Melanesia

bamboo boogie-woogie

xxx
xxx

The island chains known as Melanesia include Fiji, New Caledonia, New Guinea, the
Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. Musical diversity is a highlight of the region, from
traditional instrumental and vocal music to contemporary rock and reggae. Steven
Feld and Denis Crowdy untangle this skein of sounds.

63
 New Guinea
bands like the Paramana Strangers had become
well-known.
COUNTRY

In the mid-1970s, the boogie-woogie bamboo

Musically, the best-known part of Melanesia is
band style spread to PNG from the Solomon
the island of New Guinea. This is divided in two:
Islands, featuring open bamboo tubes played by
Papua New Guinea (PNG), the independent, east-
hitting them with flip-flop sandals. This began
| Genre

ern half of the island, and Papua, the western half,

among villages around Madang, and spread from a
often called “West Papua” by indigenous inhabit-
band at the Teachers College there to other colleg-
ants seeking independence from Indonesia. Prior
es and high schools. The Wagi Brothers, complete
to 1962, Papua was a Dutch colony, while PNG,
with bamboo tubes and fuzzy rock’n’roll electric
until its independence in 1975, was divided into
guitar (played through transistor radios), are one
two Australian trust territories (British and Ger-
of the highlights of David Fanshawe’s Pacific com-
man colonies before World War I). These colonial
pilations.
histories have strongly influenced the music heard
A local recording industry began to develop
today in New Guinea, as has the strong impact of
in PNG after independence. Musical exchanges
missionaries.
were promoted by the National Arts School and
There is considerably more documented and
other national institutions, as well as regional and
recorded material from the Papua New Guinea
international festivals. Sanguma were the first
side, particularly since independence. This is part-
PNG group to actively mix traditional songs and
ly a result of foreign interest in the country’s stun-
instruments with rock and jazz-derived styles.
ning cultural and geographical diversity – more
In the early 1980s, Sanguma toured the Pacific
than eight hundred languages are spoken by just
region, Europe and the US. Around the same time,
over five million people – but also Indonesia’s hos-
recording studios became established in Rabaul
tility to the celebration or promotion of indigenous
and Port Moresby, the capital, and radio pro-
Melanesian culture in Papua.
grammes featuring PNG pop styles, both in Tok
There are clear continuities between traditional
Pisin (pidgin), the lingua franca, and in Tok Ples,
music from West Papua and PNG – from similari-
(other local languages), spread widely. TV and
ties in dance, song and instrumental characteristics
radio stations, however, tend to play local rock,
in the highlands to bamboo flutes and wooden and
reggae and string-band music, also the focus of
bamboo end-blown trumpets closer to the coast.
the cassette industry.
Contemporary popular music includes string-
George Telek has made international waves
band music, reggae, gospel and influences from
through his work with musician and producer
PNG music and Indonesian pop.
David Bridie, first appearing with Bridie’s band
Not Drowning, Waving on the album Tabaran.
PNG’s Popular Music Telek hails from the village of Raluana near the
town of Rabaul (destroyed by a volcanic eruption
Papua New Guinea’s exposure to Western sounds
in 1994) and his songs reflect everyday village and
began in the last quarter of the nineteenth century,
spiritual life. He tours internationally, so keep up
with the part harmony of church hymns sung in
with his schedule at telek.com.
local languages. By the turn of the century, mission
songs, colonial songs and gold-rush songs had also
made their mark. From the 1920s, 78s of Western Traditional PNG Music
popular songs were played around plantations and
In 1898, some of the world’s first field-recordings
colonial towns and broadcasting began in the late
were made along PNG’s south coast. However,
1930s. A further foreign influence arrived dur-
music research did not begin seriously until the
ing the war, when foreign servicemen played and
1970s, with independence and the establishment of
taught songs locally.
the Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies music
Guitars and ukuleles became popular. String
department and recording series. Traditional PNG
bands – groups of acoustic guitars and ukuleles
music also received a huge boost in 1991 when
playing a hard-strummed and lightly swinging
the Grateful Dead’s drummer Mickey Hart pro-
style already in broad Pacific circulation – were
duced anthropologist (and chapter co-author)
first recorded in the early 1950s, and were com-
Steven Feld’s Voices of the Rainforest, the first
monplace ten years later. By the late 1960s,
widely available CD of traditional PNG music. It
rock’n’roll cover bands like the Kopikats were per-
shows a rich traditional musical culture, although
forming at hotels in PNG’s main cities, and string
its diversity has doubtless been greatly diminished

