Received: 25 February 2020 Revised: 13 April 2020 Accepted: 29 April 2020

DOI: 10.1111/jfpe.13446

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Investigation of mass transfer, thermodynamics, and

greenhouse gases properties in pennyroyal drying

Mohammad Kaveh1 | Hamed Karami1,2 | Ahmad Jahanbakhshi1

1
Department of Biosystems Engineering,
University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran Abstract
2
Department of Farm Technology, In this research, kinetic analysis, energy, exergy, and greenhouse gases of a hybrid
Wageningen University & Research,
laboratory dryer (solar-hot air) are presented for pennyroyal. Drying was performed
Wageningen, Netherlands
at input temperatures of 50, 60, and 70
C and air velocities of 0.6, 1.2, and 1.8 m/s.
Correspondence
The effect of drying variables on moisture ratio, effective moisture diffusivity, spe-
Mohammad Kaveh and Hamed Karami,
Department of Biosystems Engineering, cific energy consumption, energy utilization ratio, energy utilization, exergy effi-
University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil,
ciency, and exergy loss was investigated. The highest amounts of effective moisture
Iran.
Email: [email protected]; hamedkarami@ diffusivity and specific energy consumption were 2.30 × 10−10 m2/s and
uma.ac.ir (H. K.) and [email protected];
48.60 kWh/kg, respectively. Energy utilization and energy utilization ratio varied
[email protected] (M. K)
from 0.0064 to 0.0826 kJ/s and from 0.056 to 0.957, respectively. Exergy loss and
exergy efficiency varied between 0.0037 to 0.0510 kJ/s and 0.2428 to 0.8731, respec-
tively. In addition, by increasing the temperature and intake air velocity, drying rate
increased and the emissions of greenhouse gases (CO2, SO2, and NOX) were reduced.

Practical Applications
Modeling of the drying process is an important aspect of drying technology, especially
in drying for industrial purposes. The aim of modeling is to select the most suitable
drying method and the best operating conditions for obtaining the product. Some of
the key issues in drying have been to reduce the price of the energy resources used,
increase the drying efficiency, and improve the quality of the dried products. The con-
cept of exergy is defined by the concept of reversible work. The concept of reversibil-
ity depends on energy balance and mass regardless of energy quality (exergy loss).

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N because if essential herbs are not dried immediately or their essence

is not extracted on time, they will lose their effective ingredients
Pennyroyal belongs to the family of Lamiaceae plants and is of great and their volatile compounds (Abbaspour-Gilandeh, Kaveh, &
importance in cosmetic, food, and medical industries. Nepeta L. genus Jahanbakhshi, 2019; Sun, Zhang, & Mujumdar, 2019). Drying the
of the pennyroyals is one of the major genera in the Lamiaceae family plant immediately after harvest would help preservation of its color
(Hassanpouraghdam & Hassani, 2014). To date, 250 species of this and aroma.
genus have been reported in the world and 67 species have been Exergy and energy analysis is applied to determine the amount
reported in Iran. of energy needed to dry the product and exergy loss at each stage
Drying is one of the oldest methods for preserving agricultural of the process. Therefore, exergy and energy analysis is important
products. Thus, it is of utmost importance in processing herbs (Fudholi, Sopian, Othman, & Ruslan, 2014). The concept of exergy

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
© 2020 The Authors. Journal of Food Process Engineering published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.

J Food Process Eng. 2020;43:e13446. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfpe 1 of 15

https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.13446
2 of 15 KAVEH ET AL.

is defined using the concept of reversible work. The concept of 2 | M A T E R I A L S A N D M ET H O D S

