Chapter 3 - Characteristics of Hebrew poetry

3.1 . Introduction
To translate a poem, first of all we must grasp its meaning. Already in chapter 1 we
have seen that the form of a poem and all the poetic resources that the author uses in it
are an integral part of the meaning and contribute to communicating the entire message.
One of the first steps to successfully translate an AT poem is to identify the poetic
resources present in the original text. It is by analyzing such features that the translator
can come to "feel" the structure and style of the poem, and begin to understand its
complexities and beauty.
Not all AT translators can read the original text, but any translator who is familiar with
the poetic devices of Hebrew will be able to identify them in a translation. When
undertaking the task of searching for such poetic aspects, it is better to turn to more
conservative versions in the literal aspect than to dynamic versions or in common
language. For example, in Spanish the Reina-Valera versions (in their different
revisions), the Jerusalem Bible and the New International Version better reflect the
poetic features of the Hebrew original.
In this chapter we will present an overview of the main poetic resources of biblical
Hebrew. We will begin with the structural aspects that are easily identifiable in a
translation, such as parallelism, the endiadys, the chiasmus, the inclusion and the
chorus or refrain, and we will continue with some sound aspects present in Hebrew
poetry but difficult to detect in any text other than the original. These sound aspects
include wordplay, alliteration, assonance and rhyme. Then we will briefly present some
general aspects of Hebrew literature, and specifically those of a poetic nature, such as
figures of speech and rhetorical questions. Later we will talk about the difficulties that
the change of grammatical person presents in Hebrew poetry, and we will conclude
with some observations that will help us determine where the poetic units begin and
where they end, and we will see how the apparent structural rigidity of Hebrew poetry
still leaves plenty of room for personal creativity.
Even though not all translators can access such stylistic aspects, it is important to
become familiar with them in order to understand the information that the
commentaries and translation manuals give us about the Hebrew text.
3.2 Poetic resources that contribute to the definition of structure
There are several resources that the Hebrew poets used and that, in some way, can help
us define the structure of a text. Some of them are parallelism, chiastic structures,
inclusions and choruses. Definitely, the most common structural pattern in Hebrew
poetry is parallelism.
3.2.1 Parallelism
Geometry has taught us that parallel lines are those semi-straight lines that run next to
each other, always maintaining the same distance from each other. But in poetry we
speak of parallelism when two poetic lines, or verses, are in some way similar. This
similarity can be grammatical (when the two poetic lines have the same internal
structure) or semantic (when the meaning of both lines is practically the same). See
below Ps 9:8, where the two poetic lines have the same internal structure: subject, verb
and object, followed by a prepositional phrase, and they also have almost the same
meaning:

He will judge the world with justice

and to the people with righteousness.

The parallelism is also based on sound similarity, as can be seen in the following
example from Is 44.8b, where the translation corresponding to the Hebrew sounds
appears in italics [which appear in square brackets and in bold italics]:

There is no God but me! [bl'dy]

There is no Rock, I don't know any! [bl yd'ty]

When speaking of parallelism in poetry, biblical scholars resort to several different

terms. A poetic line is known as a colon, and two parallel poetic lines are called a
bicolon, which are usually marked as line A and line B, as can be seen in the following
example:

Israel does not understand

(line A)
my people have no knowledge.
(line B) (Is 1.3b)

Some scholars consider that the bicolon actually constitutes a single poetic line, or
"verse", which is why according to this classification it is also called estico (from the
Greek stoijos, "line"), or monostichium, and each colon is called of hemistich.
However, in this manual we will call the colon "poetic line", or simply "line", since
such is the terminology used in other poetic traditions around the world.
When three poetic lines form a unit, they are called tricolon; When the poetic unit is
formed by four lines, it is called tetracolon. For example:

Smoke rose from his nose,

and from his mouth a burning fire B
that threw burning coals. C (2Sa 22,9)

But they have all gone astray,

together they have been corrupted. b
There is no one who does good; c
There is not only one! D (Ps 53,2)

3.2.1.1 Types of parallelism

For centuries biblical scholars have known of the presence of parallelism in Hebrew
poetry. In the 18th century, Bishop Robert Lowth identified three different types of
parallelism, which he called synonymous parallelism, antithetical parallelism, and
synthetic parallelism.
According to Lowth's definition, synonymous parallelism is one in which the meaning
of the two parallel poetic lines is practically identical. Returning to the previous
example from Is 1,3, we can say that poetic line A is equal to poetic line B:

Israel does not understand,

my people have no knowledge. b

It is the case, however, that two synonymous poetic lines have "gaps" of information,
that is, something is missing in the second line. This phenomenon is called ellipsis.
Sometimes such "gaps" are intentional, and the poet introduces them to make room for
another idea or expression. However, the context allows the reader or listener to easily
fill in those gaps. For example, the second poetic line of Is 1:3a lacks a verb, but
anyone who reads or listens to this text will automatically assume that the verb in the
first line ("knows") is also valid for the second. Below, asterisks (***) will indicate the
absence of an element in the text:

The ox knows its owner,

and the ass ***** his master's manger;

In the following example the verb is also missing, but it is easily identified:
Our inheritance has passed to strangers,
our homes ******** to strangers. (Lm 5,2)

Antithetical parallelism occurs when between two poetic lines there is a contrast or
opposition of ideas: line A contrasts with line B. A very common feature in this type of
parallelism is that opposites are presented in binomials. For example, in the following
series of parallelisms the antithesis is evident in a series of contrasting binomials:
anger/kindness, a moment/a lifetime, crying/joy, night/morning:

Because his anger only lasts for a moment,

but a lifetime of his goodness.
If there is crying at night,
In the morning there will be shouts of joy.
(Ps 30,6)
The antithetical parallelism is typical of Proverbs:

The fool gives vent to all his anger, but the wise man finally appeases it. (Prov 29:11)

The wise son makes the father glad,

but the foolish son is his mother's sadness. (Prov 10,1)

In synthetic parallelism, the second poetic line complements the idea expressed in the
first and, in some way, modifies it.
When you read or listen to the first line, it is not possible to predict what the second
will say, but once the two have been stated, you can see that they both form a semantic
unit (A + B = a complete idea). Let's look at the following example:

The fool says in his heart:

"There is no God." (Ps 14,1) B

And this other one:

YHWH knows the thoughts of men, that they are vanity. (Ps 94,11) B
Note that the meaning of each of the two poetic lines is not the same, although the
balance of the two together resembles that of other parallel lines.
Also in this type of parallelism there are cases of ellipses. For example:

YHWH will be a refuge for the poor,

refuge for the time of trouble. (Ps 9,10)

It can be seen that in the second poetic line the presence of two elements clearly
expressed in the first is presupposed. This leaves room to add one more element to line
B, “for the time of trouble”:

YHWH will be a refuge for the poor,

shelter ******** for time A

of anguish B

This type of parallelism is also known as progressive parallelism, since the second
poetic line expands the idea proposed in the first. It is not uncommon for line B to
repeat a word or phrase from the first, as can be seen in this example:

YHWH is near to all who call on him,

to all those who truly invoke him. (Ps 145,18) B

3.2.1.2 The endiadis

Another typical characteristic of Hebrew poetry, which has been recognized and
studied for centuries, is the endiadis, a figure of speech that expresses an idea through a
pair of coordinated terms. The endiadys is quite common as a poetic device in Hebrew
and Middle Eastern languages.
Many of these terms form natural binomials, for example, "the heavens and the earth",
"the sun and the moon", "the day and the night":

Let the heavens rejoice

and let the earth rejoice. (Ps 96,11)
The sun will not tire you during the day
nor the moon at night. (Ps 121,6)

There are other terms that form binomials for geographical, historical and cultural
reasons, as in this example:

Princes of Sodom, hear the word of YHWH!

