in 2050, it is used to meet high
temperature heat needs
-
that cannot. be easily electrified such as paper and cement production.
In 2050, bioenergy meets 60% of energy demand in the paper industry and 30% of energy
demand for cement production. In the buildings sector, bioenergy demand increases to nearly
10 EJ in 2030, mostly in emerging economies for improved cookstoves that replace
unsustainable traditional uses of biomass.
Introduction [ 1.59

1.12.4. Hydroelectric Energy Potential

India is blessed with immense amount of hydro-electric potential and ranks 5" in terms of
exploitable hydro-potential on global scenario. As per assessment made by CEA, India is
endowed with economically exploitable hydro-power potential to the tune of 145 GW of
installed capacity. India stands in 5" place for hydro-electric potential in the world on global
scenario.

In north India, Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB) has an installed capacity of
2.9 GW and it generates 12,000-14,000 million units per year. BBMB is a major source of
peaking power and black start to the northern grid in India.

In addition to the hydro power given above, 56 number of pumped storage projects have
also been identified with probable installed capacity of 94 GW. In addition to this, hydro-
potential from small, mini and micro schemes has been estimated as 6.8 GWfrom 1,512 sites.
Thus, in totality India is endowed with hydro-potential of about 250 GW.

. Net zero projections published by IBA show how in a decarbonised economy, hydropower
is expected to become the predominant source of dispatchable electricity, contributing more
than 40% of the annual electricity production (approximately 22,700 TWh) of this group by
2050.

Both IRENA and IEA show that substantial amounts of green and brownfield hydropower
capacity are urgently required to provide reliable low carbon electricity to back up variable
wind and solar power. To achieve a net zero economy by 2050, IEA indicates that more than
1,300 G of additional hydropower capacity is needed in reaching a totalinstalled capacity of
almost 2,700 GW. Similar conclusions are presented in the l.5°C pathway scenario produced
by IRENA where the hydropower fleet will need to double over the next 30 years in reaching
an overall installed capacity of more than 2,900 GWofwhich almost 420 GWis pumped hydro.
In addition, hydropower capacity should more than double by 2050 to meet climate goals.

1.12.5. Small Hydro Power (SHP) Potential

The MNRE have been vested with the responsibility of developing Small Hydro Power
(SHP) projects up to 25 MW station capacity. The identified potential of Small Hydro Power
in the country is 21135 MW from 7135 identified sites. In cumulative terms, 1089 small
hydropower projects aggregating to 4418 MW have been set up in various parts of the country
as on 31.12.2017. In addition, 136 projects of about 754 M are in various stages of
implementation. Table 1.17 provides the State-wise installed biomass power capacity as on
31.12.2017 provided by MNRE.
 [1.60 Renewable Energy System

Table 1.1 7 State-wise potential and installed SHP capacity as on 31.12.2022

S.No. State Potential (MW)

1. Himachal Pradesh 3461
2. Karnataka 3727
3. Uttarakhand 1665
4. Tamil Nadu 605
5. Jammu & Kashmir 1708
6. Arunachal Pradesh 2065
7. Andhra Pradesh 409
8. Kerala 647
9. Maharashtra 787
10. Other states 6059
Total 21133

1.12.6. Tidal Energy Potential

India is estimated to have a potential of about 54 gigawatts (G) of ocean energy

including about I 2.4 GW of tidal power. However, even after four decades of starting efforts
to harness tidal power. India is estimated to have a potential of around 54 gigawatts (GW) of
ocean energy such as tidal power (12.45 GW) and wave power (41.3 G) but it is yet to be of
practical use as the Indian government's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE )
says the estimated potential of tidal and wave power is "purely theoretical and does not
' .
necessarily constitute a pra ctically exploitable potential.

1.12.7. Geothermal Energy Potential

Geothermal is energy generated from heat stored in the earth or the collection ofabsorbed
heat derived from underground. Immense amounts of thermal energy are generated and stored
in the Earth's core, mantle and crust. Geothermal energy is at present contributing about
14.5 GWover the world and India's small resources can augment the above percentage. Studies
carried out by the geological survey of India have observed existence of about 340 hot springs
in the hot country. These are distributed in seven geothermal provinces which are most
productive in a 1500 km stretch ofthe Himalayas. These are also found along the west coast in
Gujarat and Rajasthan and along a west south west-east-northeast line running from the west
Introduction [ 1.61

coast to the western border of Bangladesh (known as SONATA). The resource is little used at
the moment but the Government has an ambitious plan to more than double the current total
installed generating capacity by 2022.

1.13. PER CAPITA ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN INDIA

India's per capita electricity consumption was 1255 kWh in 2021-22 which is around one-
third of the global average of per capita electricity consumption. Per capita is an average of
862 kWh.

