INSTRUMENT
Developed by: Ebrahim Hashemi Azar
References:
① PPM
② IRM
③ GFD PPM
④ GFD ICM
⑤ Mach 4
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Pressure: 29.92 in. Hg. = 1013.2 Millibar = 14.7 P.S.I (𝑙𝑏 /𝑖𝑛2 ) = 76 cm. Hg. = 105 Pa.
International Temperature: 15° C = 59° F F = 1.8 C + 32
Standard
Atmosphere
(ISA)
STD Pressure Lapse Rates: 1 in. Hg / 1000′ = 34 Millibar / 1000′
at Sea Level
STD Temperature Lapse Rates: 2° C / 1000′ = 3.5° F / 1000′
Dry Air Temperature Lapse Rates: 3° C / 1000′
Moist Air Temperature Lapse Rates: 1.1° − 2.8° C / 1000′
Pressure Lapse Rates Cold Air > Pressure Lapse Rates Warm Air
C.A.T.S.C 2
The atmosphere is Heavier near the earth’s surface than it is at higher levels.
At 18000 ft. pressure decrease Half of sea level.
Alt. : Pressure : Density : Temperature
Density Warm air < Density Cold air
Density Humid air < Density Dry air
IR (Hashemi Azar)
Factors affect on Temperature
Density of air Pressure
Humidity (in Lesser degrees) 3
1.Airspeed Indicator
2.Altimeter
3.VSI or VVI Rate of Climb or Descent
Operates on principle of pressure differential
Civil Aviation Training & Services Center 4
C.A.T.S.C (Hashemi Azar)
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[email protected]Airspeed Indicator compares Ram air pressure with Static air pressure, when airplane moves
faster through the air, greater pressure differential measured by instrument. 6
Color-coded arcs
Green: Normal operating range
Yellow: Cation range
INSTRUMENT (C.A.T.S.C) Red: Never exceed speed 7
Speeds are not displayed in Airspeed indicator
(They are in POH)
1. Maneuvering speed (𝐕𝐀 ):
Max. speed for full & abrupt use of control without risk of structural damage.
Max. speed pilot can stall an airplane.
Max. speed for flight during gusty or turbulent air conditions.
Civil Aviation Training & Services Center
Weight : 𝐕𝐀 𝐕𝐀 < 𝐕𝐍𝐎
𝟐. 𝐕𝐋𝐎 : Max. speed for raising & lowering landing gear.
For Retractable
3. 𝐕𝐋𝐄 : Max. speed with extended landing gear. landing gear
𝐕𝐋𝐎 ≤ 𝐕𝐋𝐄 8
1. Indicated Airspeed (IAS):
Reading directly from airspeed indicator.
IAS is not effected by Temperature, Pressure & Field elevation.
2. Calibrated Airspeed (CAS):
IAS corrected for installation & instrument errors.
CAS corrections are found in POH.
Difference between IAS & CAS is greatest at Slow speed and smallest at cruising speed.
3. Equivalent Airspeed (EAS):
CAS corrected for compression of air at particular altitude.
Compressibility: in higher speed ranges, an airplane passes through the atmosphere so
rapidly that air is compressed in front of it.
EAS is not considered when airplane is operating below 200 KIAS & below 20.000 feet.
EAS < CAS
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4. True Airspeed (TAS):
True speed of airplane through the air.
INSTRUMENT (Hashemi Azar)
CAS or EAS corrected for non standard Pressure & Temperature.
Alt. : TAS Temp. : TAS
Density
CAS or EAS = TAS
TAS = adding 2% to IAS / 1000’ At sea level and STD day
Outside Air Temperature indicator is used to calculate True airspeed. 10
5. Groundspeed (GS):
Actual speed of airplane over the ground.
TAS adjusted for wind. (in no wind: True = Ground)
Headwind decrease GS, Tailwind increase GS
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In high performance aircraft, base on speed of sound.
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for example, a speed of Mach .85 =
Airplane is flying at 85% of speed
of sound at that temperature
𝐓𝐀𝐒
Mach =
𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝
For example, during descend in standard condition and constant descend speed of 0.7 Mach
true airspeed will become high
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Civil Aviation Training & Services Center
Altimeter:
Measures altitude: Vertical elevation of an airplane above a given reference point.
Altimeter indicates flight altitude by measuring ambient pressure effect on aneroid wafers.
ISA condition seldom match local weather then altimeter indications are subject to errors.
Best way to minimize altimeter errors is frequent updated altimeter settings.
Altimeter setting: 28.00 – 31.00 in. Hg. Altimeter setting : Indicated Altitude
950 – 1050 Millibar
1. Indicated Altitude
Types of Altitude 2. Pressure Altitude
Depend on 3. Density Altitude
reference point 4. True Altitude
IR (C.A.T.S.C)
5. Absolute Altitude 14
Pilot read directly from altimeter when it adjusted to local altimeter setting.
Q 𝐍𝐄
When altimeter setting adjust to standard sea level atmosphere pressure (29.92 in. Hg.)
Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature. It is theoretical value for determine
airplane performance.
Temperature (above STD) : Density : Density Altitude : Performance
Pressure Altitude = Density Altitude
[email protected] when temperature is STD 15
Q 𝐍H
Civil Aviation Training & Services Center
Actual height above mean sea level.
On aeronautical charts, airport elevation, towers and antennas height are true altitude.
True Altitude = Indicated Altitude
in ISA condition
Pilot set local pressure setting (Q 𝐍H ) on the ground, it indicates field elevation (True Altitude)
Pressure or Temperature is higher than STD
True Altitude > Indicated Altitude Temperature 10℃ above STD :
True Alt. 4% > Indicated Alt.
Pressure or Temperature is lower than STD
True Altitude < Indicated Altitude
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Civil Aviation Training & Services Center
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C.A.T.S.C (Hashemi Azar)
Actual height of airplane
Above the earth’s surface.
Q 𝐅𝐄
Height Above Ground Level
(AGL)
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Altimeter setting:
1. Keep your correct altitude by properly altimeter setting.
2. When set 𝐐𝐍𝐇 on the ground, check field elevation does not difference more than 75’
(Altimeter Check)
3. When there is not altimeter setting information on the ground, set field elevation.
Hysteresis Error: lag in indication of altimeter cause by elastic properties. After an
airplane maintain constant altitude for a long period of time then rapid altitude change.
Rapid descent: Indicate Alt. > True Alt. , Rapid Climb: Indicate Alt. < True Alt.
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VSI or VVI measures how fast ambient air pressure increase or decrease as airplane
climbs or descends. It displays this change as a rate of climb or decent in feet per minute.
Air temperature has No effect on this instrument.
Trend: immediate indication of a change in vertical direction,
after a period of 6 to 9 seconds, VSI stabilizes and displays the actual rate of climb.
Rough control or turbulence can cause lag period and erratic or unusable rate indication.
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C.A.T.S.C (Hashemi Azar) 22
𝟏
Lead point for level off: 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐕𝐒𝐈
𝟏𝟎
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Pitot Blockage
Airspeed indicator is only instrument affected by pitot tube blockage.
In flight when visible moisture & temperature near freezing, pitot heat should be ON.
1. If pitot tube become clogged & drain hole open : Airspeed drop to zero
2. If both pitot tube & drain hole become clogged and static port open: Airspeed will react
like altimeter. (Altitude : Airspeed , Altitude : Airspeed )
3. If both pitot tube & drain hole open but static port become clogged:
Altitude : Airspeed , Altitude : Airspeed
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INSTRUMENT (C.A.T.S.C)
Static Blockage
Static blockage affects Airspeed indicator, Altimeter & VSI.
Altimeter will freezes in place and will be unusable.
VSI will freezes at Zero.
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INSTRUMENT (Hashemi Azar) 27
Alternate Static Source
In nonpressurized aircraft, it is located inside aircraft cabin.
When pilot set Alternate static source in nonpressurized aircraft:
Altimeter will read a little high, Airspeed a little Fast, VSI will show momentary climb.
When pilot set Alternate static source in pressurized aircraft:
Altimeter will read lower than actual, Airspeed lower than it should be,
VSI will show momentary descent.
If aircraft is not equipped with an alternate static source, you can break glass of VSI to
allow ambient air pressure to enter the static system. Of course this make VSI unreliable
for instrument reference. Do not use this technique on pressurized aircraft until you
depressurize cabin. [email protected] 28
1. Turn Coordinator Electrical power
Source Test: prior to start engine, turn on
of electrical power & listen for any
Power unusual or irregular noise.
2. Heading Indicator
Vacuum (suction) system
3. Attitude Indicator (Preparation or stabilized time is 5 minutes)
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Gyroscopic principles: 1. Rigidity in space: once a gyro is spinning, it tends to remain
in a fixed position in which it is spinning & resists external forces
applied to it. (Measure change in Attitude & Direction of airplane)
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2. Precession: once a force is applied to gyro,
reaction occurs in direction of rotation & 90
degrees ahead of point where force was applied.
(Determine rate of turn of airplane)
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IR (C.A.T.S.C)
Gyro spins in Horizontal plane.
Two Gimbals are used for pitch & roll.
𝟏
Lead point for roll out: 𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 33
𝟐
Centrifugal Force:
1. Error is not more than five degrees of bank & one bar-width of pitch.
2. When airplane roll out of a 180 degrees steep turn to straight & level:
Slight climb & turn in opposite direction. (max. error)
Precession error
in Attitude 3. When airplane roll out of a 180 degrees skidding turn to straight & level:
turn in opposite direction of skid (in side of turn).
Acceleration or Deceleration (Somatogravic illusion):
1. During acceleration, horizon bar moves down, indicating a climb.
2. During deceleration, horizon bar moves up, indicating a descent.
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Instrument Tumbling:
Modern Attitude Indicator
To function properly during 360 of roll or 85 of pitch.