Listen to the law of our God, people of Gomorrah!
(Is 1,10)
or in these two:

YHWH will roar out of Zion,

He will give his voice from Jerusalem. (Am 1,2)

God is known in Judah;

In Israel his name is great. (Ps 76,1)

In Hebrew poetry there must be more than a thousand cases of these lexical binomials,
which, in addition to contributing to creating a feeling of balance and complementation,
also serve to define and reinforce the parallelism of two poetic lines:
If I ascend to heaven, there you are;
And if I make my footstool in Sheol, there you are. (Ps 139,8)
3.2.1.3 Beyond Lowth's classification
In recent times, scholars have come to question some of the fundamental assumptions
of parallelism. Lowth's three categories have been criticized for appearing too simple.
In most cases of synonymous parallelism, differences in meaning can be detected, even
when it is not entirely easy to recognize or describe them. Let's see an example of what
we mean:

I will bless YHWH at all times;

His praise shall continually be in my mouth. (Ps 34,1)

It can be noted that if the author had wanted to repeat the same idea more
approximately, he would have done so; but far from doing so, he has intentionally
expressed in the second poetic line an idea different from the first.
Nowadays scholars are willing to admit that, in addition to the three relationships
already mentioned, parallelism can express many others. There may be a logical
relationship between the two poetic lines that reflects action-consequence, motive-
result, condition-consequence, generic-specific, foundation-conclusion, concession-
counterproposal, means-purpose. There are cases when an order is combined with some
logical support: order-reason, half-order, etc. In other cases, the relationship between
the two poetic lines may be temporary (sequential or circumstantial). Such relationships
are very common in historical psalms, although there are others that are based on
formal distinctions. There may also be lexical binomials of a grammatical or
morphological type, such as, for example, positive-negative, question-answer, singular-
plural, masculine-feminine. There are even other parallels with lexical binomials that
express different types of comparison. Below are some of the many relationships that
can characterize the parallelism of Hebrew poetry:
Parallelism based on logical relationships
1. A states an action; B presents the consequence:

Acknowledge Him in all your ways

and he will make your paths straight. (Prov 3,6)

2. A expresses a concession; B presents a counterproposal:

Although your sins are like scarlet,

They will be white like snow. (Is 1,18)

3. A sets a condition; B presents the consequence:

If the clouds are full of water,

They will pour it out on the earth. (Ecclesiastes 11:3)

4. A presents a reason; B gives the result:

Because he has inclined his ear to me;

therefore I will call upon him all my days. (Ps 116,2)
5. A gives an order or presents a petition; B supports her by giving a reason:

Arise, O God, and judge the earth,

for yours are all the nations. (Ps 82,8)

6. A presents the means of carrying out an action; B gives the order to carry it out:

According to the greatness of your arm

preserves those sentenced to death. (Ps 79,11)

7. A is generic in nature; B is specific in nature:

Your land is destroyed;

your cities set on fire. (Is 1,7)

Even there your hand will guide me

and your right hand will take hold of me. (Ps 139,10)

Parallelism based on temporal relationships

8. A states an event; B states another consecutive event:

In their distress they cried out to the Lord, and he delivered them from their affliction.
(Ps 107,6)

9. A speaks of an event; B presents the temporal context:

But you heard the voice of my prayers when I cried to you. (Ps 31,22)

Shape-Based Parallelism
10. A asks a question; B gives the answer: Is there any God outside of me?

No, there is no other Rock;

I don't know any. (Is 44,8)

11. A asserts; B questions:

The spirit of man will sustain him in his illness,

but who will sustain an anguished spirit? (Pr 18,14)

12. A states something positive; B responds with something negative. (Note that in
this example the meaning of the poetic lines is similar, despite the positive-negative
form):

Listen, my son, to your father's instruction

and do not abandon your mother's teaching. (Prov 1,8)

13. A is of a certain gender (male or female); B is of the opposite gender:

Let our children be like plants grown in their youth,

our daughters like carved corners like those of a palace. (Ps 144,12)

14. A is singular; B is plural:

You, descendants of Abraham, his servant,

sons of Jacob, his chosen ones. (Ps 105,6)

15. A presents a number; B adds one more:

Six things YHWH hates,

and even seven are abominable to him. (Pr 6,16)
16. A presents a number; B exaggerates it:

Saul wounded his thousands,

and David to his ten thousands. (1Sa 18,7)

Comparative parallelism
17. A establishes a comparison; B clarifies the comparison link:

As the deer pants for the currents of water, so pants for you, God, my soul. (Ps 42,1)

How far is the east from the west,

He removed our rebellions from us. (Ps 103,12)

Other parallel statements

18. A declares or affirms something; B adds a comment about A's statement:

How I love your law!

She is my meditation the whole day! (Ps 119.97)

My help comes from YHWH,

who made the heavens and the earth. (Ps 121,2)

19. A presents an idea; B proposes a contrary idea (Note that in the following case
there are two contrasts):

The heart of the wise is in the house of mourning, but the heart of the foolish is in the
house where they reign.

joy. (Ecclesiastes 7:4)

This brief list already reveals that it can be very subjective to point out the link between
two parallel poetic lines, since there are several aspects that intervene to form a
parallelism. Note that, in addition to the logical relationships defined above, lexical
binomials play a very important role in the integration of various parallelisms: "paths"
and "paths" in example (1); «father» and «mother» in example (12); "east" and "west"
in example (17).
Two actions can be chronologically related and at the same time have a logical
relationship. For example, in "they cried to the Lord, / and he delivered them" there is a
temporal relationship and a logical relationship of action-consequence, or possibly
motive-result. In the proverb "Listen, my son, to your father's instruction / and do not
abandon your mother's teaching", the relationship is positive and negative, masculine
and feminine, in addition to the "father-mother" binomial.
The generic-specific example in (7) of “land-cities” could also be considered a case of
singular-plural. In most cases of parallelism, several factors intervene to relate the first
line to the second, so it is very difficult to mention a single factor that links the two,
and it is equally difficult to make a definitive list of all the parallels. Possible
relationships that can occur on two parallel lines. However, it is of utmost importance
that translators try to define the relationships present in each set as clearly as possible,
in order to be able to communicate them in their translation.
In our day, the first scholar to seriously question the three categories proposed by
Lowth was James Kugel, who suggested that there are many ways to understand the
relationships present in two parallel poetic lines. Kugel noted that the relationship can
never be reduced simply to the formulas "A is equal to B", "A is not equal to B", or "A
plus B", but he clarifies: "Inevitably, B must be understood as a complement of A».
The most common relationships are characterized as:

A, and also B;
not only A but also B;
neither A nor B;
nor A, and certainly not B;
same as A, also B
If we apply Kugel's analysis to our example from Is 1:7, we can see that it fits well:

Your land is destroyed, (A)

[and also] your cities set on fire. (b)

It can be perceived that from one poetic line to another there is a certain development
or progression; The second line intensifies what was said in the first and communicates
its message by clarifying it. As Robert Alter puts it when talking about parallelism:

The dominant pattern of one poetic line, as it moves on to the next, is one of focus,
exaltation or specification of ideas, images, actions and themes. If something breaks in
the first line, in the second it is destroyed and reduced to pieces; If a city is destroyed in
the first line, in the second it is reduced to a pile of rubble. It is typical that a generic
term in the first hemistich is followed by a specific case of the general category in the
second; or, that a literal statement in the first poetic line becomes metaphor or
hyperbole in the second... For us, as readers of biblical poetry, this means that, instead
of expecting to hear an imaginary rhythm of repetitions, we must be constantly
attentive for something new to happen when moving from one poetic line to the other.