The Government of India, through Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), has implemented
schemes that help in increasing energy efficiency such as Standards and Label (S&L)
Programme, Unnat Jyoti by Affordable LEDs for All (UJALA), Street Lighting National
Programme (SLNP), Building Energy Efficiency, Agriculture and Municipal Demand Side
Management.
1250

c 1208
2+zoo
C 1181
,Q
a 1161
E 1149
2 1150
C
-
8 1122
>
e>
21100
Cl)
1075
s
a
·<ti
?Cl) 1o50
a.

2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

Year

Figure 1.12 E le c tr ic pow e rc onsumption pe rc apita in India from financial y e ar2016 to

2021

As per the Generation Expansion Planning studies carried out by the Central Electricity
Authority (CEA) for 2029-30, the share ofnon-fossil fuel-based generation capacity in the total
installed capacity of the Country is likely to increase from around 42% as on Oct, 2022 to more
than 64% by 2029-30. It would reduce the dependence on fossil fuel in electricity generation
and· promote alternative sources· of power such as solar and wind. Figure 1.12 shows. per
[ 1.62 Renewable Energy System

capita energy consumption is increasing from the year 2016-2020 and slightly decreased in
2021. One of the reasons ofthis growth is electrification ofvillages and households across the
country. Economic survey 2020-21 states that there is a strong correlation between electricity
consumption per capita and higher scores on the education index across countries.

Similarly, state-wise electricity consumption is shown in Table 1.18 for the year 2014-21
below.

Table 1.18

State 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21

Chandigarh 1472 1497 1589 1574 1535 1604 1349

Delhi 24775 25658 26604 28488 29169 29812 26319

Haryana 32197 35092 34501 38215 41017 43382 41944

Himachal 7842 7958 7974 8405 9041 9124 8635

Pradesh

Jammu &4 6372 7144 7902 8395 9633 10623 9984

Kashmir

Punjab 39384 40843 44050 47027 50120 49168 50286

Rajasthan 49920 50359 51027 53618 60151 61942 64888

Uttar Pradest 64707 70967 81068 90395 91355 94932 93600

Uttarakhand 9980 10298 11162 11210 11543 12021 11225

--- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

--- . --- --- . --- --- ---
Tamil nadu
. 77618 80083 83936 86654 91788 95919 94592
-

1.14. DEVELOPMENT OF RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN INDIA

The relevance of the increasing use of renewable energy sources in· the transition to a
sustainable energy base was recognised in India even in the early 1970s. Since the early 1980s,
a significant thrust has been given to the development, trial and induction of a variety of
renewable energy technologies for use in different sectors. To begin with it, the endeavours
were steered and overseen by the Commission for Additional Sources of Energy (CASE) set
Introduction [ 1.63

up in 1981. In 1982, a separate Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (DNES) was

-
created by the Ministry of Energy and it was entrusted with the charge of promoting
nonconventional energy sources.

A decade later, it was upgraded and thus, Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources
started funding as a separate Ministry from 1992 to develop all areas of renewable energy.
Indeed, India was the first country in the world to set up an exclusive ministry for non-
conventional energy development, the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources
(MNES), in early 1980s. Since its inception, the Ministry has launched one of the world's
largest and most ambitious programs on renewable energy. Based on various promotional
efforts put in place by MNES, significant progress is being made in power generation from
renewable energy sources. In October 2006, MNES was renamed the Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE).
As per its mandate, the MNRE has been implementing a broad-based programme covering
the whole spectrum of renewable energy technologies. The aim of the programme is to:

(i) increase the share of renewable source in the overall installed capacity power
generation,
.
(ii) meet the energy needs of rural and remote areas for a variety of applications,
(iii) minimize the drudgery and health hazards faced by rural women in following the
age-old practice of cooking with fuel-wood collected from long distances and in
. ..
traditional chulhas which emit a lot of smoke and
(iv) extract energy from urban and industrial waste besides chemical, ocean and
geothermal sources. The underlying idea of the programme isnot to substitute but to
supplement the conventional energy generation in meeting the basic energy needs of
the community at large.

Government of India also created Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency ·

Limited (IREDA) to assist and it provides financial assistance in the form of subsidy and low
interest loan for renewable energy projects. IREDA covers a wide spectrum of financing
activities including energy conservation and energy efficiency. At present, IREDA's lending is
mainly in the following areas.

(i) Solar energy technologies, utilization of solar thermal and solar photo voltaic
systems.
(ii) Wind energy setting up grid connected wind farm projects.
(iii) Small hydro setting up small, mini and micro hydro projects.
 [ 1.64 Renewable Energy System

(iv) Bio-energy technologies, biomass-based co-generation projects, biomass

gasification, energy from waste and briquetting projects.
(v) Hybrid systems.
(vi) Energy efficiency and conservation.