64
by colonization, missionaries, and industrial devel- Although the Republic of the Fiji Islands is official-
opment. Certain types of traditional songs, sing- ly part of Melanesia, and the indigenous Fijians are

COUNTRY
ing styles, instruments and their performance were physically similar to other Melanesians, Fijian cul-
targeted for eradication by missionaries, who dis- ture shares a number of features with the culture
approved of the spiritual or erotic power of the of Polynesia: hereditary chiefs, patrilineal descent
music. Length of contact with missionaries – just and a love of elaborate rituals, while music and

| Genre
over a hundred years on the coasts and under sixty dance are closely related to the western Polynesian
in the central highlands – has played a part in how varieties.
well local or regional indigenous musical tradi- Meke is the generic term for dance, and the
tions have survived, as did the church involved: most important types are: meke wesi (spear dance
the Catholics and Lutherans were generally quite for men) meke i wau (club dance for men), meke
tolerant, while the Baptists and Evangelicals were iri (fan dance), vakamalolo (sitting dance) and sea-
more hostile and restrictive. sea (standing dance for women). The dances are
Singsing is the general Tok Pisin name for vil- accompanied by a choir singing in parts, as well
lage ceremonies which involve feasting, elabo- as lali ni meke (slit drums) and derua (bamboo
rately costumed song and dance, and exchanges stamping tubes). Another popular style is sere ni
of objects and food within and between com- cumu (literally “bumping songs”), which frequent-
munities. Singsings often involve entire clans or ly accompanies kava-drinking sessions (the basis
communities performing together. Songs are often for a controversial herbal remedy in the West, the
sung with a leader and chorus, in unison or with kava plant is used to make an intoxicating liquor
an overlapping and staggered approach to the of the same name).
same text and melody, producing something like One currently prominent traditional perform-
an echo effect. Performers exuberantly decorated ing arts troupe which occasionally tours abroad
in paints and plumes often accompany the singing is Veivueti Ni Medrau Sucu. In the 1980s, Laisa
with regular hand-drum pulses, while bouncing Vularoko enjoyed popularity with her vude pop
and swaying in dance lines, clustered groups or style, which incorporated meke rhythms, and more
semicircles. recently the popular group Black Rose have used
Some singsings associated with preparing for traditional songs in modern pop contexts. Giant
warfare or secret initiations have been abolished lali drums were traditionally used to announce
or were banned by colonial government officers a wide variety of important events, and are still
or missionaries; others were abandoned by the used to summon churchgoers. There is a rich vocal
communities themselves because of social and tradition of church music as well as styles such as
economic change. In some areas they have dis- same and polotu.
appeared completely, or have been modified or With albums difficult to obtain, the best way to
replaced by newer forms, often held only in con- hear Fijian music is to go there. Although there has
junction with national events like Independence been some political unrest in Fiji recently, this is
Day, school holidays or Christian festivals. Sings- largely confined to the capital, Suva. Since a series
ings are the public and celebratory side of PNG of coups beginning in 1987, the proportion of the
culture most likely to be seen by foreign visitors. population made up of Indo-Fijians has fallen
Large competitive shows with costume and dance below forty percent as a result of ongoing dis-
contests attract regular audiences, and have been crimination, although locally produced bhajan
held regularly in Port Moresby and in the High- and qawwali music can still be heard.
lands towns of Goroka and Mt. Hagen since the
1950s.
Alongside these powerful displays, the more
private, sometimes mystical music based on vocal
The Solomon
poetry doesn’t easily cross linguistic and cultural
boundaries. Many song texts in PNG evoke the
Islands
power of place, describing the local landscape, Independent from Britain only since 1978, the
flora and fauna. These are often full of metaphors Solomon Islands are sparsely inhabited. About
about spirits, and their meanings can be extremely four hundred thousand people, mostly Melane-
difficult to grasp and translate. sians, live on almost a thousand islands, most on
the principal half dozen.
Musical life in the Solomons reveals a variety
Fiji of solo and group vocal styles. Large slit-drum