In fact, we often notice that in the first line the psalmist says something in almost
prosaic language, but in the second line he emphasizes what was said before by
resorting to lacerating details or powerful images:

Well, you will put them to flight;

On your ropes you will arrange arrows against their faces. (Ps 21:13)

You have made your people see hard things;

you made us drink wine of bewilderment. (Psalm 60.5)

If the language of the first line is figurative, the language of the second may be more
graphic:

You wounded all my enemies on the cheek;

You broke the teeth of the wicked. (Psalm 3.8b)

The second line may be of a more personal nature. For example, in Ps 60:5 the
Israelites are referred to as “your people” in the first line, while in the second line the
reference is very direct, as it refers to “us.” Likewise, in the lines quoted below, the
second of them is more personal and more graphic:
Who is God but only YHWH?
And what rock is there apart from our God? (Ps 18:32)

This last example shows an important characteristic of Hebrew poetry: the different and
repeated names of God ( `Wnyhe(l{a/ rWc÷ª hw"+hy> H:Ala/â
ymiä yKiÛ ). In the psalms, and in other poems of praise and petition, it is very
common for the poet to invoke the name of God in different ways, so that parallel
poetic lines "make known" who God is and what his works are:

Yet I will rejoice in YHWH,

I will rejoice in the God of my salvation. (Hab 3:18)

These names lead us to maintain a close relationship with God:

Do not forsake me, YHWH;

My God, don't walk away from me. (Ps 38,22)

Such insistence on God's name strengthens our trust in him:

You will light my lamp;

YHWH, my God, will illuminate my darkness. (Ps 18:29)

3.2.1.4 Some more complex patterns

Parallelism can span more than two lines, and can be alternating, as when an
intermediate line separates two parallel lines. Such is the case of the following example
from Is 1:10, where the lowercase letters a and b highlight this pattern:

Hear the word of the Lord,

rulers of Sodom! b
Listen to the teaching of our God,
town of Gomorrah! b'
The same logical, temporal and semantic relationships that make up these two lines can
also intertwine different sections of an entire poem. For example, in Isaiah 1:3, the first
two lines could be called synonymous (a, a'), as could the next two (b, b'); However,
these two pairs of parallel lines are linked by a logical relationship that we could call
concession-counterproposal:

The ox knows its owner,

and the donkey his master's manger;
concession
but Israel does not know,
counter proposal

my people don't understand!

In Ps 121, the relationship between its poetic lines is quite complex, as can be seen in
vv.1–2. The statement in the first line gives rise to a question in the second, which is
answered in the third and fourth lines, the fourth line being an expansion of the third:

I will lift up my eyes to the mountains.

affirmation Where will my help come from? ask
My help comes from YHWH, affirmation
who made the heavens and the earth. expansion response

Starting from a similar pattern, there are parallel sets that can follow each other. Often
these sets create an ascending rhythm, which is followed by a final statement. In the
following example there are four sets of parallel lines:

For as the heavens are high above the earth, so great is his mercy toward those who fear
him. As far as the east is from the west, he removed our rebellions from us.
As a father has compassion on his children, YHWH has compassion on those who fear
him, because he knows our condition; He remembers that we are dust.
(Ps 103,11-14)

Here the greatness of God's love and mercy is exalted through the repetition of similar
expressions and parallel structures. The captivating rhythm and the opposite binomials
of the first two groups ("heavens-earth", "east-west") lead us to a more intimate
relationship: "as a father pities his children." At this point, the name of God makes a
triumphant appearance and the comparison-affirmation pattern of the first three lines is
abandoned. Finally, in a quite serene tone we are reminded of our human fragility and
God's willingness to strengthen and support us: “for he knows our condition; "He
remembers that we are dust."

We can summarize our discussion of Hebrew parallelism by saying that it is the

association of two poetic lines linked by one or more poetic features. Although the
second line apparently complements or intensifies what was said in the first, it is the
two as a whole that express a single thought. The translator must be careful to analyze
not only the relationship between two parallel poetic lines but also the relationship
between sets of contiguous parallel lines. As will be seen in section 3.3, parallelism is
also linked to the sound aspect, accents and rhythm. There are times when the
parallelism resonates with such beauty in our ears that (even in a translation) it is
almost impossible to forget it.
3.2.2 chiastic structures
A variant of parallelism is the chiastic structure, or cross-shaped structure (a name
derived from the Greek letter ji, which is shaped like an X). A good example of this
type of chiastic structure can be found in the following verses by Sor Juana Inés de la
Cruz:

Or which is more to blame, even if anyone does evil: the one who sins for the pay, or
the one who pays to sin?

Or in this popular saying:

It is better to lose a minute in life than life in a minute

And also in the words of Jesus:

For he who exalts himself will be humbled, and he who humbles himself will be
exalted.

As can be seen, in these two poetic lines there are similar elements but in reverse order.
The same thing happens in the following example, where the vocative phrase "YHWH,

God of hosts" forms a binomial with the other vocative phrase "God of Jacob", and the
same thing happens with the predicates "hear my prayer" and the predicate "listen":

YHWH, God of hosts, (a)

hear my prayer; (b)
listen, (b')
God of Jacob! (Ps 84.8) (a')
Some scholars refer to this structure with the abbreviations abb'a', but there are also
more complex structures that can comprise three or more elements, such as the
following example from Is 6:10, which reflects an abc-c'b'a structure. ':

Dull the heart of this town,

hardens your ears b
and blinds their eyes, c
so that he does not see with his eyes c'
nor hear with your ears b'
not even his heart understands

However, and as can be seen in the following example, chiastic structures do not
always form "perfect binomials" neither in form nor in sense:

Because YHWH knows

the path of the righteous, (b)
but the path of the evil ones (b')
will perish. (Ps 1,6) (c)

Here the imperfect chiasmus abb'c is based on contrast: on the one hand, "the path of
the righteous" and, on the other, "the path of the wicked"; on the one hand, the path of
life ("YHWH knows") and, on the other, the path of death ("perdition"). It should also
be noted that there is a kind of grammatical chiasmus, since b and b' are nominal
phrases while a and c are verbal phrases.
Chiastic structures are not as frequent as simple parallelism, so they frequently "stand
out" in the text, which may indicate the climax of the poem or some other important
aspect. An example of this is the following chiasmus, which seems to emphasize
David's total denial of having done anything wrong:

I hated the meeting

of the evil ones
and with the wicked
I never sat down. (Ps 26,5)

In the last poetic lines of Hab we can see a chiastic structure based on the names of
God, which emphasizes the prophet's trust in God and helps mark the end of the book:

Yet I will rejoice in YHWH,

I will rejoice in the God of my salvation.
YHWH, the Lord, is my strength;
he gives me feet like a deer
and makes me walk on heights.
(Hab 3:18-19)

As can be seen, chiastic patterns also play a role in defining the structures present in a
poem. A chiastic structure marks, for example, the beginning of the so-called "Poem of
Time":

Everything has
its opportune moment;

there is a time
for everything that is done under heaven
(Ecclesiastes 3:1)
Likewise, a contrasting chiasmus between something positive (+) and something
negative (-) marks the end of this poem (Ecclesiastes 3:8): a time to love, (+) and a
time to hate; ( – ) a time for war, ( – ) and a time for peace. (+)

which contrasts with the middle lines of the poem, which reflect simple parallel
structures (Ecclesiastes 3,4):

A moment to cry, ( – ) and a moment to laugh. (+) A time to mourn, ( – ) and a time to
celebrate (+)

This same chapter 3 of Ecle shows us another chiastic pattern, where the positive (+)
and negative (-) meanings are superimposed throughout the poem (Loader 1986:34):

Positive
Negative
v.2
time to be born
Time to Die
planting time
time to start...
Negative
Positive
v.3
time to kill

time to heal
time to destroy
time to build
v.4
time to cry
time to laugh
time to grieve
time to dance
Positive
Negative
v.5
time to spread...
time to put together...
time to hug
time to [not] hug
v.6
time to search
time to waste
save time
time to pull
Negative
Positive
v.7
rip time
sewing time
time to be silent
time to talk
Note that the verb translated "spread" in v. 5, although it could be interpreted as
negative, it actually has a positive meaning. The English version Good News
Bible renders this phrase as an idiomatic turn of phrase: “time to make love” (+),
thereby translating the following poetic line as “time not to make love” (-). According
to this analysis, the poem has a rigid symmetrical structure that we could outline as
follows:
v.1

internal chiastic structure

to

v.2
two pairs of positive and negative sentences
b
v.3–4
four pairs of positive and negative sentences
c
v.5–6
four pairs of positive and negative sentences
c'

v.7
two pairs of positive and negative sentences
b'
v.8
internal chiastic structure
to'

Here is an example of the fine art that characterizes much of Hebrew poetry, art that is
often difficult to appreciate in translation. Every translator should be familiar with
these aspects of the original text so that the impact and importance of the text can be
maintained in the translation. (For formatting issues, see Chapter 6.)
3.2.3 Choruses or refrains
Hebrew poetry is rich in poetic lines that are repeated in a text. Choruses, or refrains,
can occur after a single poetic line or after several of them, and can also indicate the
end of a poetic unit. In Spanish poetry we have good examples, such as in the well-
known verses of Saint John of the Cross: I live without living in myself, and in such a
way I hope that I die because I do not die.