The national programmes in different areas of renewable energy sector have resulted not
only in generation of public awareness about the advantages of renewable energy but also in a
visible increase in the deployment of renewable energy systems and devices for various
applications. Consequently, the contribution of renewable energy to total installed capacity of
power generation has been progressively rising.

The programmes to meet the rural energy needs are the National Project on Biogas
Development (NPBD) and the National Programme on Improved Chulhas (NPIC). The NPBD
aims at harnessing the fuel value of the cattle dung, human waste and non-woody organic
wastes without losing their manurial value and minimising the drudgery of rural woman in
walking long distances to collect fuel wood. The objective ofNPIC is to improve efficiency of
biomass fuels without indoor air pollution. Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation have led to
generation of huge quantities of wastes which are rich sources of energy. Under the National
Programme on Energy Recovery from urban, municipal and industrial wastes, promotion and
development of· projects leased on appropriate conversion technologies such as bio-
methanation, gasification, palletisation and landfills are being undertaken. This programme
aims at harnessing the estimated power generation potential of about I 000 MW from urban and
municipal wastes and about 700 MW from industrial wastes.

1.15. FUTURE ENERGY PLANS

In 2021, the IEA published its Net Zero by 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector
which sets out a narrow but achievable pathway for the global energy sector to reach net zero
emissions by 2050.

The global economy rebounded at record speed in 2021 from the COVID-19 pandemic
with. GDP growth reaching 5.9%. As energy intensity improvements stalled global energy
demand increased by 5.4%. Surging energy demand was in part met by increased use of coal
resulting in a 1.9 gigatonnes (Gt) jump in emissions in 2021, the largest annual increase in
global CO emissions from the energy sector ever recorded. It brought total CO emissions
from the energy sector to 36.6 Gt in 2021. Recent investment in fossil fuel infrastructure not
included in the 2021 Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario would result in 25 Gt of emissions
if run to the end of its lifetime (around 5% of the remaining carbon budget for 1.5 °C). At the
Introduction [ 1.65

same time, 2021 also saw renewables-based electricity generation reach an all-time high, a
record more thari 500 terawatt-hours (TWh) above the level in 2020.
Climate change has become a major concern ofthis century. The urgent response to that
concern is an energy transformation that quickly reduces the carbon emissions which cause
climate change. The Paris Agreement establishes a clear goal to limit the increase of global
temperature to "well below" 2°C, and ideally to 1.5 °C, compared to pre-industrial levels by
this century. To realise this climate target, a profound transformation of the global energy
landscape is essential.
Rapidly shifting the world away from the consumption offossil fuels and towards cleaner
renewable forms of energy is critical to reach the climate goals agreed upon in Paris. Such a
transformation is possible with the rapid replacement ofconventional fossil fuel generation and
uses with low-carbon technologies. Decarbonising the energy sector andreducing carbon
emissions are the key objectives of the energy transformation roadmaps of the International
Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) to examine and provide an ambitious, yet technically and
economically feasible, pathway for the deployment of low carbon technology towards a more
sustainable clean energy future. But the reduction of carbon emissions is not the only reason
why the world should embrace the energy transformation. There are many other drivers behind
it.
1. Renewable energy sources are all around us
2. Renewable energy is cheaper
3. Renewable energy is healthier
4. Renewable energy creates jobs
5. Renewable energy makes economic sense

By 2050, all countries can substantially increase the proportion of renewable energy in
their total energy use. REmap, a global roadmap prepared by the International Renewable
Energy Agency (IRENA) suggests that renewables can make up 60% or more of many
countries' total final energy corisumption (TFEC). For instance, China could increase the share
ofrenewable energy in its energy use from 7% in 2015 to 67% in 2050. In the European Union
(EU), the share could grow from about 17% to over 70%. India and the United States could see
shares increase to two-thirds or more.
A decarbonised power sector dominated by renewable sources is at the core of the_
transition to a sustainable energy future. The share of renewable energy in the power sector
would increase from 25% in 2017 to 85% by 2050, mostly through growth in solar and wind
 [ 1.66 Renewable Energy System

power generation. This transformation needs new approaches to power system planning,
system and market operations, and regulation and public policy. As low-carbon electricity
becomes the main energy carrier, the share of electricity consumed in end-use sectors would
need to double from approximately 20% in 2015 to 40% in 2050.
Electric vehicles (EVs) and heat pumps would become more common in most parts of the
world. In terms of final energy, renewable electricity would provide just under 60% of total
renewable energy use, two and a half times its contribution to overall renewable energy
consumption today. Hence, renewable energy is powering a safer future.
The power sector has made significant progress in recent years but the speed of progress
must be accelerated. In 2017 the power sector added 167 gigawatts (GW) ofrenewable energy
capacity globally, a robust growth of 8.3% over the previous year and a continuation of
previous growth rates since 2010 averaging 8% per year. Renewable power generation
accounted for an estimated quarter of total global power generation, a new record. New records
were also set for solar and wind installation, with additions of 94 GW in solar photovoltaic (PP)
and 47 GW wind power, including 4 GW of offshore wind power. Renewable power generation
costs continue to fall.