65
 ensembles (like those in PNG on the islands of groove and percussive, syncopated ukulele play-
Manus or Bougainville) are found, but the most ing. Fes Napuan is a large annual music festival
COUNTRY

distinctive sounds are the solo and group panpipe in the capital Port Vila, featuring rock, reggae,
ensembles, particularly those from Guadalcanal traditional and stringband groups. As throughout
and Malaita Islands. The most famous ceremo- Melanesia, gospel music of various kinds is popu-
nial groups, from the ‘Are‘are people in Malaita, lar, with cassettes widely available locally. One of
| Genre

feature up to ten performers with instruments of Vanuatu’s finest musicians is Vanessa Quai, who
several sizes. These have unique tunings and play a has a growing international profile.
powerful repertory of polyphonic songs associated
with natural sounds like water, insects and birds, as
well as work and other human activities. New Guinea’s
From the 1920s a kind of bamboo music
developed, where tubes of different lengths and Indigenous
diameters were struck by coconut husks to cre-
ate a twangy, bouncing, island-music sounding Instruments
remarkably like an ensemble of ukulele and bass.
The Americans had bases around the capital Principally found in the Sepik region in the north-
Honiara, and – just as their abandoned oil drums west and surrounding islands like Manus, New
were tempered into instruments for steel bands in Britain, New Ireland and Bougainville, the gar-
Trinidad – in the Solomon Islands their footwear amut is a wooden slit drum, between one and
kick-started the modern bamboo bands: plastic or twelve feet long and often elaborately carved.
rubber thong-sandals replaced coconut husks in Struck with wooden beaters, the drums can
the 1960s, when the bamboo-band sound spread produce different tones, and ensembles make
from the Solomons to PNG, and became a favour- a powerful, thundering sound. Sometimes the
ite in schools and colleges. There are some con- garamut is used strictly as a message-signalling
temporary urban bamboo-band albums available device for long-distance communication over
on cassette. both land and sea.
Other bands specialise in popular local-lan- By contrast, the smaller kundu, an hourglass-
guage music (also well-known in PNG towns), shaped hand drum with a lizard, marsupial or
particularly the Polynesian- and Christian-influ- snakeskin head, is generally associated with
enced guitar and ukulele string-band sound usually singsings and found throughout the country.
called Island Music and local varieties of rock and Like garamuts, kundu can be elaborately carved
reggae. Distinctive fusion developments are repre- and painted and produce sounds associated with
sented by groups like the Narasirato ‘Are‘are Pan spirit voices; their throbbing pulse can have a
Pipers, who join the indigenous bamboo sounds deeply moving and hypnotic effect.
of the large Malaitian ‘Are‘are panpipe ensembles Bamboo flutes, or mambu, are end- or side-
to the rubbery basslines of large bamboo tubes blown and range from one to over three feet
whacked by flip-flops. They perform live at cul- long. They are generally found in the Sepik area
tural centres in the islands, and in recent years and parts of the highlands. The most famous
have also toured Australia, New Zealand, Canada variety are played in pairs at male initiation rites,
and the UK. Their cassettes are locally available and are kept in the men’s cult house, the haus
in Honiara. tambaran, away from women and uninitiated
men. Both the carved designs and the sound pat-

Vanuatu
terns of these flutes are symbolically important,
making present the voices of ancestral and place
spirits. The Sepik flutes, said to be the longest
With around one hundred languages and a popu-
in the world, have ethereal, breathy tones rich in
lation of about two hundred thousand people,
harmonics. They are always played in groups with
Vanuatu music is characterized by cultural diver-
perhaps five or seven players, but never with less
sity. Instruments include bamboo and wooden
than two. Although these are the best-known
voice-modifiers, panpipes, coconut-shell ukuleles
and most widely recorded bamboo flutes, other
and unique log drums (some huge) placed verti-
types of end-blown flutes and panpipes can be
cally in the ground. Reggae is very popular and
found in the PNG highlands.
there is a vibrant local recording scene. Stringband
Of the less formal instruments, the best known
groups are very common with their tight swinging
is the susap or bamboo Jew’s harp. It is particu-

66
 larly associated with young boys and men, and aRiwain: PNG Pop Songs
often played for fun, accompanying and mim- Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, PNG (ipgns@global.