reciprocity, regardless of the reduction of energy quality (energy
dissipation), depends on the balance of energy and mass (Abbaspour- 2.1 | Experiments
Gilandeh, Jahanbakhshi, & Kaveh, 2020; Akpinar, Midilli, &
Bicer, 2006). In this research, leaves and twigs of pennyroyal plant (Mentha
Recently, several studies have been carried out to analyze pulegium L.) were harvested. The experiments were carried out at four
energy and exergy emissions in the process of drying products such temperatures of 40, 50, 60, and 70
C and three levels of input air
as red seaweed in a solar dryer (Fudholi et al., 2014), soybeans in velocity: 0.6, 1.2, and 1.8 m/s with three replications.
microwave-assisted fluidized bed dryer (Ranjbaran & Zare, 2013), The dryer used in this study included a solar collector with a 1,000
carrot in heat pump and infrared–heat pump dryer (Aktas, Khanlari, watt electric element for heating the input air to the drying chamber
Amini, & Sevik, 2017), turmeric slices in microwave (Surendhar, and five temperature sensors (LM75) with a range of measurements
Ivasubramanian, Vidhyeswari, & Deepanraj, 2018), quince slice in a from −55 to 125
C and the measurement accuracy of ±2
C (Figure 1)
convective dryer (Abbaspour-Gilandeh et al., 2020), orange slices in (Karami, Kaveh, Mirzaee-Ghaleh, & Taghinezhad, 2018). The position
microwave with osmotic pretreatment (Azadbakht, Torshizi, of the sensors was arranged as three sensors on the collector, a sensor
Noshad, & Rokhbin, 2018), banana slices in forced convective dryer at the air inlet into the chamber, a sensor inside the chamber, and a
(Taheri-Garavand, Karimi, Karimi, Lotfi, & Khoobbakht, 2018), Kodo sensor at the air outlet from the chamber. Two humidity sensors
millet grains and Fenugreek seeds in a fluidized bed dryer (HS1101) with the precision of ±2% were also used to measure the rel-
(Yogendrasasidhar & Setty, 2018), and mushroom in a fluidized- ative humidity of air displacement. Humidity sensors were located at
bed dryer with osmotic pretreatment (Darvishi, Azadbakht, & the inlet and outlet inside the chamber. The dryer's fan had the ability
Noralahi, 2018). to change the amount of the input air that entered the drying chamber.
Greenhouse gases are gases that act as a barrier to prevent heat To measure the speed of the airflow to the dryer chamber, a speedom-
from leaving the atmosphere and thus cause global warming. Over the eter of the model AVM-07 made in Taiwan was used with a measure-
past 100 years, the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmo- ment accuracy of 0.1 m/s. To implement the drying process, the
sphere has increased the temperature of the Earth's surface and con- ATMEGA 8 model of AVR microcontroller made in China was used
tinues to have unknown effects on the Earth's climate in the future (Karami, Rasekh, Darvishi, & Khaledi, 2017).
(Khoshnevisan, Rafiee, Omid, & Mousazadeh, 2013). Six important In order to do the experiments, 200 g of pennyroyal leaves and
greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydro- twigs were placed in a single layer on the dryer's mesh tray. During
fluorocarbons (HFCs), perhydro-fluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride the drying process, the product weight changes were recorded by a
(Ahmadi, Rozkhosh, & Haghighifard, 2014). The burning of fossil fuels digital scale (GF-3000, AND) with a precision of ±0.01 g. This scale
such as diesel and gasoline, the change in land use from forests and was attached directly to the trays so that the samples did not need to
pastures to agricultural and residential land as well as a number of be brought out of the chamber for weighing. The final moisture con-
post-harvest processes for crops are the main causes of increased tent of the samples was then calculated using the oven dryer at 70
C
greenhouse gas emissions (Samani, Choobin, Ghasemi-Varnamkhasti, for 24 hours through the following equation (Zhao et al., 2018):
& Abedi, 2018).
Nazari et al. (2010) reported that the total SO2, CO2, and NOX
emissions of Iranian power plants using different fuels were 125.34,
0.255, and 0.465 Tg.
Motevali and Tabatabaei (2017) studied energy consumption and
GHG emissions (CO2, SO2, and NOX) for the drying of rose flowers in
different dryers (hot air, infrared, infrared-hot air, microwave,
microwave-hot air, vacuum and solar). According to their findings, by
increasing air temperature at inlet, infrared power and microwave
power, specific energy consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions
were reduced. Also, these two parameters were increased by increas-
ing the air velocity.
However, the data reported on energy, exergy, and greenhouse
gas emission analyses in the process of drying herbal plants are very
few. Given the importance of the pennyroyal plant and its sensitivity
to heat application in the drying process, the aims of this research are
to optimize the plant's drying conditions, modeling, evaluation and
analysis of kinetics, effective moisture diffusion coefficient, activation
F I G U R E 1 Structure of the dryer: (1) solar collector; (2) electric
energy, energy, exergy, and emission of greenhouse gases using a element; (3) solar cell; (4) batteries; (5) drying chamber; (6) damper;
hybrid dryer (solar- hot air). and (7) controller box
KAVEH ET AL. 3 of 15

W i -W d
MCdb = ð1Þ N 
P 2
Wd MRexp,i −MRpre,i
i=1
R2 = 1− 2P n
32 ð4Þ
P
N
6k = 1
MRpre,i
7
To achieve system stability, all tests started 25 min after the sys- 4 N − MRpre,i 5
k=1
tem was turned on. Then, the tray containing the samples was placed
in the drying chamber. The process of drying went on like this: the fan
transferred the air heated by an electric heater from the collector to N 
P 2
MRexp,i −MRpre,i
the trays. The flow of air absorbed the sample's moisture as it passed i=1
χ2 = ð5Þ
through it and dried the plant. In addition, increase in temperature led N− z
to the rapid escape of moisture from the sample's texture and thus
" #12
dried the product. 1X N  2
RMSE = MRpre,i −MRexp,i ð6Þ
As laboratory data used for the process of drying pennyroyal N i=1
plant two parameters of moisture ratio (MR) and drying rate were
taken into account which were calculated through the following equa-
tions (Abbaspour-Gilandeh et al., 2020: 2.2 | Effective moisture diffusion coefficient (Deff)

Fick's second law (Equation (7)) is widely used to describe diffusion in

Mt −Me
MR = ð2Þ the process of drying agricultural products (Mohammadi,
Mo −Me
Tabatabaekoloor, & Motevali, 2019):

MCt + dt − MCt
DR = ð3Þ ∂M ∂2 M
dt = Deff 2 ð7Þ
∂t ∂x

Due to the low value of Me compared to Mt andMo, Equation (2) After expanding Equation (7) and applying the drying conditions
Mt
can be simplified as MR = M o
(Badaoui, Hanini, Djebli, Brahim, & for a long time, Equation (8) was obtained to determine the diffusion
Benhamou, 2019). In order to model pennyroyal's moisture in the pro- coefficient (Zhao et al., 2018):
cess of drying in the hybrid dryer (solar-hot air), known models that
 
are frequently applied in the processes of drying agricultural products Mt −Me 8 X ∞
1 2 2 Deff
MR = = 2 exp − ð2n− 1Þ π t ð8Þ
were used in this study (Table 1). The three criteria of determination Mo − Me π n = 0 ð2n + 1Þ2 L2
coefficient (R2), root mean square error (RMSE), and chi-square (χ 2)
were used to evaluate the best model according to the following The effective moisture diffusion coefficient was obtained using
equations: Equation (9) from the gradient (K) of the Ln (MR) graph over time:

TABLE 1 Mathematical models to fit the experimental data

Models Equations References

Newton (Lewis) MR = exp(−kt) Ghnimi, Hassini, and Bagane (2016)
Page MR = exp(−ktn) Atalay, Çoban, and Kincay (2017)
Logarithmic MR = a exp(−kt) + c Zhao et al. (2018)
Henderson and Pabis MR = a exp(−kt) Abbaspour-Gilandeh et al. (2019)
Modified Henderson and Pabis MR = a exp(−kt) + b exp(−gt) + c exp(−ht) Sehrawat, Nema, and Kaur (2018)
Two-term MR = a exp(−k0t) + b exp(−k1t) Ghnimi et al. (2016)
Two-term exponential MR = a exp(−kt) + (1 − a)exp(−kat) Kaveh, Jahanbakhshi, Abbaspour-Gilandeh, Taghinezhad, and
Moghimi (2018)
Midilli et al. MR = a exp(−ktn) + bt Abbaspour-Gilandeh et al. (2020)
Verma et al. MR = a exp(−kt) + (1 − a) exp(−gt) Badaoui et al. (2019)
2
Wang and Singh MR = 1 + at + bt Atalay et al. (2017)
Approximation of diffusion MR = a exp(−kt) + (1 − a) exp(−kbt) Wang, Li, Hassanien, Wang, and Yang (2018)
n
Demir et al. MR = a exp(−kt) + b Kaveh and Abbaspour-Gilandeh (2020)
Logistic MR = a/(1 + b exp(kt)) Jahanbakhshi, Kaveh, Taghinezhad, and Sharabiani (2020)
2
Parabolic MR = a + bt + ct Abbaspour-Gilandeh et al. (2019)
4 of 15 KAVEH ET AL.

• •
π 2 Deff Qevap = mai hfg w ð18Þ
K= ð9Þ
4L2

In order to obtain the enthalpy of the fresh and dried product, the
2.3 | Activation energy specific heat of the input or output product had to be first calculated
from Equation (19) and the temperature of the input or output prod-
Activation energy for different temperatures and velocities was calcu- uct as well as the ambient temperature was measured using a ther-
lated using the following equation (Atalay et al., 2017): mometer (Aghbashlo et al., 2008):

 
Ea hp = Cp ðT p −T ∞ Þ ð19Þ
Deff = D0 exp − ð10Þ
Rg T abs

However, in the wet state, the amount of the input and output air
To obtain Ea linear relationship, Equation (11) was used. moisture should also be available. This factor is used to determine the
input or output air enthalpy (Equation (20)) (Motevali & Minaee, 2012):
  
Ea 1
lnðDeff Þ = lnðD0 Þ− ð11Þ
Rg T abs Ca = 1:004 + 1:88w ð20Þ

By charting ln(Deff) against T1abs , a line with slope K2 was obtained. The rate of heat dissipated from the output air depends on the
flow rates of the input air, the specific heat of the input air, and the
 
Ea temperature of the input and output air. The rate of heat dissipated
K2 = ð12Þ
Rg
from the output air can be obtained using the following equation
(Akpinar, 2010):

• •
Qaol = mai Cai ðT ai −T ao Þ ð21Þ
2.4 | Energy analysis

In this study, energy utilization (EU) during the process of drying pen- The heat loss rate from the dryer's body can be obtained from
nyroyal was calculated using the following equation (Aghbashlo, the following equation (Nazghelichi et al., 2010):
Kianmehr, & Arabhosseini, 2008):
•
Qdefl = Udef Adef ðT mvdef − T ∞ Þ ð22Þ
• • • • •
EU = mai :hai + mPF hPF −mao hao − mPD hPD −Qdefl ð13Þ

Finally, the heat loss coefficient of the dryer body can be

Relations (14)–(16) were used to obtain the input and output air obtained by equating Equations (21) and (22). As mentioned before,
flows and air density, respectively (Taheri-Garavand et al., 2018): the heat loss coefficient of the dryer body can be obtained by using
the following equation (Aghbashlo et al., 2008; Akpinar, 2010):
• •
mai = mao ð14Þ
•
•:
mai cai T ai −T ao
•
ma = ρa Ua Adc ð15Þ Udef = ð23Þ
Adef ðT mvdef − T ∞ Þ

:
P
ρa = ð16Þ Eventually, the energy utilization ratio (EUR) was determined by
RT
(Aghbashlo et al., 2008):
The enthalpy of the input or output air is equal to the dry air
:
enthalpy plus the enthalpy of the water vapor. Having obtained these • • • • •
mai hai + mPF hPF − mao hao − mPD hPD −Qdefl
indices exergy loss was calculated through the following equation EUR = • ð24Þ
mai ðhai − h∞ Þ
(Corzo, Bracho, Vasquez, & Pereira, 2008):

ha = Ca ðT a −T ∞ Þ + hfg w ð17Þ 2.5 | Exergy analysis

The heat transfer rate, which leads to evaporation in the dryer, The total exergy of the input and output air for the fresh and dry
was obtained through the following equation (Nazghelichi, product can be calculated by the second law of thermodynamics. The
Kianmehr, & Aghbashlo, 2010): basic method for analyzing the exergy of the drying chamber is to
KAVEH ET AL. 5 of 15

calculate the exergy in stable conditions. For this goal, the general Efan = ΔP:Mair :t ð34Þ
form of the exergy equation for stable conditions can be used. The
exergy of the input or output air and the exergy of the input or output Eauxiliary heater = UIt ð35Þ
product can be obtained through the following equation (Ergün,
Ceylan, Acar, & Erkaymaz, 2017): EUðmec + terÞ
SEC = ð36Þ
MW
 