Industry, transport and the building sectors will need to use more renewable energy. In
these sectors, renewable sources including increased renewable electricity supply but also solar
thermal, geothermal energy and bioenergy must play major roles. Renewable electricity will
play an increasingly important role but a large contribution are renewable fuels and direct-uses
. .

needed for heat and transport. So, the use of biomass could provide a little under two-thirds of
. '

renewable energy used for heat and fuel and solar thermal could provide around one-quarter
and geothermal.

Energy efficiency is critical in the building sector. However, the slow rate at which energy
efficiency in the sector is improving due in part to the low building renovation rates ofjust 1 %
per year of existing building stock, remains a major issue. A three-fold increase in this
renovation rate is necessary. In industry, the high energy demand of certain industries, the high
carbon content of certain products and high emission processes require novel solutions and
lifecycle thinking.

In addition, as per IRENA report, employment in the overall energy sector in 2016, 2030
and 2050 could be 40.5, 68.2 and 85.0 million jobs possible.
In addition, the following steps have been taken to promote renewable power in India:
Introduction [ 1.67

(i) Permitting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) up to 100% under the automatic
route.
(ii) Waiver ofInter State Transmission System (ISTS) charges for inter-State sale of
solar and wind power for projects to be commissioned by 30" June 2025.
(iii) Declaration of a trajectory for Rene wable Purchase Obligation (RPO) up to the
year 2029-30.
(iv) Setting up of Ultra. Mega Renewable Energy Parks to provide land and
transmission to RE developers for installation ofRE projects at large scale.
(v) Schemes such as Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan
Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM ), Solar Rooftop Phase II, 12000 Mega Watt (MW)
Central Public Sector Undertaking (CPSU) Scheme Phase II, etc.
(vi) Laying of new transmission lines and creating new sub-station capacity under
the Green Energy Corridor Scheme for evacuation ofrenewable power.
(vii) Standard Bidding Guidelines for tariff based competitive bidding process for
procurement of Power from Grid Connected Solar Photovoltaic (PV) and Wind
Projects.
(viii) Notification of Promoting Renewable Energy through Green Energy Open
Access Rules 2022.
(ix) Launch of Green Term Ahead Market (GTAM) to facilitate sale of Renewable
Energy Power through exchanges.

1.16. TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define: Energy. What are the differentforms ofenergy?

Energy is the capacity for doing work, generating heat and emitting light. It is measured
the total amount of work that the body can do.
The different forms of energy are:

1. Mechanical energy (kinetic and potential)

2. Thermal (or) Heat energy
3. Chemical energy
4. Electrical energy
5. Nuclear energy
6. Electromagnetic energy and 7. Gravitational energy.
( 1.68 Renewable Energy System

2. What do you understand by energy resources? [Anna Univ. Nov'2I]

Energy resources are the opportunities an area offers to generate electricity based on
its natural conditions and circumstances.

Some of these energy resources are coal, oil, wood or gas. Renewable resources such
I

as wind, solar, hydroelectric, and wave power.

3. How the energy resources are classified?

(a) Based on nature of availability of energy:

(i) Primary resources

(ii) Secondary resources

(b) Based on utilisation of energy:

(i) Direct source of energy

(ii) Indir ect source of energy
(iii) Supplementary source of energy
(c) Based on traditional use:
(i) Conventional energy
(ii) Non-conventional energy

(d) Based on long term availability:

(i) Non-renewable
(ii) Renewable

(e) Based on commercial application:

(6) Commercial energy source

(ii) Non-commercial energy source
(f) Based on origin:

(@) Fossil fuels energy

(ii) Nuclear energy
(iii) Hydro energy
(iv) Solar energy
(v) Wind energy
Introduction [ 1.69

(vi) Biomass energy

(vii) Geothermal energy
(viii) Tidal energy
(ix) Ocean thermal energy
(x) Ocean wave energy.