Older Indicator
Tumbling generally occurs beyond 100 of bank or beyond 60 of pitch.
A tumbled instrument is unusable and may take several minute to re-erect itself.
Sense roll & yaw movement about longitudinal & vertical axes.
Rate of Turn
Standard rate turn:
3 degrees turn per 1 second
360 degrees turn pre 2 minutes Coordinated
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- Liquid-filled
- Curved tube with ball inside.
inclinometer
- The ball is balance indicator which is used to determine coordinated use
of aileron & rudder. (Position of ball defines quality of turn.)
Maintain Standard TAS : Angle of Bank , TAS : Angle of Bank
rate turn
TAS (Kt.)
Standard angle of bank = +5
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Instrument (C.A.T.S.C)
Indication of Turn coordinator in Taxi:
Left turn taxi: Miniature airplane turn to Left & Ball to Right
Right turn taxi: Miniature airplane turn to Right & Ball to Left
Miniature airplane of turn coordinator has indirect indication of Bank attitude 37
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C.A.T.S.C (Hashemi Azar) 39
Slip: Rate of turn is too slow for Angle of bank (ball moves inside of turn)
Skid: Rate of turn is too great for Angle of bank (ball moves outside of turn)
To correct: Step on the ball (use rudder pedal)
Slip: Decrease bank or Increase rate of turn
Skid: Increase bank or Decrease rate of turn
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Directional gyro (DG):
Senses yaw movement of airplane
about vertical axis. It displays heading
based on 360 degrees azimuth.
Free gyro:
there is not automatic north seeking
system in Heading indicator.
Due to precession heading indicator
must be align with magnetic compass
before flight & at 15 minutes intervals
during flight. (in straight & level un accelerated flight)
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Attitude: Horizontal
Rigidity in space
Heading: Vertical
Turn Coordinator - Turn & slip Indicator: Vertical (Precession)
Rate of Turn
Rate of Turn
& Rate of Roll
Attitude: Two
Heading: One
Turn Coordinator - Turn & slip Indicator: One
Angle or
canted C.A.T.S.C (Hashemi Azar) 42
Only direction seeking instrument.
compass is self-contained unit which
doesn’t require electrical or suction power.
A simple bar magnet in compass can pivot
freely and align itself automatically with
earth magnetic field.
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Variation: angular difference between
true & magnetic pole at a given point.
Amount of variation depends on where
you are located in relation to earth’s
magnetic & true north poles.
When Pilot flies under Visual Flight Rules,
referring to aviation charts that are
oriented to true north and compass is
oriented to magnetic north, pilot must
convert a true direction to a magnetic
direction by correcting with use
variation.
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Isogonic Lines: connect points where variation is equal.
Agonic Line: connect points where variation is zero.
Magnetic Heading = True Heading ± Variation
Variation Westerly: where M.N falls to west of T.N
Variation Easterly: where M.N falls to east of T.N
True Heading = 90
Magnetic Heading = 90 – 17 = 73
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True Var. Magnetic W.C.A Magnetic Deviation Compass
Course W (+) Course R (+) HDG Compass HDG
E (-) L (-) Deviation
Card
True W.C.A True Var. Magnetic Deviation Compass
Course R (+) HDG W (+) HDG Compass HDG
L (-) E (-) Deviation
Card
Deviation: is error caused by magnetic field of
electrical equipment in airplane.
Compass Error
1. Turbulence:
In light turbulence pilot should average reading compass.
In heavier turbulence compass is almost useless.
Compass is accurate in smooth air & straight-and-level unaccelerated flight.
2. Acceleration / Deceleration Error
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Magnetic Dip results in
turning & acceleration/
deceleration errors.
Magnetic Dip: lines of magnetic are parallel to earth’s surface at magnetic equator. They
deflect increasingly downward as they approach magnetic poles. So magnetic dip is not
subject for compass near equator but compass error increase closer pole. Within 300 miles
of either magnetic pole, error is great that use of compass impractical. 48
Acceleration Error: in northern hemisphere as pilot accelerate airplane, compass indicates a
turn to north conversely as pilot slow airplane (decelerate), compass shows a turn to south.
When speed stabilized, compass returns to an accurate indication.
Grater magnetic dip result greater accelerate / decelerate error
Heading East or West: Accelerate / Decelerate error is Maximum
Heading North or South: Accelerate / Decelerate error does not occur
Memory aid: ANDS (Accelerate North, Decelerate South)
Accelerate / Decelerate error in southern hemisphere act in opposite directions.
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Turning Error:
In northern hemisphere as pilot begin turn of airplane from a heading of north, compass
initially indicates a turn in opposite direction (lag) as pilot begin turn of airplane from a
heading of south, compass initially indicates a turn in direction but leads the actual heading.
Grater magnetic dip result greater turning error.
Heading East or West: turning error does not occur
The amount of lead or lag is equal to earth’s latitude of local area
Lead or lag errors in southern hemisphere act in opposite directions.
C.A.T.S.C 50
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