COUNTRY
net.pg)
icking rhythms of insects, birds, water and other
A classic PNG pop roots anthology. Two cassettes and accom-
environmental sounds. panying booklet of lyrics and guitar chords for some of the
most popular songs of the 1970s and early 1980s, recorded
by bands like Paramana Strangers, Kalibobo Bamboo Band,

| Genre
Sanguma, Black Brothers and Painim Wok. Available from
[email protected].
discography  c Sacred Flute Music from New Guinea: Madang Vols
Melanesia 1&2
Rounder, US
These reissues of classic LPs are the best recordings available
of the PNG secret flutes, whose ceremonial performance
PNG music is released mainly on cassette, with production evokes the presence of spirits. Although better known in the
dominated by the National Broadcasting Commission adjoining Sepik river region, the paired flutes heard here are
and two companies, Chin H. Meen and Pacific Gold. Since from the surrounding areas of Madang and nearby Manam
1990, music videos have also been locally produced and Island. On some tracks they are accompanied by garamut
aired on Mekim Musik and Fizz, programmes broadcast slit gongs, kundu skin-drums, rattles and singers. The pulsing
on PNG’s EM-TV, while Chin H. Meen has produced a series cries of the flutes are absolutely mesmerizing.
of compilations, PNG Super Sound Videoclips. For videos,
cassettes, CDs and other information about PNG music, c Voices of the Rainforest
check chmsupersound.com/companyProfile.aspx. For a wide Rykodisc, US
selection of Melanesian music, try mangrove.ws/. A day in the life of Bosavi, in the central Papuan plateau. A
vivid and atmospheric soundscape where vocal and instru-
mental sounds of work, leisure and ritual are inspired by and
New Guinea blend with the noises of birds, waters, and insects of the sur-
rounding rainforest.
c Bosavi: Rainforest Music from Papua New Guinea
Smithsonian Folkways Black Paradise
A fascinating 3-CD collection that explores the musical world
of a community in the Southern Highlands province of PNG. A group from West Papua intent on communicating their
Recorded and produced by chapter co-author Steven Feld. vital indigenous culture to an international audience.

c Music from Mountainous West New Guinea, Irian c Spirit of Mambesak

Jaya Blunt, Australia
Volkerkunde Museum Collection, Germany Vibrant stringband music from West Papua – a valuable
Important CD compilation with an extremely detailed book- insight into everyday life and the plight of Melanesians at the
let devoted to the everyday and ritual music of the Eipo, Mek, hands of a murderous Indonesian regime.
Yali, Dani and Moni. The best effort to date at a musical survey
of the West Papuan Highlands. George Telek
c Music of Biak, Irian Jaya A tremendously popular Rabaul-based composer, singer
Smithsonian Folkways, US and string player who led PNG’s famous rock band Painim
Volume 10 in Smithsonian Folkways Music of Indonesia Wok, as well as the Moab Stringband. He was the first
series: older indigenous celebratory songs, now in decline, Papua New Guinean musician to reach a worldwide audi-
plus hymns sung by female church choirs, and youthful string ence.
band music. Excellent historical notes.

c Papua New Guinea: Huli (Highlands)

Philips, France
H Tabaran
WEA, Australia
A breakthrough collaboration with musicians from Rabaul
This otherworldly disc recorded by Charles Duvelle in 1974 and Melbourne-based rock band Not Drowning, Waving.
among the Huli (“wigmen”) of the Southern Highlands Combines PNG lyrics, instruments, and string bands with
includes healing, recreational, initiation and other songs, with Australian rock songs, some exploring Australia’s colonial past
drumming, chants, pan-pipes, Jew’s harp and musical bows. in PNG and expressing solidarity with the West Papua free-
dom movement in Irian Jaya.
a Papua New Guinea Music Collection
Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, PNG c Amette
The best introduction to the whole world of musical variety in Blunt, Australia
PNG. Eleven cassettes and a comprehensive booklet illustrate His most recent album, with a strong stringband focus and
the extraordinary range of styles, instruments, and ensembles flavour.
found throughout PNG, from turn of the century recordings
to the post-independence stringband sound of the 1980s.
Available from [email protected].
Solomon Islands
H Papua New Guinea Stringbands with Bob
Brozman: Songs of the Volcano
Riverboat, UK
H Solomon Islands: ‘Are‘are Intimate and Ritual
Music
Chant du Monde, France
Five different bands from East New Britain team up with
Polyphonies and polyrhythms of ‘Are‘are slit-drum percus-
guitarist extraordinaire Bob Brozman. Includes a great DVD
sion ensembles, solo panpipes and amazing ensembles of
documentary.