4. List down the sources of energy.

(i) Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum products and natural gases which
produces thermal, mechanical and electrical energy
(ii) Chemical energy from reactions among mineral sources
(iii) Nuclear energy from nuclear reactions ofthe nuclear fuels available on the
earth
(iv) The sun which produces solar energy in the form of mechanical or
electrical energy
(v)
-
Geothermal energy from cooling, chemical reactions and radioactive
decay in the earth
(vi) The· gravitational potential and planetary motion among sun, moon and
earth which produces wind, tidal and wave energies.

5. What is meant by primary and secondary energy sources? Give example.

Primary energy sources can be defined as sources which are either found or stored in
nature. These energy sources provide a net supply of energy. Examples: Coal, natural gas,
oil, biomass, solar, tidal, hydro and nuclear energy.

Secondary sources of energy are derived from the primary energy sources. Producing
electrical energy from coal and producing hydrogen from hydrolysis of water are examples
ofthis type ofenergy.

6. List out the consequences of usage offossilfuelfor many applications.

[Anna Univ. Apr'22]

(a) When fossil fuels are burned, they emit greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide that
trap heat in the earth's atmosphere and contribute to climate change.

(i) · Ocean acidification

(ii) Extreme weather
(iii) Sea level rise.
[ 1.70 ) Renewable Energy System

(b) Fossil fuels have significant environmental externalities

(i) Air pollution

(ii) Water pollution

(iii) Plastic pollution

(iv) Oil spills.
(c) Air pollution from burning fossil fuels can cause multiple health issues which include
asthma, cancer, heart disease and premature death.

7. State the products obtainedfrom crude petroleum.

(i) Petroleum gas (below 40°C) used as LPG.

(ii) Petrol (40%C to 170°C) for light vehicles.

(iii) Kerosene (170 to 250°C) for household and industrial use.

(iv) Diesel oil (250 to 350°C) for heavy vehicles.

(v) Residual oil: (a) Lubrication oils (b) paraffin wax and (c) asphalt

(vi) Fuel oil (350 to 400°C) for boilers and furnaces.

8. List thefactors i
nfluencing the amount of GHG emissions. [Anna Univ. Nov'22]
There are three main factors which influence the energy balance ofthe earth as follows.

(i) Total energy influx which depends on the earth's distance from the sun and on
solar activity.

(ii) Chemical composition of the atmosphere, and

(iii) Albedo which is the ability ofthe earth's surface to reflect light.

9. Write short notes on renewable source ofenergy.

Renewable energy is the energy obtained from regenerative or virtually inexhaustible
sources of energy occurring in the natural environment such assolar energy, wind energy
etc. That type of energy is passing through the environment irrespective of there being a
man-made device to intercept and harness the power.

10. List the non-conventional energy sources. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]

(i) Hydroelectric energy
(ii) Wind energy
(iii) Bioenergy energy
Introduction [ 1.71

(iv) Solar energy

(v) Geothermal energy potential
(vi) Magneto hydrodynamic (MHD)
(vii) Ocean tidal energy
(viii) Ocean wave energy
(ix) Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC).

11. What is the diffe rence between renewable and non-renewable sources ofenergy? Give
examples. [Anna Univ. Nov'19]

S. No. Renewable sources Non-renewable sources

I. Renewable resources are those Non-renewable resources are those

which can be used again and which are used only for a limited time
again. and rate.

2. Renewable resources have a Non-renewable resources have a lower

higher rate ofdecomposition rate ofdecomposition than the rate of
than their rate ofconsumption. consumption.

3. Renewable sources have low Non-renewable sources release toxic

carbon emissions. Therefore, gases in the air when burnt which are the
they are considered as green major cause for global warming.
and environment friendly.

4. Examples ofrenewable Examples ofnon-renewable resources

resources are: wind, sunlight, are fossil fuels such as coal, oil and
tides, biomass, etc. natural gases.

12. What advantages and disadvantages ofrenewable energy resources?

Advantages:

Non-conventional sources are available in nature free ofcost.

► They are inexhaustible.
> They produce no or little pollution. Thus, by and large, they are environment
friendly.
► They have a low gestation period.
[ 1.72 Renewable Energy System

They do not deplete natural resources.

► They can sustain energy supply for many generations.

13. Wlat are the limitations ofrenewable energy sources? [Anna Univ. Nov'2I]
(i) The energy available in dilute form from these sources.
(ii) Though available freely in nature, the cost of harnessing energy from a non-
conventional source is generally high.
(iii) Availability is uncertain which means that the energy flow depends on various natural
phenomena beyond human control.
(iv) Difficulty in transporting such forms of energy.

(v) Low energy density is another problem in these plants. Energy per unit area is small
which makes them big in size and hence, large area is required to install them.