• T
Ex = mC ðT −T ∞ Þ −T ∞ ln ð25Þ
T∞

The most important step in the exergy analysis is measuring the 2.7 | Evaluating environmental impacts and
amount of exergy rate from the dryer's body, which was calculated calculating greenhouse gas emissions
using the following equation (Rabha, Muthukumar, & Somayaji, 2017):
Since Iran has a lot of natural gas and heavy oil, a large amount of
   
T∞ •
Exdefl = 1 − Qdefl ð26Þ greenhouse gases are produced in this country. All of Iran's power
T mvdef
plants are gas-turbine, steam and combined power plants and the
amount of greenhouse gas emissions from different power plants with
Relations (27)–(29) were used to obtain the amount of exergy loss different fuel sources are reported in Table 2. In this table, the average
from the dryer's body (Aktas et al., 2017; Darvishi et al., 2018): greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, SO2, and NOx) of Iran's power plants
(gas-turbine, steam, and combined cycle) using primary fuels (natural
X X X
Exl = Exi − Exo ð27Þ gas and heavy oil) to produce 1 KW of energy are shown.
The total production of a power plant required for drying pro-
X
Exi = Exai + ExPF ð28Þ grams can be obtained using the following equation (Motevali &
Tabatabaei, 2017):
Exo = Exao + ExPD + Exdefl ð29Þ
SEC SEC
TotalEnergy = = ð37Þ
ηtotal ηPowerhouse + ηDistribution

Finally, the exergy efficiency was calculated according to the fol-

lowing equation (Abbaspour-Gilandeh et al., 2020; Akpinar, 2010):

ðInput Exergy-Exergy LossÞ 2.8 | Experimental uncertainty analysis

Exergy efficiency = ð30Þ
Input Exergy

Uncertainty analysis is a method used to find uncertainty in variables.

When drying does not take place, the exergy efficiency is 100% During the measurement and calculation of the parameters, the
and gradually decreases with the onset of drying. uncertainties were determined using the following equation and pres-
ented in Table 3.

" 2  2  2 #12
2.6 | Specific energy consumption ∂R ∂R ∂R
UR = U1 + U2 +  + Un ð38Þ
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn
Since one of the main objectives of this research was to study the
changes in the amount of specific energy consumed and its environ-
mental effects, we tried to apply hybrid drying (solar-hot air) methods
TABLE 2 Emissions of greenhouse gases and pollutants from
to the samples. The equations for calculating the specific energy con-
plants using natural gas and heavy oil to produce 1 KW of energy
sumption by a hybrid dryer (solar-hot air) in drying pennyroyal at dif-
(Nazari et al., 2010)
ferent input air temperatures and velocities are given in the following
equations (Bahammou, Tagnamas, Lamharrar, & Idlimam, 2019; Greenhouse gas (g/kWh)

Motevali & Tabatabaei, 2017): Power house type Fuel type NOX SO2 CO2
Steam Natural gas 2.69 0 636
EUter = ðAdc :Ua :ρa :Ca :ΔT:3600Þ ð31Þ
Heavy oil 2.52 15.28 1,025
Gas-turbine Natural gas 1.91 0 782
101:325
ρa = ð32Þ Gas oil 5.79 3.84 1,048
0:287 × T
Combined cycle Natural gas 2.95 0 450
Emec = E fan + E auxiliary heater ð33Þ Gas oil 3.78 2.32 622
6 of 15 KAVEH ET AL.

TABLE 3 Uncertainties in measurement of parameters during

drying of pennyroyal

Parameter Unit Value

Inlet temperature in convective dryer C ±0.21


Outlet temperature in convective C ±0.21
dryer


Ambient air temperature C ±0.21


Drying cabinet inlet temperature C ±0.21


Drying cabinet outlet temperature C ±0.21
Drying rate g water/(g dry solid. ±0.012
min)
Time measurement Min ±0.017
Uncertainty in the measurement g ±0.016
of moisture quantity
Uncertainty in the measurement RH ±0.10
of relative humidity of air
Uncertainty in the air velocity m/s ±0.15
Uncertainty in mass measurement g ±0.02
Uncertainty in moisture ratio (MR) Dimensionless ±0.42
Uncertainty in energy utilization Dimensionless ±0.0002
ratio (EUR)
Uncertainty in energy utilization kJ/s ±0.001
Uncertainty in exergy loss kJ/s ±0.0001
Uncertainty in exergy efficiency Dimensionless ±1.80
Uncertainty in specific energy kWh/kg ±1.45
consumption (SEC)

3 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 | Drying kinetic

FIGURE 2 Moisture ratio of pennyroyal at several conditions

Figure 2 shows MR changes for drying pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) at

the temperatures of 40, 50, 60, and 70
C and the intake air speeds of of temperature, air velocity, and time. The highest rate of drying for
0.6, 1.2, and 1.8 m/s. It is obvious that MR constantly decreases as the pennyroyal occurs at the first hour of the drying process at all temper-
drying time gets longer. This reduction in MR is more visible at higher atures and the rate decreases by the passage of time. The internal
temperatures. As the temperature rises, heat transfer and consequently resistance of the pennyroyal moisture is low at the beginning of the
the amount of moisture transfer increases (Benmakhlouf, Azzouz, Monzó drying process. So, moisture will easily reach the surface and the dry-
Cabrera, Khdhira, & ELCafsi, 2017). Increase in the velocity of the intake ing rate increases (Boutelba, Glouannec, Youcef-ali, Magueresse, &
air leads to increase in the moisture transfer rate, resulting in an increase Kimouche, 2019). These results are consistent with the findings of the
in the drying rate. At higher velocities, heat transfer between solids and previous researchers Wang et al. (2018) for mango in a solar-
air occurs faster (Ghnimi et al., 2016). For example, at the speed of convection dryer, Koukouch et al. (2017) for olive pomace in a solar-