…This life that I live is deprivation of living;

and so, it is continuous [sic] to die until I live with you;
Hear, my God, what I say: that I do not want this life, that I die because I do not die.

Being absent from you, what life can I have but suffer death, the greatest I have ever
seen? I feel sorry for myself, because luckily I persevere and die because I don't die...

In Ps 136, the poetic line “for his mercy endures forever” alternates with the rest of the
verses throughout the poem. This psalm was certainly recited in public worship, and it
is very likely that a single person sang the narrative part of the poem while the rest of
the congregation joined in repeating the refrain:

To him who smote Egypt in its firstborn, for his mercy endures forever.
To him who brought Israel out from among them, for his mercy endures forever. (10–
11)

We also find the same refrain in Ps 118, where in reality we find two:

Say now Israel

that his mercy endures forever.
Say now the house of Aaron
that his mercy endures forever.
Now let those who fear YHWH say that his mercy endures forever. (2–4)

All nations surround me;

but in the name of YHWH I will destroy them.
They surround me and besiege me;
but in the name of YHWH I will destroy them.
They surround me like bees;
They rage against me like the fire of thorns;
but in the name of YHWH I will destroy them. (10–12)

On the other hand, in the Song of Songs the refrain "I adjure you, daughters of
Jerusalem...", although it only occurs a few times in the entire book (2:7; 3:5; 5:8; 8, 4),
fulfills the important function of signaling the end of a poetic unit.
3.2.4 Inclusion
This device is used in both prose and poetry, and consists of a word or phrase that is
repeated at the beginning and end of a literary unit. For example, the phrase "Vanity of
vanities... all is vanity" (Ecclesiastes 1:2) frames the entire book (see v. 1,2; 12:8),
although the same thing can also happen in a single verse:

Wait on YHWH!
Be strong and encourage your heart!
Yes, wait on YHWH! (Ps 27:14)
Likewise, there are cases in which one poetic line, or more than one, can frame an
entire poem, as in Ps 8:

YHWH, our Lord, how great is your name in all the earth!

You have set your glory above the heavens!

From the mouths of children and those who are still nursing, you founded the fortress
because of your enemies, to silence the enemy and the vengeful.
When I see your heavens, the work of your fingers, the moon and the stars that you
formed, I say: "What is man that you remember him, and the son of man that you visit
him?"

You have made him little lower than the angels and crowned him with glory and honor.
You made him rule over the works of your hands;
You put everything under his feet: sheep and oxen, all of them, and also the beasts of
the field, the birds of the air, and the fish of the sea, everything that passes through the
paths of the sea!

YHWH, our Lord,

how great is your name in all the earth!

Also the phrase "Bless YHWH, my soul" (Ps 103,1a,22c) opens and closes the entire
poem.
Inclusions typically repeat the same words at the beginning and end of a poem.
However, there are cases in which some variants with the same meaning occur, which
do not necessarily occur at the beginning and at the end but are part of the introduction
or conclusion. For example, in Ps 26 an inclusion based on meaning can be noted, even
though in Hebrew (and also in English) the initial and final words are somewhat
different.

Initial words (v.1):

Judge me, YHWH,
because I have walked in integrity;
I have also trusted in YHWH without wavering.

Final words (vv. 11–12):

But I will walk in integrity;

redeem me and have mercy on me.
My foot has been upright;
In the congregations I will bless YHWH.

As can be seen, "judge me" is paired with "redeem me"; “walk in integrity” occurs in
both cases, and “trust in YHWH” seems to pair with “bless YHWH”; Furthermore,
"without wavering" corresponds to the idea present in "let my foot be upright."
Something similar can be found in the Song of Songs, where several elements present
in the introduction ("companions", "apple tree", "desert", "Solomon", "vineyard")
appear again at the end of the book.
In long poems, a single word or short expressions that act as inclusions can help
determine the point at which a stanza or poetic unit ends.
3.3. Sound effects in Hebrew poetry
Sound is the cornerstone of every poem, and Hebrew has several resources at the poet's
disposal. It is a pity that almost all of them, with the possible exception of rhythm, are
not perceptible in a translation. Those who cannot read the text in the original language
will miss this aspect of Hebrew poetry.
3.3.1 Accent, syllable and meter
When talking about parallelism, a very important point has barely been mentioned:
parallel structures are built not only on the basis of their similarity in meaning or
grammatical form but also on the basis of sound patterns. Parallelism has similar or
regular accent patterns, which contribute to a general feeling of balance and
complementation.
In Hebrew verse, sound patterns are formed based on the stress in each word, which
normally falls on the last syllable. The most common sound pattern is called 3+3,
which means that in each colon there are three accents. This pattern is evident in the
first lines of Ps 92:
tob le-hodot la-yhvh // le-zammer le-shimka 'elyon
good praise a-yhvh // chant to-your-name Most High
3 accents 3 accents

It is good to praise you, YHWH,

and sing psalms to your name, O Most High.
Note that although Hebrew words normally have a single accent, in some cases several
words are pronounced as if they were one, so all of them are pronounced with a single
accent. This generally happens when there are grammatical particles in the set, which
can be prepositions or adverbs of negation, which are pronounced with a single stroke
of voice. In the previous example, the Hebrew preposition le-, or la-, occurs four times,
but without its own accent, so that it is pronounced in conjunction with the following
word.
Although the most common accentuation in Hebrew poetry is 3+3, there are also other
sound patterns; for example, 2+2, 4+4, 3+2, 4+3, 3+4, etc. Certain patterns are related
to different moods; The 3+2 pattern, for example, is typical of lament, as can be seen in
the following example (see Chapter 2): zakor 'aniy umerudy // la'nah varo'sh
zakor tizkor vetashyaj // 'aliy' nafshi
zot 'ashiv 'el-liby // 'al-ken 'ojil
3 accents 2 accents

Remember my affliction and my despondency,

of wormwood and gall.
I still have it in my memory, because my soul
It is dejected inside me.
But this I will consider in my heart,
and for this I will wait. (Lm 3,19-21)

These sound patterns are evidence that many Hebrew proverbs belong, like other poetic
lines, to the same category.
See the following case from Pr 26,7:

dalyu soqayim mippiseaj // umashal bepi kesilim

3 accents 3 accents
Like the legs of the lame,
that hang uselessly,
is the proverb in the mouth of a fool.

Many commentaries and books of Hebrew poetry talk about meter, which the
Dictionary of the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language defines as "a peculiar
measure of each type of verse." If we accept such a definition, we can say that Hebrew
poetry has meter, although we must emphasize that such meter is not in the strict sense
of Greek meter or of any of the Western languages; rather, the "meter" of Hebrew
poetry could be defined as "free or variable meter."
3.3.2 Alliteration
One of the sound resources most frequently used in Hebrew poetry is the repetition of
consonants, a resource known as alliteration. Spanish poetry does not like this resource
much, although here and there it can be found in riddles and tongue twisters. For
example:

The rogue bird pecks the typical gourd;

the typical gourd stings the pícara pájara.

and also:

Three sad tigers swallow wheat

although sometimes it is found in songs like this one:

Erre with erre, cigarette;

erre with erre, barrel;
Fast cars run,
the railroad cars run.

In Hebrew poetry, repeated consonants do not only occur at the beginning of words but
can also occur in the middle of them, and even throughout an entire poem or stanza.
For example, in the first lines of the Song of Songs the sounds sh, m, lyr abound:
shir ha- shirim'asher li- shelomoh ( hmol{vli rva ~yrIyVih; ryvi )
song (of) the-songs that (are) of-Solomon
Song of Songs by Solomon

In some cases the sounds can imitate the sounds of nature, which is called
onomatopoeia. One of the meanings of the Hebrew word ruach is "wind", and certainly
its sound is evocative of this atmospheric phenomenon.
In Judg 5:22, the words daharot daharot actually sound like galloping horses, and this is
how dhh has tried to reproduce them:
The horses' hooves echo!
Gallop, gallop the spirited steeds!