14. What are the needs ofrenewable energy use in the country?
(a) The demand-supply gap, especially as population increases.
(b) A large untapped potential.
(c) Concern for the environment.
(d) The need to strengthen India's energy security.
(e) Pressure on high-emission industry sectors from their shareholders.
(f) A viable solution for rural electrification.

15. List the importance ofrenewable energy sources.

Renewable energy is important because of the benefits it provides. The key benefits are
as follows:
(a) The most significant feature ofrenewable energy is its plentiful supply. It is
infinite.
(b) There are no greenhouse gas emissions (except biomass and biogas) or toxic
waste.
(c) Renewable energy reduces reliance on imported fuels which in turn increases
energy security of the nation.
(d) Renewable energy is not subject to sharp price changes. This, in turn, can make
the electricity prices stable which is good for society and the economy.
(e) Renewable energy sources have competitive costs (which are still decreasing)
when compared to many conventional technologies.
 Introduction . [ 1.73

(f) There are no fuel costs for renewable energy sources (except biomass and
biogas) and they are also virtually inexhaustible fuel sources.
(g) Renewable energy can be locally produced and therefore, it is not vulnerable to
distant political disturbances.

16. Write short note on international primary energy consumption scenario.

Several organizations publish this data including the International Energy Agency
. -
(IEA), the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) and the European Environment
Agency.
One of the main priorities of countries in the 21 century may develop the
environmental technologies to solve the major environmental challenges to be faced in
future. The major world energy production patterns have changed slowly through the end
ofthe 20 century. In the first two decades of the 21c entury, global environmental issues
could significantly affect the patterns of energy use around the world with the primary
environmental focus being towards the reduction in carbon emissions. The world of energy
has been slowed to evolve and the major changes regarding consumption and production
patterns geographically are slowed to take a hold.
In last 50 years, the global energy demand has tripled due to the number of developing
countries and innovations in technology. It is projected to triple again over the next 30 years.
In 2020, total worldwide energy consumption was 176282 terawatt hour (TWh). Global
energy consumption rebounded with a 5% growth in 2021, after a 4.5% decline in 2020, in
a context of global pandemic.

17. Write short note on international renewable energy scenario.

By the end of 2022, global renewable generation capacity amounted to 3,372 GW
which grows the stock of renewable power by a record 295 GW or by 9.6%. Renewable
hydropower accounted for the largest share ofthe global total with a capacity of 1,256 GW.
An impressive 83% of all power capacity added last year was produced by renewables,
largely due to the growth of solar and wind power. Solar power alone accounted for almost
two-thirds of the renewable additions with a record 192 GW while 75 GW of wind energy
was added, slowing from the 111 GW added in 2020. .. ·

Solar and wind energy accounted mostly with total capacities of 1,053 GW and 899
GW respectively. Other renewable capacities included 149 GW of bioenergy and 15 G of
geothermal, plus 524 MW of marine energy.

7
 [1.74 Renewable Energy System

Renewable energy generation capacity increased by 295 GW (+9.6%) in 2022. Solar

energy continued to lead capacity expansion with a massive inc rease of 192 GW (+22%),
followed by wind energy with 75 GW (+9%). Rene wable hydropower capacity increased
by 21 GW (+2%) and bioenergy by 8 GW (+5%). Geothermal energy increased by a very
modest 181 MW.

Solar and wind energy continued to dominate renewable capacity expansion, jointly
accounting for 90% of all net renewable additions in 2022. This growth in wind and so1ar
led to the highest annual increase in renewable generating capacity and the second highest
growth on record in percentage terms.

Bio-energy, 4.44%

Hydro energy, Solar energy,

37.25% 31.23%

Wind energy,
26.66%

(Source: International Renewable Energy Agency 2023)

Figure 1.13 Global renewable energy generation capacity in 2022

18. Enumerate in a short note about conventional energy mxi in India.

India's energy system is largely based on the use of coal for power generation, oil for
. '
transport and industry, and biomass for residential heating and cooking. Coal dominates the
energy mix in India, contributing to 57% ofthe total primary energy consumption and 52.8%
of electricity generation in 2022. Peak demand reached 207 GW for the first time in April
2022, and consumption is projected to rise. Supported by industrial growth, urbanization,
Introduction [1.rs ]
government policies, and favorable geopolitics over the past decade, India has installed
capacity exceeding 400 GW. Fossil fuels dominate India's power sector with coal
comprising over 70% but the country aims to significantly increase the share of renewable
and nuclear energy.
India has huge coal reserves. As on 01.04.22, the estimated reserves of coal were
361.4 billion tonnes. The estimated total reserves of lignite as on 01.04.22 was 46.2 billion
tonnes. India is the second largest coal producing country in the world. Coal production in
India has been increasing over recent years. In 2022, coal production totalled 9377 million
tonnes (Mtoe).