1.8 m/s when the air temperature changed from 40 to 70 C, drying time convection dryer and Tham et al. (2017) for Java tea and sabah snake
dropped from 280 to 120 min. Some authors reported similar results for grass in a solar dryer with integrated heat pump.
other agricultural products such as bay laurel leaves (Ghnimi et al., 2016),
mushroom (Ghanbarian, Dastjerdi, & Torki Harchegani, 2016), and
Moroccan sweet cherries (Ouaabou et al., 2018). 3.3 | Modeling

The results of MR against drying time with 14 models for thin layer
3.2 | Drying rate drying are shown in Table 4. The best model based on RMSE, χ 2, and
R2 was specified. The results showed that the Midilli et al. model had
Drying rate constantly decreases as the MR is reduced or drying time the highest correlation since it had the maximum coefficient of deter-
increased (Figure 3). This shows that drying rate is a strong function mination (R2 = .9995), minimum chi-square (χ 2 = 0.0010), and the
KAVEH ET AL. 7 of 15

TABLE 4 Statistical comparison for the prediction of Pennyroyal's

thin layer drying

Model R2 χ2 RMSE
Newton (Lewis) 0.9969 0.0077 0.0331
Page 0.9981 0.0049 0.0225
Logarithmic 0.9990 0.0021 0.0169
Henderson and Pabis 0.9973 0.0069 0.0289
Modified Henderson and Pabis 0.9962 0.0092 0.0385
Two-term 0.9963 0.0089 0.0376
Two-term exponential 0.9959 0.0098 0.0449
Midilli et al. 0.9995 0.0010 0.0139
Verma et al. 0.9985 0.0033 0.0187
Wang and Singh 0.9951 0.0119 0.0513
Approximation of diffusion 0.9945 0.0137 0. 0567
Demir et al. 0.9984 0.0036 0.0193
Logistic 0.9993 0.0014 0.0151
Parabolic 0.9937 0.0157 0.0603

FIGURE 3 Drying rate of pennyroyal at several conditions

F I G U R E 4 Variation of effective moisture diffusivity with drying
air velocity and air temperature

lowest root mean square error (RMSE = 0.0139) for drying pennyroyal
in a hybrid (solar-hot air) dryer. Therefore, the selected model can destruction of the cell wall due to increase in the temperature and
describe the pennyroyal drying behavior well. Kian-Pour and velocity of the intake air, as well as decrease in moisture resistance
Karatas (2019) displayed that the Midilli et al. model was most suit- inside the product (Tham et al., 2017). In addition, Deffvalues for food
able for describing the drying behavior of the apples. Quispe-Fuentes, were in the range of 10−12 to 10−8 m2/s (Das & Arora, 2018). This
Vega-Galvez, Vasquez, Uribe, and Astudillo (2017) showed that the type of variation has been confirmed by several researchers (Adedeji,
Midilli et al. model is the best model for prediction of thin layer drying Suhr, Bhadriraju, & Alavi, 2017; Aktas, Sevik, Amini, & Khanlari, 2016;
behavior of Chilean berry. Sehrawat et al., 2018; Taghinezhad et al., 2020).

3.4 | Determination of Deff 3.5 | Activation energy

The values of Deff for pennyroyal are reported in Figure 4. Effective For different temperatures and velocities of the intake air, the activation
moisture diffusion coefficient values increased as drying temperature energy values for pennyroyal in the hybrid dryer were 22.41–25.18 kJ/
and intake air velocity increased. The maximum effective moisture dif- mol. These results are shown in Table 5. Kian-Pour and Karatas (2019)
fusion coefficient was 2.30 × 10−10 m2/s at the temperature of 70
C reported the Ea of apple slices with different temperatures in the range
and the air velocity of 1.8 m/s. Its minimum value was of 20.41–36.51 kJ/mol. In their work, Quispe-Fuentes et al. (2017)
7.92 × 10−11 m2/s at the temperature of 40
C and the air velocity of reported the Ea of Chilean berry dried in a convective dryer at 40, 50,
0.6 m/s. The Deff in pennyroyal samples occurred as a result of the 60, and 70
C and air velocity 2 m/s was 42 kJ/mol.
8 of 15 KAVEH ET AL.

TABLE 5 Activation energy values and the related correlation

coefficients for pennyroyal

Parameter 0.6 m/s 1.2 m/s 1.8 m/s

Activation energy (Ea) (kJ/mol) 22.41 23.77 25.18
Coefficient of determination (R2) 0.9952 0.9818 0.9689

3.6 | Energy utilization ratio

Various experiments were carried out to calculate the energy utiliza-

tion ratio(EUR) at different temperatures and velocities of the intake
air for drying pennyroyal and the results were shown in Figure 5. As
can be seen, the EUR at different temperatures and velocities of the
intake air was within the range of 0.056–0.957 for pennyroyal. The
maximum amount of energy consumed was 0.957 at the air tempera-
ture of 70
C and the air velocity of 1.8 m/s and the lowest amount
was 0.056 at air temperature of 40
C and the air velocity of 0.6 m/s.