It is not unusual for a set of repeated consonants to be onomatopoeic in Hebrew. While

the prophet Isaiah ironically repeats the presumptuous speech of the king of Assyria (Is
10:13-14), the repetition of the sounds py ts can be heard, which are evocative of the
chirping of birds:

upotseh peh umtsaptsep

and he who opens his mouth and tweets

The first poem of Ec (1.4-11) makes us think about natural sounds, and it actually
succeeds. The fricative consonants s, sh, f, v, h and j of v. 6 they make us hear the
whistle of the wind; the h and sh sounds continue in v. 7 and, together with the myl
sounds, they make us hear the coming and going of the waves and the movement of the
waters:

(6) holek 'el-darom vesobeb 'el- tsafon

sobeb sobeb holek ha-ruach
veal sebibotaiv shab ha-ruach

(7) kol hanejalim holkim 'el- hayam

vehayam 'eynenu male'
'el-meqom she- hanejalim holkim
sham hem sbem lalaket
This has been picked up in part by dhh, which translates:
(6) The wind blows to the south, and then turns to the north.
Turn and turn the wind!
Spin and spin again!

(7) The rivers all go to the sea,

but the sea is never full;
and the rivers return to their origin
to walk the same path.

Although this resource fulfills its function in the original language, someone who does
not know Hebrew will not understand the presence of alliteration in a given text.
However, translators can learn this fact through the use of commentaries, translation
manuals, and study Bibles.
3.3.3 Assonance
Like alliteration, assonance has to do with the repetition of sounds, only in this case the
vowels are repeated. Such repetition can help create a certain mood, or express a
certain attitude. For example, when in Is 6.3 the cherubim speak to each other, the
sounds ayo are heard to express the majesty of God:

qadosh, qadosh, qadosh, yhvh tsaba'ot

bad' kol ha-'arets kabodo

Holy, holy, holy, YHWH of hosts!

All the earth is full of his glory!

Such assonance, of course, is not represented in its Spanish version, except in "holy",
"YHWH", "everything" and "glory".
In the Song of Songs, assonance is a resource that is frequently used to reflect the
enchantment of the bride and groom. At the climax of the Song (5.1) a whole series of
i's and a's can be heard on the lips of the groom, whose repetitive effect is intensified
by parallelism:

ba'ti legani 'ajoti kallah

'ariti mori 'im besami
'akalti ya'ri 'im dibshi
shatiti yeyni 'im jalabi

which has somehow picked up r95:

I have come to my garden,

sister, my wife;
I have collected my myrrh and my aromas,
I have eaten my honeycomb and my skin,
I have drunk my wine and my milk.

As in the case of parallelism and inclusion, assonance can help us determine some
important interruption in a poem. In the previous example, assonance allows us to
divide this verse into two, since after the poetic line that says "I have drunk my wine
and my milk" an alternation of i's and u's begins.

'ikelu re'im shetu veshikeru dodim

Eat, my friends; drink abundantly. (5.1)

This division is confirmed by the change of subject in person and mood, and from the
first person in the indicative to the second person plural in the imperative. (Some
scholars believe that this last poetic line is spoken by someone else, or by an entire
group of people, possibly the daughters of Jerusalem.)
It must be said once again that translators do not always detect this assonant aspect of
Hebrew poetry. However, most commentaries will note the presence of assonance in
the original text, as long as it is a prominent feature of the passage. Every translator has
to know when a passage presents a marked assonance, so that his translation can
recreate a similar effect (see Chapter 4).
3.3.4 Rhythm and rhyme
Rhyme, like assonance and alliteration, may not be entirely evident in a translation, and
it is certainly not typical of Hebrew poetry, although it is easy to find in Castilian
poetry. Take these verses from Don Jorge Manrique as an example to define love:
Love is such a strong force
that forces all reason;
a force of such luck
that all brain converts
in his strength and hobby;
a forced persistence
that cannot be defeated,
whose stubborn strength
we make more powerful
wanting to defend ourselves.

It is pleasure in which there are pains,

pain in which there is joy,
a regret in which there are sweetness,
an effort in which there are fears,
fear in which there is boldness;
a pleasure in which there is anger,
a glory in which there is passion,
a faith that there are cravings, strength that the eyes do to the brain and the heart... etc.

Although rhyme is not common in Hebrew, it can be found from time to time, at the
end of some poetic lines, to make two sentences a single thought, as in the following
example:

veyig'eh kashajal tetsudeni vetashob titpala'-bi

If I raise my head, like a lion, you hunt me down
and you do wonders against me. (Job 10:16)

and in this other:

najalatenu nehefkah lezarim
botynu lenakrim
Our inheritance has passed to strangers, our houses to strangers. (Lam 5.2)

But rhyme is not limited to making an appearance only at the end of each poetic line
but can also occur within the line itself (internal rhyme), as can be seen in the following
example from the great poet Luis de Góngora y Argote:

Ducats buy ducats;

shields paint shields, and very naked gamblers, with dice, win counties; crusaders make
crusaders, and crowns, your majesty.

This occasionally occurs in Hebrew poetry, and when it occurs, it serves to strengthen
the relationship between two otherwise independent phrases.
Rhythm is the "pleasant and harmonious combination and succession of voices and
clauses and pauses and breaks in poetic and prosaic language", according to the
Dictionary of the Spanish Language, of the Royal Spanish Academy. In our language
we can perceive two kinds of rhythm: the rhythm of time, which is obtained through
the good distribution of pauses, and the rhythm of accent, which is obtained through
"the proportionate combination of strong and weak sounds" (Gayol Fernández
1970 :63, volume I). Let's look at the following verses by León Felipe, where we will
mark the strong sounds in bold letters:

It's not what makes me tired

this path now.

A single lap is not tiring.

It's tiring to spend a whole day,

hour after hour,

and day after day a year,

and year after year a life

going around the ferris wheel.

Rhythm can also be described in Hebrew in accentual terms (see 3.3.1). A translation
that is sensitive to form, or that seeks to maintain grammatical parallelism, must
maintain a rhythm similar to that of the original text. An example of this is the "Poem
of Time":

A time to be born, and a time to die.

A time to plant,
and a moment to uproot what was planted.
A moment to kill,
and a time to heal.

A moment to destroy,
and a time to build.
A moment to cry,
and a moment to laugh.
A time to mourn,
and a time to party. (Ec 3.2-4 dhh)

The nature of this passage is such that even the most literal translation manages to
reflect the rhythm present in the Hebrew original. This same "balance" can also be
found in the point and counterpoint rhythm of the following example:

Like a bird that wanders far from the nest

He is the man who wanders far from home. (Pr 27.8 nvi)

3.3.5 Word games

Another dominant feature of Hebrew poetry and other literary genres are word games,
technically known as paronomasia, which consist of using two words with a similar
sound or meaning in the same context. These puns are generally used in a humorous
sense, although in Hebrew, in addition to being used in an ironic sense, they can also
occur in serious contexts. One of the most famous puns in the Bible is found at the end
of the “Song of the Vineyard” (Is 5), where the meaning of the final words of each
poetic line already expresses a marked contrast; However, the sharp irony expressed in
the Hebrew original is more impressive due to the sound similarity of said final words:

Surely the vineyard of YHWH of hosts is the house of Israel, and the men of Judah are
his delicious plant.
I expected judgment [mishpat], and there was vileness [mispach]; justice [tsedaqah],
and there was a cry [tse'aqah].

Another prophet famous for his wordplay is Miq. At the end of chapter 1 (v. 10-16), the
message he addresses to each town of Judah plays with the meaning of each name.
Here we have marked with a question mark [?] the cases in which the meaning is
merely evocative:

Do not announce it ['al-taggidu] in Gat, do not give in to crying; wallow in pain

in the dust of Bet Leafra! [house of dust] Inhabitants of Safir, [pleasure] emigrate
naked and humiliated.
The inhabitants of Zaanan [go out?] did not dare to go out.
Bet Ezel [the house of nobility?] is moaning, and is going to withdraw its support.
They writhe waiting for good, the inhabitants of Marot; [bitterness] the Lord has sent
evil
to the very entrance of Jerusalem. [city of peace]

Inhabitants of Lachish, [horse trunk]

hitch the steeds to the cart!
The sin of the daughter of Zion began with you;
In you were found the crimes of Israel.
Therefore, say goodbye to Moreset Gat. [Gath's dowry]
The buildings of the city of Aczib [disappointment]
They are a trap for the kings of Israel.