19. Comment on the present energy scenario of renewable energy in India.

[Anna Univ. Nov'22]
A total of around 77.94 GW of renewable energy capacity has been installed in the
country as on 31 March, 2019 from all renewable energy sources which includes around
35.63GW from Wind, 28.18 GW from solar, 4.59 GW from Small Hydro Power and 9.54
GW from Bio-power. The wind power program has been the fastest growing contributing to
around 75% ofthe grid-connected renewable energy power installed capa_city.

20. State the targets set by the Indian governmentfor different kind of renewable energy-
based electricity production in India by the year 2022. [Anna Univ. Apr'22]
The 2022 electrical power targets include achieving 227 GW (earlier 175 GV) of
energy from renewable sources, nearly 113 GW through solar power, 66 GW from wind
power, 10 GW from biomass power, 5 G from small hydro and 31 GW from floating solar
and offshore wind power.

21. Write short notes on India's energy consumption by fuel source.

Total energy consumption per capita remains around 0. 7 toe (2021 ), half the Asian
average. Electricity consumption per capita reached 920 kWh in 2021 about a third of the
Asian avera ge.
Total energy consumption increased by 9% in 2021 to 951 Mtoe after a 5.9% drop in
2020. It had increased rapidly over 2010-2019 (3.7%/year).
Coal is the country's top energy source with a share of 46% in 2021 followed by oil
(23%) and biomass (21 %). Natural gas covers 6% and primary electricity (hydro, nuclear,
solar, and wind) 4%. Coal and lignite consumption reached 1.1 Gt (+17%), its highest level
in 2021, after a 5.5% decline in 2020. Between 2015 and 2018, its progression had been
significant (around 5%/year). In 2021, power generation and industry were the main
 [ 1.76 Renewable Energy System

consumers of coal and lignite with 76% and 20%, respectively (3% only for households and
services).

22. Classify SHP projects.

Small Hydro Power projects are further categorized into small, mini and micro hydel
projects based on their capacity as follows.

(i) Micro Hydel which produces less than or equal to 0.1 MW power
(ii) Mini Hydel which produces from 0.10 MW to 2.00 MW power
(iii) Small Hydel which produces from 2.00 MW to 25.00 MW power
23. Picturize the distribution of renewables in power sector.
30

26.0%
25

ac 2o
9
a.E 16.1%
:::, 14.7%
21s
0
u
i.(j

=
- 10
£
5 3.6%
2.4%
/

0
2009
L,--=-1
2019 2009 2019 2p09 , 201 r 2009 2019

Power
u,_
ommerc al Industry & Agriculture
,I
Transport
sector sector sector sector

Figure 1.14

24. List down the recommendations for investors to consider the geothermal energy
globally.

IRENA report makes the following . recommendations for policy makers, project
developers, industry leaders and financiers to consider:
Introduction [_1.77

(i) Promote widespread development and utilisation of all available sources of

geothermal energy.
(ii) Position geothermal as a key energy solution to drive the energy transition towards
the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals and climate action.
(iii) Improve enabling frameworks to foster investments in geothermal energy .
(iv) Foster cross-industry synergies and harmonisation between geothermal and other
sectors.
(v) Promote technological innovation, research, and development to scale up
geothermal development.
(vi) Strengthen international, regional, and national co-operation among partners.

25. Draw the diagram to represent IRENA analysis ofglobalpotential ofrenewable energy.

10.8

"
~
3 8
g
ttl
u
>,
e<II 6 .
Targeted capacity needs to be
double to meet 1.5C goal

c
<II
QI
,
3
r
3.1

¢
2

0
2021 2031 2031
Installed Targeted IRENA 1.5%C
capacity capacity Scenario

Figure 1.15 IRENA analysis ofglobalpotential ofrenewable energy

26. What is the renewable energy potential in India?
There is high potential for generation of renewable energy from various sources such
as wind, solar, biomass, small hydro and cogeneration bagasse.
[ 1.78 Renewable Energy System

India has a vast supply of renewable energy resources and it has one of the largest
programs in the world for deploying renewable energy products and systems. The Indian
renewable energy sector is the fourth most attractive renewable energy market in the world
as per the Renewable Energy Attractiveness Index 2018. India had its largest ever increase
in renewables in power generation (+20%) making the fifth-largest contribution to global
growth.

The Union government oflndia announced a plan to add 250 GW ofrenewable energy
capacity in the next five years to achieve its target of 500 GW of clean energy by 2030.

27. Define Per capita electricity consumption.

Per capita electricity consumption is the total energy calculated by dividing the total
GWh of electricity consumed by electricity customers in the State as of December 31 of a
year as determined by the Commission, by the population ofthe State as ofDecember 31 of
that year as determined by the Department of Planning. Fossil fuel consumption per capita
is measured as the average consumption of energy from coal, oil and gas per person.