3.6.1 | Effect of air temperature on EUR

Pennyroyal drying experiments were conducted at different tempera-

tures between 40 and 70
C and different air velocities and the results
were presented in Figure 5. The results show that the EURincreases
as the temperature of the dryer wall increases from 40 to 70
C. The
highest level of energy consumption is observed at the beginning of
the pennyroyal drying period, and then its amount decreases with the
passage of time. According to Equation (24), the reduction of EUR
over time is quite reasonable.
The EUR in the hybrid (solar-hot air) dryer increases as the air
temperature rises. Increase in the temperature of the dryer leads to
increase in the rate of moisture evaporation from the product. In F I G U R E 5 Effect air temperature and air velocity on energy
other words, at high temperatures, heat, and mass transfer are high utilization ratio. [Correction added on 22 June, after first online
and the loss of moisture is excessive (Motevali, Jafari, & publication: The symbols on Figure 5 have been corrected.]
Hashemi, 2018). These results are similar to those reported for dry-
ing mushrooms in the fluid bed dryer (Darvishi et al., 2018), drying
carrots in the fluid bed dryer (Nazghelichi et al., 2010), and drying 3.7 | Energy utilization
rice in the fluidized bed dryer (Sarker, Ibrahim, Abdul Aziz, &
Punan, 2015). Figure 6 shows the energy utilization (EU) value for the two parame-
ters of temperature and air velocity. The maximum EU was
0.0826 kJ/s at the temperature of 70
C and the air velocity of
3.6.2 | Effect of air velocity on EUR 1.8 m/s and the lowest EU was 0.0064 kJ/s at 40
C and the air speed
of 0.6 m/s.
Intake air velocities for pennyroyal drying experiments ranged from
0.6 to 1.8 m/s. The experiments were carried out at different intake
air temperatures and the results were reported in Figure 5. The results 3.7.1 | Effect of air temperature on EU
show that energy utilization ratio increases as the air velocity rises
and decreases by the passage of time. Increase in air velocity The results shown in Figure 6 indicate that by increasing the air tem-
increases energy utilization and the evaporation of the moisture con- perature, EU increases. It can be noted that the input enthalpy has
tent from the product surface (Azadbakht et al., 2018). These results increased with increasing temperature and the amount of intake air,
are similar to those reported by researchers for drying potatoes which leads to increased energy consumption. In addition, due to the
(Azadbakht, Aghili, Ziaratban, & Torshizi, 2017) and Kodo millet grains direct relationship between energy consumption and EU, energy utili-
(Yogendrasasidhar & Setty, 2018). zation increases. In similar studies conducted on drying eggplants in a
KAVEH ET AL. 9 of 15

FIGURE 7 Effect of air temperature and air velocity on exergy

F I G U R E 6 Effect air temperature and air velocity on energy
loss (kJ/s)
utilization (kJ/s). [Correction added on 22 June, after first online
publication: The symbols on Figure 6 have been corrected.]
3.8 | Exergy loss (kJ/s)

fluidized bed dryer (Azadbakht, Torshizi, Ziaratban, & Aghili, 2017), Figure 7 shows the amount of exergy loss for the two parameters of
drying cassava starch in a tray dryer (Aviara, Onuoha, Falola, & intake air temperature and velocity. The highest exergy loss was
Igbeka, 2017), and drying coroba slices in a convective dryer (Corzo approximately 0.051 kJ/s, which occurred at the temperature of
et al., 2008), the researchers reported that energy utilization increased 70
C, and the air velocity of 1.8 m/s. The lowest exergy loss was
as the intake air temperature increased. 0.0037 kJ/s at 40
C temperature and 0.6 m/s air velocity.

3.7.2 | Effect of air velocity on EU 3.8.1 | Effect of air temperature on exergy loss
(kJ/s)
The results illustrated in Figure 6 show that by increasing air velocity,
energy utilization increases. According to Equation (13), the amount Exergy loss is the difference between the dryer's input exergy and
of EU depends on the mass flow of the air. Therefore, when air veloc- its output exergy. Input exergy is based on the dryer's wall tempera-
ity increases, the mass flow increases and leads to increased energy ture (Equation (27)) and output exergy is based upon the output air
utilization (Yogendrasasidhar & Setty, 2018). These results are in line temperature (Equation (28)). Figure 7 shows that by increasing the
with the findings of Azadbakht, Torshizi, et al. (2017) in their study of intake air temperature, the amount of exergy loss increases. Exergy
drying potatoes and Motevali and Minaee (2012) on drying loss is higher in the initial drying phase. In addition, the loss of
pomegranates. exergy decreases steadily over time since the passage of time
10 of 15 KAVEH ET AL.

TABLE 6 Specific energy consumption during the drying of

pennyroyal by a hybrid (solar-hot air) dryer

Air velocity (m/s) Temperatures (
C) SEC (kWh/kg)

0.6 40 60.48
50 41.85
60 36.40
70 32.20
1.2 40 42.20
50 37.43
60 31.41
70 25.22
1.8 40 29.28
50 23.47
60 22.40
70 14.11

3.9 | Exergy efficiency

The exergy efficiency curves are shown in Figure 8 with regard to the
temperature and velocity of the intake air for the dried pennyroyal.
The maximum exergy efficiency was 0.8731 at the temperature of
70
C and the air velocity of 1.8 m/s. The minimum exergy efficiency
was 0.2428 at the air temperature of 40
C and the air velocity of
0.6 m/s.