67
 bamboo tubes struck against rocks. Beautiful recordings, Tropic Tempo
excellent notes.
COUNTRY

A great example of local musical innovation from the Banks

c Solomon Islands: ‘Are‘are Panpipe Ensembles Islands in Vanuatu.
Chant du Monde, France
There are many recordings of Solomon Islands panpipes, but c Vois Blong Ol Bumbu
this is the best. A superb double CD featuring ensembles of Available from mangrove.ws
four, six, eight, and ten panpipes who perform for feast music. Traditional women’s songs using both kastom (traditional ele-
| Genre

The groups are unique in their tuning and compositional ments) and reggae and rock arrangements and textures. The
style, and astonishing in their virtuosity. first local “world music” release, it’s an interesting indication of
how Vanuatu music might develop.
c Solomon Islands: Fataleka and Baegu Music from
Malaita
Auvidis/Unesco, France
Excellent sampler of panpipe, flute and vocal music. Includes PLAYLIST
the original recording of the lullaby “Rorogwela” sung by
Afunakwa; the sampled version of this melody became the Melanesia
Deep Forest hit “Sweet Lullaby” and later the Jan Garbarek
adaptation entitled “Pygmy Lullaby”.

1 An
RAUDE Black Rose from Rosiloa
uplifting traditional song with an infectious
Other Islands dance groove.

c Kanak Songs: Feasts and Lullabies

Chant du Monde, France 2 Classic
PASKA George Telek from Amette
East New Britain Tolai stringband style –
Short but interesting sampler of indigenous songs whose a song in the Tolai language discussing gossiping.
musical techniques suggest the complex ways Melanesian
and Polynesian influences collided in New Caledonian chant,
whistling and other vocal styles. 3 Brozman
TOU RA VUI Gilnata Stringband from Bob
from Papua New Guinea Stringbands
c Kaneka. The Kanak Music with Bob Brozman: Songs of the Volcano
Oceania, France A unique guitar and vocal texture from the beauti-
Compilation of nine New Caledonian artists/groups from ful Duke of York Islands.
2001, showcasing distinctive local harmonies and rhythms,
often with a pop/reggae feel and even some politicized
English lyrics. 4 from
KOHI Various artists from Five Key Bands
PNG
A fascinating blend of thick vocals, bamboo and
c Music of the Fiji Islands pan pipes.
Arc, UK

5 Bosavi:
Singing accompanied by ukulele, lali, derua, clapsticks and SONG CEREMONY Various artists from
cobo (clapping), and some very pleasant acapella pieces from Rainforest Music from Papua New
the Rewasese and Nawaka Entertainment Groups. Includes Guinea
the evergreen folk anthem “Isa Lei”.
Ceremonial music featuring a unique textural qual-
c New Caledonia: Kanak Dance and Music ity coined “lift-up-over-sounding” by Steven Feld.
VDE-Gallo/AIMP, Switzerland
Important and thorough anthology of historical and contem-
porary Kanak styles, with excellent notes.
6 Mambesak
METAMANI Black Paradise from Spirit of

The stringband sound of Black Paradise at its best,

c Vanuatu: Custom Music with rich, thick, combined voices over a solid string
VDE-Gallo/AIMP, Switzerland groove.
Recorded in the 1970s but still the best examples available
of the incredible slit-drum (“tam-tam”) ensembles; other
selections indicate the range of solo and group ceremonial
vocal styles.

c Vanuatu: The Music Tradition of West Futuna

Auvidis/Unesco, France
Enjoyable guitar and ukulele groups from Southern Vanuatu,
plus contemporary hymns from the missionary repertoire.

Black Rose
One of the most popular groups in Fiji and other parts of
Melanesia in recent times.

c Rosiloa
Mangrove, New Caledonia
This 2005 compilation of “hits, videos and remixes” includes
a DVD showcasing the group’s danceable mix of traditional
and original tunes with more commercial reggae/dancehall
and dance grooves. Lyrics in English and Fijian.

68