Inhabitants of Mareshah, [conqueror?], I will send a conqueror against you, and even
Adulam [your adornment?] will end up with the cream of Israel.
So shave your beard and shave your head;
mourn your beloved children;
enlarge your bald head like that of the vulture,
for your children will be taken from you.

Due to their witty and quasi-humorous nature, word games are intended to express
God's imminent judgment.
3.4. Stylistic features present in Hebrew literature
In addition to criticizing the three categories of parallelism proposed by Lowth, the
modern scholar James Kugel has also detected some interesting aspects of Hebrew
poetry. Among his proposals is that all the features present in Hebrew poetry can be
found equally in the narrative genre and in other literary genres; He has even gone so
far as to declare that in Hebrew there is no category that can be called "poetry."
Although it is not possible to agree with this last thesis, it is an undeniable fact that the
characteristic features of Hebrew poetry can also be found in non-poetic texts. It is a
fact that parallelism or the tendency to balance structures can be found in many works,
as can be seen in that "short story" called Jonah, where the symmetry of the book is
perfect: the first two chapters (the call of God and the Jonah's response) are
counterbalanced by the last two chapters (God's call and Jonah's final response).
Inclusions are a common feature in books like Esther, as well as in the introduction and
conclusion of the book of Job. Alliteration can play a very important role in the
narrative, as is the case in Gen 3:1, where the serpent is conspicuously marked with the
sounds s, sh, and j. In summary, word games are a very important part of the narrative
of Gn and Jos.
We have seen literary aspects that do not belong only to poetry but that can often be
found in poetic contexts. A text will be more poetic to the extent that several of these
features come together in the formation of a given passage.
3.4.1 Figures of speech
All languages make use of figures of speech, which can be heard in everyday language,
even in colloquial expressions such as "It's a worm!" than in more literary expressions
such as "land flowing with milk and honey." In poetry, figures of speech are more
frequent, richer and productive. These concrete images serve to give life to abstract
thoughts; They are not the message, but they communicate it to us in terms that we can
understand and even feel. For example, in Is 29:8 there is a description of the
frustration that awaits God's enemies, but it is done in extremely human terms:

It will happen to them like those who hunger and dream:

it seems to him that he eats,
but when he wakes up his stomach is empty;
or like one who thirsts and dreams:
it seems to him that he drinks,
but when he wakes up he is tired and thirsty.
So will the multitude of all nations be
who fight against Mount Zion.

3.4.1.1 Metaphor and simile

It is already traditional to divide comparison figures into two types, metaphors and
similes. Similes are characterized by being an express comparison, generally marked
by the presence of the adverb "like":

Although your sins are like scarlet, they will be as white as snow;
although they are red like crimson,
They will become like white wool. (Is 1.18bc)

In metaphorical images, on the other hand, this adverb of manner does not appear but
rather an identity relationship is established between two things of a different nature:

The Lord is my rock. (Ps 18.2 nvi)

Your word is a lamp to my feet (Ps 119,105 dhh)
Your eyes are two doves (Song 1.15 nvi)

These two figures of comparison are present in the poetry of the At, and both have
three main components, either explicitly or implicitly:

(a) the object or subject of the comparison

(b) the image to which the object is compared
(c) the basis of comparison between the object and the image

Before being translated, every figure of speech present in the Bible must be properly
analyzed and understood. There is no translator who does not encounter difficulties in
understanding figures of speech when the basis of comparison is not taken into account.
The translator must ask himself: in what sense is God a rock, or the word of God a
lamp, or a pair of eyes two doves?
But the fact that these three components of the comparison are explicit in the text does
not mean that the difficulties of interpretation are resolved. Nor does the fact that we
can determine that scarlet-red sins become snow-white reveal to us what these colors
meant in the biblical context. There are cultures where the symbolic meaning of the
scarlet or whiteness of snow is not understood, and where these colors may have a
different meaning than they had in biblical times. Therefore, the translator must go
beyond explicit language. (For a more extensive discussion of these problems, see
Chapter 5.)
Figures of speech can be quite extensive and extend for several lines. In Psalm 1, for
example, the image of the tree encompasses several poetic lines, and it is in the last of
them that the meaning of the image is finally clarified:

but his delight is in the law of YHWH

and meditate on his Law day and night.
It will be like a tree planted by streams of water,
that bears fruit in its time
and its leaf does not fall,
And whatever he does shall prosper. (v.2–3)

Extended figures like this can be seen in quite long speeches. In Jer 3, for example,
Israel's unfaithfulness is graphically discussed, and in a series of images that cover
almost the entire chapter she is compared to an unfaithful wife. On the other hand,
chapter 12 of Ec, although shorter, is more dense in images (guards, millers, almond
trees, locusts, broken bowls and pitchers, etc.); In such a way that they are all
intertwined that it is difficult to grasp the meaning of each one in particular. However,
regardless of the intelligibility of such images, the truth is that they remain engraved in
our minds and symbolically speak to us about old age and the imminence of death. It is
evident, then, that the figures of speech suggest much more than they apparently mean,
and infuse the poem with power and beauty, such as is not found in everyday language.
Although most readers do not consciously stop to analyze the basis of the comparisons,
the images created by figures of speech remain in our minds and communicate deeper
meanings than a text without them could communicate to us.
Figures of speech in the Bible must also be analyzed from the perspective of their
literary context. In the following example, the psalmist declares:

But I am like a green olive tree

in the house of God. (Psalm 52.8)

The relationship between this "green olive tree" and its context is not very clear, so we
must go back and see at what point in the psalm the image arises; We can see then that
in the previous lines the psalmist addresses the evil one in the following terms:

Therefore God will destroy you forever,

will ruin you and throw you out of your house,
He will uproot you from the land of the living. (v.5)

Here we have the first allusion that the psalm makes to a tree: the wicked will be
uprooted from the earth, just as a tree is uprooted from the ground. Furthermore, his life
will end (he will be “uprooted from the land of the living”). This sets the stage to
contrast this with what the poem says next: the righteous are like a tree that will not be
uprooted. We can say then that, in part at least, this figure speaks of stability, deep
roots and permanence, which is the opposite of "being uprooted"; The righteous is
luckier than the wicked, because he not only stays "in the land of the living" but "in the
house of God."
In addition to observing the relationship or relationships with the literary context, we
must ask what Hebrew speakers were thinking about when they heard about a "green
olive tree." Perhaps they thought of their health, or of the olives, or of the oil, or of
abundance and prosperity, and even of blessing. Perhaps "the house of God" refers to
the temple, although in this case it is better to think that the dominant theme is the
community of believers in the presence of the Lord.
Poetic figures are very complex literary resources, and behind them there are an infinite
number of juxtaposed meanings, which can be determined only through the words
used, the literary context and the cultural assumptions. Every translator must go beyond
the superficial analysis of defining what the point of the comparison is, what the image
compares, and the basis of the comparison itself, and rather seek to understand what
role the figure plays in its mediate and context. immediate. When the translator
encounters an isolated image, such as the "green olive tree" (Ps 52.3), he tends to
change the image for a functional equivalent; However, once the image is viewed in its
context, the importance of the role it plays is seen. In fact, in the broader context of the
entire book of Psalm it can be considered a very important image (see section 5.4.3).
3.4.1.2 Personification and anthropomorphisms
Personification and anthropomorphisms constitute another type of figurative language.
In both cases, abstract elements come to life and are spoken of in human terms:

The highways of Zion are in mourning… (Lm 1.4)

Love and truth will meet;

peace and justice will kiss.
Truth will spring from the earth,
and justice will appear from heaven. (Ps 85.10-11 NIV)

The sword will devour, it will be satisfied

and he will be drunk with their blood. (Jer 46.10)

In the at there are many cases of anthropomorphic expressions, through which human
activities and attributes are attributed to God:

Smoke rose from his nose

and from his mouth consuming fire;…
He rode on a cherub, and flew;
He flew on the wings of the wind. (Ps 18.8,10)

The king of heaven laughs;

the Lord mocks them. (Ps 2.4 nvi)

3.4.1.3 Synecdoche
There is a figure of speech known as synecdoche, which consists of alluding to the
whole by simply mentioning one of its parts. Let's look at the following example:
Jerusalem, already at our feet
They have stood before your gates! (Ps 122.2)

where those who have really stood before the gates of Jerusalem are the pilgrims
themselves who arrive at Jerusalem, and not their feet. We will see below other
examples where the part represents the whole.