3.9.1 | Effect of air temperature on exergy

efficiency
FIGURE 8 Effect of air temperature and air velocity on exergy
efficiency Figure 8 shows that the exergy efficiency increased during the drying
time. Increasing the dryer's temperature caused an increase in exergy
loss, but this amount was lower than the increased exergy value.
reduces the moisture content in the pennyroyals. A lower amount of According to Equation (29), the exergy efficiency increases by increas-
moisture has a lower capacity to absorb exergy, so the exhaust air ing temperature at different velocities of the intake air. Exergy effi-
has a lower exergy than the intake air (Azadbakht, Torshizi, ciency has a direct relationship with the dryer's energy efficiency. The
et al., 2017; Darvishi et al., 2018). Higher drying temperatures have evaporation rate of moisture and mass transfer rate increase as the
higher exergy and this exergy reduces the product's moisture or intake air temperature rises. This increases the exergy efficiency of
exergy consumption and thus increases exergy loss (Corzo the hybrid (solar-hot air) dryer. Similar results have been reported in
et al., 2008). the drying of various products such as soybean (Ranjbaran &
Zare, 2013), carrot cubes (Nazghelichi et al., 2010), and green olive
(Colak & Hepbasli, 2007).
3.8.2 | Effect of air velocity on exergy loss (kJ/s)

As the intake air velocity increases, the exergy loss increases too, 3.9.2 | Effect of air velocity on exergy efficiency
resulting in a mass transfer rate that decreases the pennyroyal's mois-
ture content. The drying process time also decreases and less energy Increase in the intake air velocity and the drying time increases the
is transferred to the outside of the dryer chamber. So, the output exergy efficiency (Figure 8), because the entropy and enthalpy of the
exergy increases (Aghbashlo et al., 2008; Akpinar et al., 2006). In simi- dryer's intake air increase by the rising air velocity, which results in
lar investigations, the researchers reported that with increasing inlet increased exergy efficiency. These results were similar to those of
air velocity, the exergy loss increases (Beigi, Tohidi, & Torki- Motevali and Minaee (2012)) and Nikbakht, Motevali, and Min-
Harchegani, 2017; Darvishi et al., 2018). aei (2014) for drying pomegranates. Yogendrasasidhar and
 KAVEH ET AL.

TABLE 7 GHG emissions from different power plants while using a hybrid (solar-hot air) dryer for drying pennyroyal

0.6 m/s 1.2 m/s 1.8 m/s

Power plants GHG 40 C 50 C 60 C 70 C 40 C 50 C 60 C 70 C 40
C 50
C 60
C 70
C
Steam power— CO2 30,915.81 26,617.51 23,155.26 20,483.65 26,844.16 23,810.73 19,978.82 16,041.96 18,622.08 14,926.92 14,249.23 8,979.34
natural gas SO2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NOx 143.88 123.88 107.76 95.33 124.93 110.81 92.98 74.66 86.69 69.47 66.31 41.79
Steam power— CO2 49,825 42,897.71 37,317.83 33,012.17 43,262.99 38,374.21 32,198.57 25,853.78 30,012 24,058.12 22,964.57 14,471.43
heavy oil SO2 742.75 639.48 556.30 492.12 644.93 572.05 479.99 385.41 447.53 358.64 342.34 215.73
NOx 122.49 105.46 91.74 81.16 106.36 94.34 79.16 63.56 73.80 59.14 56.45 35.57
Gas turbine— CO2 38,012.83 32,727.81 28,470.77 25,185.87 33,006.49 29,276.71 24,565.15 19,724.54 22,896.96 18,354.58 17,520.28 11,040.64
natural gas SO2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NOx 92.84 79.93 69.53 61.51 80.61 71.50 59.99 48.17 55.94 44.83 42.79 26.96
Gas turbine—gas oil CO2 50,943.03 43,860.29 38,155.2 33,752.93 44,233.77 39,235.29 32,921.08 26,433.91 30,685.44 24,597.96 23,479.87 14,796.15
SO2 186.66 160.70 139.80 123.67 162.07 143.76 120.62 96.85 112.46 90.12 86.03 54.21
NOx 281.45 242.31 210.80 186.47 244.38 216.76 181.88 146.04 169.58 135.89 129.72 81.74
Combine cycle— CO2 21,874.39 18,833.14 16,383.44 14,493.15 18,993.51 16,847.21 14,135.96 11,350.44 13,176 10,562.1 10,082 6,353.31
natural gas SO2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NOx 143.39 123.46 107.40 95.01 124.51 110.44 92.66 74.40 86.40 69.24 66.09 41.64
Combine cycle— CO2 30,235.27 26,031.59 22,645.55 20,032.75 26,253.25 23,286.59 19,539.04 15,688.83 18,212.16 14,599.17 13,935.57 8,781.687
turbine-gas oil SO2 112.77 97.09 84.46 74.72 97.92 86.85674 72.87 58.51 67.95 54.45 51.97 32.75
NOx 183.74 158.19 137.62 121.74 159.54 141.51 118.74 95.34 110.71 88.72 84.68884 53.36
11 of 15
12 of 15 KAVEH ET AL.

Setty (2018) reported that the exergy efficiency increased (approxi- Taghinezhad, Rasooli Sharabiani, and Motevali (2020) also obtained
mately from 0.78 to 0.94 for Kodo millet) by raising the air velocity similar results.


from 1.01 to 1.7 m/s and the air temperature from 40 to 60 C.