28. Write a briefnote on per capita consumption in India.

India's per capita electricity consumption was 1255 kWh in 2021-22 which is around
one-third ofthe global average ofper capita electricity consumption. Per capita is an average
of 862 kWh.

The Government of India, through Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), has

implemented schemes that help in increasing energy efficiency such as Standards and Label
(S&L) Programme, Unnat Jyoti by Affordable LEDs for AII (UJALA), Street Lighting
National Programme (SLNP), Building Energy Efficiency, Agriculture and Municipal
Demand Side Management.

As per the Generation Expansion Planning studies carried out by the Central Electricity
Authority (CEA) for 2029-30, the share of non-fossil fuel-based generation capacity in the
total installed capacity ofthe Country is likely to increase from around 42% as on Oct, 2022
to more than 64% by 2029-30. It would reduce the dependence on fossil fuel in electricity
generation and promote alternative sources of power such as solar and wind.
1.17. SOLVED QUESTIONS

1. Classify sources of energy.

Refer chapter 1.2 on Page 1.2.
 Introduction 1 1.19

2. Write short notes on

(i) Conventiona l energy sources.

Refer chapter 1.4 on Page 1.5.

(ii) Renewable energy sources

Refer chapter 1.5 on Page 1. 7.

3. What are the conventional and non-conventional energy sources? Describe the fossil fuels
as the conventional energy sources. [Ann Univ. Nov'21]
Refer Page 1.3, chapter 1.4 on Page 1.5 and chapter 1.5 on Page 1.7.

4. What is the need for studying alternative sources ofEnergy? What are the different types of
Renewable Sources of Energy? What are the advantages and limitations of the use of
Renewable Sources of Energy? [Anna Univ. Nov'19]
Refer chapter 1.5 on Page 1. 7.

5. Give briefreview of various sources of renewable energy. Describe the energy scenario of
India. [Anna Univ. Nov'21]

Or

Explain the types and their principle ofrenewable energy sources. [Anna Univ. Apr'22]
' Refer chapter 1.5 on Page 1.7.

6. List the advantages and limitations of renewable energy sources. [Anna Univ. Nov '22]

Refer chapter 1.5.2 & chapter 1.5.3 on Page 1.8 & 1.9 respectively.

7. Discuss the present status of world energy scenario. [Anna Univ. Nov '20]

Refer chapter 1.7 on Page 1.10.

8. Briefly explain the conventional energy scenario oflndia.

Refer chapter 1.8 on Page 1.20.

9. Explain the significance of energy consumption as prosperity. [Anna Univ. Apr'22]

Refer chapter 1.8.2 on Page 1.23.

10. Describe the various non-conventional energy resources available in India and its potential
to supplement the conventional energy sources. [Anna Univ. Nov '20]
Refer chapter 1.9 on Page 1.26.
[ 1.80 Renewable Energy System

11. Neatly explain the hydroelectric energy resources in India. [Anna Univ. (EEE) May 'II]

Refer chapter 1.9.2 on Page 1.29.

12. Enumerate the renewable energy consumption in various sectors.

Refer chapter 1.10.2 on Page 1.42.

13. Discuss about the role and potential of renewable energy sources with reference to India.
[Anna Univ. Apr'22]

Refer chapter 1.12 on Page 1.54.

14. Criticize the energy planning issues aiming to bridge the gap between the energy demand
and supply situation in India. [Ann Univ. Nov '20]
Refer chapter 1.15 on Page 1.64.

15. Explain the role and importance of renewable energy sources in detail.
[Anna Univ. Nov'22]
Refer chapter 1.5 on Page 1. 7.

16. Discuss the potential of renewable energy. [Ann Univ. Apr'23]

Refer chapter 1.11 on Page 1.44 for global potential and chapter 1.12 on
Page 1.54.

17. Brief about the contribution of renewable energy source· as on 2022 under National and
International level in energy consumption and generation scenario. Also forecast the Indian
future energy management in 2040. [Ann Univ. Apr '23]
Refer chapter 1.5 on Page 1.7 for contribution of renewable energy source
and chapter 1.15 on Page 1.64 for Indian future ene rgy management in
2040.

18. Explain the consequence of environmental impact of fossil fuel utilization. Mention the
importance of the renewable energy source for the present scenario. [Ann Univ. Apr'23]
Refer chapter 1.4 on Page 1.5 for consequence of environmental impact of
fossil fuel utilization and chapter 1.5on Page 1.7 for importance of the
renewable energy source.

****************************** ENDofUnitl ******************************