(1) There are cases in which one or more parts of the body refer to the entire person:

Have mercy on me, YHWH, for I am sick;

Heal me, YHWH, for my bones tremble.
(Ps 6.2; “my bones” = me)
Lying lips are abominable to YHWH.
(Pr 12.22; “lying lips” = lying people)

The mouths of those who speak lies will be closed.

(Ps 63.11; "the mouths of those who speak lies" = liars; cf. nvi)

Of course, the meaning of body parts can be taken further. For example, "lying lips"
can refer both to lying people and to the lies themselves that those lips utter.

(2) In other cases, a person's name can represent his or her entire family, as in the
following example:

You returned the captivity of Jacob (Ps 85.1) where Jacob refers to all his descendants,
that is, to the entire people of Israel.

(3) The names of cities, countries and places can refer to the inhabitants of such
places. For example: Praise YHWH, Jerusalem;
Zion, praise your God! (Ps 147.12)
Ethiopia will rush to extend its hands to God
(Ps 68.31)

Sing to YHWH all the earth (Ps 96.1)

where the names Jerusalem, Zion, and Ethiopia, and the noun phrase all the earth, refer
to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, Ethiopia, and the whole earth.
This figure of speech in which the part represents the whole can have several levels of
meaning. In the following example we can see this multiplicity of levels:

YHWH loves the gates of Zion

more than all the mansions of Jacob. (Psalm 87.2)
In this sentence, the phrase the gates of Zion refers to the walls that surrounded the city
of Jerusalem, and Zion is the mountain with which Jerusalem is normally identified;
For this reason, the BLS version translates this verse, and this phrase in particular, as
follows:

There is none in all of Israel

another city more loved by God
than the city of Jerusalem.

Of course, the meaning of the phrase could be extended even further and relate to the
inhabitants of Jerusalem, and even to all of God's people.

The relationships between part and whole can be understood literally or figuratively. In
the following example from Pr 14:11, the mention of house and dwelling place can
literally refer to a place of habitation:

The house of the wicked will be laid waste,

but the habitation of the upright will flourish.

However, the literal understanding may well extend to the people who live there, as
well as to their well-being and their very existence.
3.4.1.4 Generally recognized figures
There is almost no limit to the inventory of rhetorical figures present in AD poetry,
although in Hebrew literature there is a whole set of generally recognized figures. Most
of them have to do with the literary device known as metonymy, which consists of
designating one thing with the name of another, or changing the effect for the cause, or
the signifier for the meaning. Every AT scholar is well familiar with cases like these, so
here we will mention just a few of them:

sword, bow, spear = war, attack (Ps 46.9)

cup = punishment (Is 51.7); well-being (Ps 23.5)
oil = prosperity, choice (Ps 45.7)
wine = happiness, love (Cnt)
jackal, lion = enemy (Ps 44.19; 57.4)
green and leafy tree = prosperity (Ps 52.8)
grave = death, grave (Ps 49.9)

It is convenient and recommended that translators keep a list of figures like these, along
with their corresponding equivalents, so that their translation is consistent and
harmonious (see section 5.4.3).
3.4.2 Rhetorical questions and pedagogical questions
Hebrew poetry is distinguished by its rhetorical questions (that is, questions that do not
ask for explicit information), which can be found abundantly in Job, Sal, Song and the
Prophets. In daily conversation, rhetorical questions serve to express confidence, joy,
anger, sarcasm, hopelessness, reproach and sadness; that is, a whole range of emotions.
It is in poetry where emotions are expressed intensely, so it is not surprising to find
rhetorical questions in this context. In Ps, for example (see Ps 6.3; 10.1; 22.1; 74.1,10–
11), rhetorical questions express the poet's anguish:

Why are you far away, YHWH,

and you hide in the time of tribulation?

However, these rhetorical questions can also express the poet's confidence and
complete security, as can be seen in the following example:

YHWH is my light and my salvation,

Who will I fear?
YHWH is the strength of my life,
Of whom shall I be afraid? (Psalm 27.1)

Rhetorical questions are also used in didactic contexts, or for purposes of argument,
such as when the speaker wants to demonstrate something. In the following example,
the psalmist explains the character of God:

He who made an ear, will he not hear?

Will he who formed the eye not see? (Ps 94.9)

In some cases, the speaker uses the rhetorical question to dialogue with himself, as in
the following example, where the psalmist is convincing himself of God's love and
faithfulness:

Will the Lord cast away us forever, and be no more favorable to us?

Has His mercy ceased forever?

Is his promise perpetually over?
Has God forgotten to have mercy?
Has he locked up his pieties in anger? (Ps 77.7-10)

In poetic contexts it is also common to find what we could call pedagogical questions,
that is, questions that are followed by a whole series of answers. The prophet Jeremiah,
for example, asks himself a question, and immediately answers:

Have they been ashamed

of having committed an abomination?
Certainly
they have not been ashamed
in the least,
They don't even know what shame is! (Jer 8:12)

These kinds of questions play a very important role in defining the structure of the
poem. An initial pedagogical question can set the theme of the rest of the poem:

YHWH,
Who will live in your Tabernacle?
who will dwell on your holy mountain?
He who walks in integrity and does justice;
he who speaks truth in his heart;
he who does not slander with his tongue,
nor does he harm his neighbor… (Ps 15.1s.)

Psalm 121 also begins with a pedagogical question:

I will lift up my eyes to the mountains. Where does my help come from?

and then the entire psalm revolves around the answer given to this question.
In Cnt, the pedagogical question is a very frequent, and even artificial, resource that
generally occurs at the beginning of a poetic unit. For example, in 5:9 the daughters of
Jerusalem ask two parallel questions, which allow the young woman to describe at
length the incredible attributes of her lover (5:10-11):

What is your beloved

more than another loved one,
you, the most beautiful among women?
What is your beloved
more than another loved one,
so that you conjure us like this?

My beloved is white and rosy,

distinguished among ten thousand;
His head is fine gold;
his curly hair,
black as the crow...
It is also common for the poetic sections of Ec to resort to the use of the pedagogical
question to establish the framework within which the critical observations that the
author subsequently makes will be developed (see 1.3).
3.4.3 Hyperbole, irony and sarcasm
As we have already noted, Hebrew has several stylistic resources (which can be found
in poetic and non-poetic contexts); These include hyperbole, irony and sarcasm, of
which we will make a brief mention here, given their prominent presence in some
poems.
Hyperbole consists of exaggerating the qualities of what is being talked about, and this
simply for dramatic effects. When someone says "I'm freezing to death," it in no way
means that the person saying it is really dying; rather, what that person does is
emphasize, through exaggeration, the intensity of the cold he or she experiences. Since
poetry deals with deeply emotional topics, hyperbole becomes a widely used device.
Let's look at the following examples:

I have consumed myself by moaning;

every night I flood my bed with tears,
I water my bed with my tears. (Ps 6.6)

A thousand will fall at your side,

and ten thousand at your right hand… (Ps 91.7)

It is evident that the psalmist has not consumed himself, nor has he flooded or watered
his bed with tears, nor have a thousand or ten thousand fallen at his side, but through
these hyperbolic phrases he expresses his confidence in God's deliverance, no matter
what. let it happen.
Another example of hyperbole is found in the following song of the Israelites:

Saul wounded his thousands,

and David to his ten thousands (1 Sam 18.7)

It is also evident that they did not mean that David had killed ten thousand enemies, but
simply that he had killed many (and certainly more than Saul had killed).
Irony and sarcasm find expression when someone says one thing but means another.
Although ironic statements are sometimes humorous, in most cases they are hurtful and
tend to ridicule someone or disapprove of their behavior. The poetry of the book of Job
abounds in ironic phrases exchanged between Job and his friends, and even between
God and Job. When Bildad speaks to Job, he responds ironically (26.2-3 nvi):

You really help the weak!

You do save the one who has no strength!
What advice do you know how to give to the ignorant!
What great insight you have shown!