4 | CONC LU SION
3.10 | Specific energy consumption
Experiments for drying pennyroyal using a hybrid (solar-hot air) dryer
Table 6 represents the SEC of the entire drying process for penny- were carried out to evaluate the drying behavior of pennyroyal under
royal in a hybrid (solar-hot air) dryer. The maximum amount of energy different parameters (temperature and air velocity). The effects of
consumed was 48.60 kWh/kg at the intake air temperature of 40
C intake air temperature and intake air velocity on drying kinetics, effec-
and the intake air velocity of 0.6 m/s. The minimum amount of energy tive moisture diffusion, energy utilization ratio, energy utilization,
consumed was 14.11 kWh/kg at the intake air temperature of 70
C exergy loss, exergy efficiency, specific energy consumption, and
and the air velocity of 1.8 m/s. Moreover, the specific energy con- greenhouse gas emissions in the process of drying pennyroyal plant
sumption increased as the air velocity and temperature decreased. were examined.
Increase in the intake air temperature and velocity resulted in the
rapid transfer of mass and increase in the speed of moisture transfer • Increase in the intake air temperature and velocity resulted in
from the surface of the product. So, the amount of specific energy decrease in the drying time.
consumption decreased (Kaveh et al., 2018). These findings are in • Midilli et al's model was selected as the best model for the predic-
agreement with the documented values of 23.45–10.55 kWh/kg tion of pennyroyal MR.
applied for mint leaves in a convective dryer (Beigi, 2019) and 227.39 • Effective moisture diffusion coefficient for pennyroyal was
to 337.79 kWh/kg for a convective hot air dryer of sweet potato between 7.92 × 10−11 m2/s and 2.30 × 10−10 m2/s.
slices (Onwude, Hashim, Abdan, Janius, & Chen, 2018). • The EUR increased by increasing the intake air temperature and air
velocity.
• The highest and lowest EU rates were 0.0826 kJ/s and 0.0064 kJ/
3.11 | Greenhouse gases s, respectively.
• Increasing the intake air temperature and velocity increased the
Table 7 shows that the highest CO2 level (116,516.6 g) occurred at exergy loss.
40
C and 0.6 m/s for the gas turbine-gas oil plant while its lowest • Exergy efficiency increased with increasing intake air temperature
level (12,721.5 g) occurred at the temperature of 70
C and the air and air velocity.
velocity of 1.8 m/s for the combined cycle-natural gas plant. In addi- • The highest (48.60 kWh/kg) and lowest (14.11 kWh/kg) amounts
tion, SO2 increased by decrease in the temperature and the air flow of specific energy consumption were obtained.
rate and reached the highest level at the temperature of 40
C and • In the process of drying pennyroyal, increase in the intake air tem-
the air velocity of 0.6 m/s. The analysis of NOX changes showed perature caused the reduction of GHG. Low levels of GHG
that its variation is inversely related to temperature and air flow occurred at high drying temperatures. Increasing the temperature
velocity. The highest amount of NOX (643.73 g) was produced at and airflow rate resulted in a significant reduction in GHG.
40
C and the air velocity of 0.6 m/s at the gas turbine-gas oil plant.
Its lowest level was 53.99 g at the temperature of 70
C and the air NOME NCLATURE
velocity of 1.8 m/s at the gas turbine-natural gas plant. The high
emission of greenhouse gases in a hybrid (solar-hot air) dryer as a Adef surface in contact with the dryer's body (m2)
result of increase in temperature reduces energy consumption in the Adc cross section of the drying chamber (m2)
unit of time. At low temperatures, it leads to increased greenhouse Ca input or output air specific heat (kJ/kg
C)
gas emissions. Solar collectors improve the absorption of heat from Cp specific heat of the input or output product (kJ/kg
C)
the sun, which in turn increases air temperature and reduces energy C specific heat of the input or output air and the input or out-
consumption and greenhouse gas emissions (Ziaforoughi & put product (kJ/kg
C)
Esfahani, 2016). Tripathy (2015) reported the CO2 for drying potato Cai specific heat of the input air (kJ/kg
C)
slice using a solar dryer. The amounts of CO2 in three coal-fired, Deff effective moisture diffusivity (m2/s)
light diesel oil and natural gas plants for potato slices were DR drying rate
1.44 × 104, 9.47 × 103, and 4.74 × 103 tons, respectively. Motevali D0 intercept that is constant
and Tabatabaei (2017) showed that the lowest amounts of green- EU amount of the energy used (kJ/s)
house gases (CO2, SO2, and NOX) were obtained in the combination Ea activation energy (kJ/mol)
of solar-hot air at the highest air temperature. They also got the Ex exergy of the air or the input or output product (kJ/s)
highest amounts of CO2 (11,994.78 g), SO2 (170 g), and NOX Expf exergy of the fresh product (kJ/s)
(66.26 g) at the lowest air temperature. Kaveh, Amiri Chayjan, Exao output air exergy (kJ/s)
KAVEH ET AL. 13 of 15

Exai input air exergy (kJ/s) z number of constants, respectively

P
ExPD exergy of the output product (dried product) (kJ/s) Exl sum of the exergy loss (kJ/s)
P
Exdeff exergy rate of the dryer's body (kJ/s) Exi sum of the input exergy (kJ/s)
P
hai input air enthalpy (kJ/kg) Exo sum of the output exergy (kJ/s)
hPF enthalpy of the input fresh product (kJ/kg) ρa air density (kg/m3)
hao output air enthalpy (kJ/kg)
hPD dry product's enthalpy (kJ/kg) CONFLIC T OF INT ER E ST
ha input or output air enthalpy (kJ/kg) The authors have declared no conflicts of interest for this article.
hP input or output product enthalpy (kJ/kg)
hfg latent heat of vaporization of water (kJ/kg) DATA AVAILABILITY
I current (A) The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
L half the thickness of each sample corresponding author upon reasonable request.
MCdb moisture content
Mt moisture content (% d.b.) ET HICS S TAT E MENT
Mo initial moisture content (% d.b.) Ethics approval was not required for this research.
Me equilibrium moisture content (% d.b.)
MR moisture ratio (decimal) OR CID
MRexp,i stands for the experimental values Mohammad Kaveh https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5285-2211
MRpre,i predicted values by calculating from the model for this Hamed Karami https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0654-6149
measurements Ahmad Jahanbakhshi https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-3090
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