In reality, what Job means is that Bildad has not helped anyone, and that he has not
helped him either; he apparently praises Bildad for his “great discernment,” but what he
means is exactly the opposite! The irony becomes stronger when Job refers to himself
in the third person, as "weak," "without strength," and "ignorant."
When God responds to Job from the whirlwind, there is a bitter ironic flavor in his
voice:

Where were you when I founded the earth?

Let me know, if you have intelligence.
(Job 38.4)

Irony finds a very common channel of expression in the rhetorical question, as can be
seen in this example:

If I were hungry, I wouldn't tell you,

for the world is mine, and all that it contains.

Do I feed on the flesh of bulls or the blood of goats?

(Ps 50.12-13 NIV)

Of course, ironic expressions are by no means limited to poetic contexts, although they
frequently occur in high-flying speeches such as these.
3.4.4 Key terms
There are terms that, due to their repeated presence in a poem, are key and give the
poem a particular flavor while connecting the work as a whole. A good example of this
is the word "time", so repeated in the poem of Ec 3. It can also be seen that the
repetition of the verb "praise" in Psalm 150, the last of this book, is clearly intentional.
In Cnt there are some terms that are repeated and that contribute to underlining the
characteristic themes of that book; For example, references to "lilies," "gazelles,"
"doves," "wine," and "myrrh" abound throughout the book, allowing us to see that
although some parts of the book appear not to be closely related, in general As a whole,
this book reveals an impressive literary unity.
As already noted, key terms help mark the point at which literary units begin and end,
as when an inclusion frames a passage. A key term can help link two or more units
together; For example, in the last chapter of Cnt there is a unit that talks about a "little
sister" (v. 8–10). This unity concludes with the Hebrew word shalom: "since I was in
his sight as one who finds peace."
The next unit (v. 11–12) begins and ends with the word shelomoh, “Solomon,” which
reminds us of the word shalom.
This repetition of the Hebrew root sh-lm marks the point where the two poetic units
divide (v. 8–10 and 11–12). The second of these two units is defined by the inclusion
based on the name "Solomon."
3.4.5 Change of grammatical person
Another interesting, but often disconcerting, feature of Hebrew poetry is the change of
subject or grammatical person in the middle of a text. This change has several
functions; for example, to define the structure of the text, to indicate where a poem
begins and where it ends, and to indicate the climax.
At the beginning of Psalm 23 it can be seen that the poem speaks about God in the third
person, but later it addresses him in the second person, finally speaking to him again in
the third person.
Instead, the poet keeps talking about himself in the first person, from beginning to end.
To a large extent, the change of subject functions as an inclusion (see section 3.2.4),
where the reference to God in the third person structurally frames this personal
confession of faith in God:
YHWH is my shepherd, I will lack nothing.
in places of delicate pastures (he) will make me rest;
beside still waters (he) will shepherd me.
(He) will comfort my soul;
(he) will guide me in paths of righteousness for his name's sake.
Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil,
because you will be with me;
Your rod and your staff will comfort me.
(You) prepare a table before me in the presence of my distressers; (you) anoint my
head with oil; my cup is overflowing.

Certainly
good and mercy
they will follow me
all the days of my life, and I will dwell in the house of YHWH forever.
As can be seen, the change of subject contributes to delimiting the three sections of this
poem.
This same resource is found in other psalms (for example, 19.7-14) and in the various
poems that make up Ct (for example, 6.4-10). The change of subject also serves to
indicate the beginning and the end of a speech. For example, in Ps 18 the first line says:
"I love you, YHWH, my strength," but the rest of the psalm continues speaking of God
in the third person and giving the reasons why the psalmist exclaims: "YHWH, my
rock." and my castle,… YHWH, who is worthy to be praised..».
In the following example, the psalmist begins by addressing God in the second person,
and continues like this for most of the poem:

How long, YHWH?

Will you forget me forever?
How long will you hide your face from me? (Psalm 13.1)
but it ends with a resolution on the part of the poet, in which he refers to God in the
third person, in the manner of Ps 23:

I will sing to YHWH,

because (he) has done me good. (Psalm 13.6)

It is worth noting that there are psalms that conclude by addressing some other person
or group of people. For example, in the first part of Psalm 31 (v. 1–20) the psalmist
addresses God in the second person, but from v. 21 speaks of him in the third person,
ending with an exhortation to his brothers in the faith (v. 23–24).
We can see that these subject changes are a device that is frequently used to indicate
where a poem begins and, even more so, where it ends.
However, perhaps the most important function of this change of subject is to accentuate
the argument. In Hebrew poetry, to mark the climax there may be a sudden change of
subject precisely in the last or penultimate line of the poem. For example, in Ps 18 you
can see that from v. 25 speaks of God in the second person, but in v. 28 and 29 the
second and third person forms are mixed. This, which in most languages is not at all
natural, in Hebrew serves to indicate the intensity of the poet's feelings and, in this
case, his firm trust in God. There are cases where it may be advisable to level these
grammatical changes and opt for a single form, as dhh and nvi have done:
You, Lord, are faithful to him who is faithful, blameless to him who is blameless,
sincere to him who is sincere, but sagacious to him who is cunning.
You save the humble, but you humiliate the proud.
You, Lord, give me light;
You, my God, illuminate my darkness.
With your help I will attack the enemy, and I will pass over the wall of their cities.
(Ps 18.25-29 dhh)

You are faithful to those who are faithful, and blameless to those who are blameless;
You are sincere with those who are sincere, but sagacious with those who are deceitful.
You give victory to the humble, but you humiliate the haughty.
You, Lord, keep my lamp burning; You, my God, illuminate my darkness.
With your support I will launch against an army; With you, my God, I will be able to
assault walls. (Ps 18:25-29 NIV)

Such a mixture of pronominal forms often has the function of highlighting something
in God's speeches, as the following example from Ps 50 demonstrates. At the climax of
the psalm (v. 22–23), God speaks and refers to himself in the first and third person. We
will have to highlight the chiastic structure of these verses, where the third person (in
this case, God) appears in the external part of this poetic unit, while the first person
(also God but using the forms I and me) appears on the inside:

Understand this now,

those of you who forget God,
lest I tear you to pieces,
and there is no one to free you.
He who offers sacrifices of praise will honor me;
and to him who orders his way,
I will show you the salvation of God.

Subject change also occurs when someone quotes something without indicating that it
is a direct quote. For example, in the middle of Psalm 46 (v. 8–11) we suddenly hear
God's dramatic intervention:

Come, see the works of YHWH,

who has done wonders on earth,
that makes wars stop
to the ends of the earth,
who breaks the bow, cuts the spear, and burns the chariots in the fire.

Be still, and know that I am God;

I will be exalted among the nations;
I will be exalted on earth.
YHWH of hosts is with us!
Our refuge is the God of Jacob!

We find a similar strategy in the "Song of Moses" (Dt 32), where the people of Israel,
personified as Jeshurun, are presented to us as a people of gluttons. The speech begins
by speaking of Jeshurun in the third person, but then, in a mocking tone, changes to the
second person, to summarize his sin with an abrupt change to the third person:
But Jeshurun grew fat, and kicked
(you got fat, you covered yourself with fat);
then (he) abandoned the God who made him,
and (he) despised the Rock of his salvation.
(Dt. 32.15)

Finally, this change of subject can occur in moments of intimacy, where a pronominal
change is equivalent to that gesture of modesty or shyness that avoids looking directly
into the eyes. This may explain the first lines of Cnt, which are curious, so to speak:

Oh, if he would kiss me with kisses from his mouth!

Because your loves are better than wine.
(Cnt 1.1 rvr 1960)

In the following example, taken from the same book, the groom begins speaking to the
bride in the second person, but resorts to figurative and euphemistic language when the
dialogue gains intensity:

How beautiful you are and how soft,

oh delightful love!

Your size, like the palm tree;

your breasts, like her clusters.
I said: I will climb the palm tree
and I will take hold of its fruits.
Let your breasts be like clusters of vine,
and the fragrance of your breath is like apples...
(Song 7.6-8)
So the change of subject is a particular characteristic of Hebrew poetry, and it has
multiple functions: it can be a structural clue that marks the beginning or the end of a
poem, or its climax, and it can also communicate a whole range of feelings and
attitudes, for example, recklessness, shyness and even mockery.