2.

Electromagnetic
Waves
Electromagnetic waves, discovered theoretically by Maxwell and experimentally by Hertz,
due to the property they have to propagate in a vacuum, are what have allowed great
advances in telecommunications, electronic equipment, medical equipment and
treatments.

Additional properties of electromagnetic waves

 They are generated by excited electrical charges, that is, they are made to vibrate
outside their equilibrium position.

Fig. 2.1. Electromagnetic wave generated by an excited charge. Available at: http://xabierjota.wordpress.com/2013/02/13/hagase-
la-luz-y-la-luz-se-hizo-onda-electromagnetica-ii/

 They spread at the speed of lightc=3 , 0 ×10 8 m/ s .

 Being a wave phenomenon, they satisfy a wave equation, just as mechanical waves
do.

 They transport and transfer energy to the bodies they find in their path.

 In the space surrounding an electromagnetic wave there is always an energy density;

That is to say, for each region that is present there is energy.

 They transfer momentum and exert radiation pressure.

 They differ from each other by the range of wavelength and frequency
(electromagnetic spectrum)

 Among the main applications are the following:

ACCORDING TO YOUR APPLICATIONS

SPECTRUM
ULTRAVIOLET AESTHETIC (TANNING BOOM)
MICROWAVE TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND DOMESTIC USE
GAMMA MEDICINE
RADIO WAVES TELECOMMUNICATIONS
X-RAYS MEDICINE – INDUSTRY (METALOGRAPHY)
INFRA RED TEXTILE INDUSTRY, MILITARY INDUSTRY
Table 2.1 Main applications of electromagnetic waves

Below is a detailed description of some important aspects about electromagnetic waves

and special emphasis will be placed on those that are planar, harmonic and linearly
polarized.

2.1 MAXWELL EQUATIONS

In the middle of the century XIX, James Clerck Maxwell, presented four equations that, in
their differential or integral form, allow us to explain the behavior of electromagnetic
waves. These equations were of great importance to science since they allowed the
unification of electricity and magnetism into a single unified theory called
electromagnetism.

Integral form
❑

∮ ⃗E ∙ d ⃗a=0
❑
Gauss's law
❑

∮ ⃗B ∙ d a⃗ =0 Non-existence of magnetic monopoles

❑
❑
−∂ ∅ B
∮ ⃗E ∙ d l=
⃗
∂t
Faraday's law of induction
❑
❑
∂ ∅E
∮ ⃗B ∙ d l=−μ
⃗ 0 ε0
∂t
Ampere–Maxwell's Law
❑
Differential form
⃗
∇ .⃗
E =0

⃗
∇ .⃗
B=0
⃗ −∂ ⃗
B
∇×⃗E=
∂t
⃗ −∂ ⃗
E
∇×⃗B=
∂t

The previous equations are used in regions free of charges and currents. For a greater
understanding of the vector quantities, which appear in Maxwell's equations in differential
form, it is recommended to review the vector operators appendix.

Another important aspect of Maxwell's equations was the demonstration of the speed of
propagation of electromagnetic waves, based on the following relationship,

1
c≈❑
√ μ 0 ε0
and allowed him to conclude that light is an electromagnetic wave.

2.2 SINE, HARMONIC PLANE AND LINEARLY POLARIZED ELECTROMAGNETIC

WAVES

Fig. 2.2. Plane, harmonic and linearly polarized electromagnetic wave . Available at:
http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_gi5NzYBKJ8s/R8fFKUw3kII/AAAAAAAAANo/EapOAb-Foxc/s400/rad+electromagnetica.jpg

Maxwell's equations are valid for all OEMs but, for practical purposes, only the planar,
linearly polarized and harmonic electromagnetic waves shown in Fig. 2.2.

Flat : they are generated by electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other (they
form90 ° ) and perpendicular to the direction of propagation1 , as shown in fig. 2.3.

−7
1
μ0=4 π ×10 Tm / A It is known as the magnetic permeability of the vacuum and
2
−12 C
ε 0=8,854 10 2
It is called the electrical permittivity of the vacuum.
Nm
 Fig.2.3. Plane Electromagnetic Wave

⃗
E =E z ( x , t ) k

⃗
B=B z ( x , t ) j

c⃗ =c i ,

Additionally, the electric and magnetic field of plane electromagnetic waves oscillates in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, therefore they are defined as
transverse waves.2 .

Linearly polarized : electromagnetic waves that are made up of electric field lines that
oscillate in a single plane (see fig. 2.2).

Harmonic: electromagnetic waves that vibrate at the same frequency, have the same
period and always oscillate between certain amplitudes.

Did you know! An electric current flowing back and forth through a conducting wire
(antenna) can be a generator of electromagnetic waves. The electric spark that is
produced when there is a discharge between conductors (dipoles) generates
electromagnetic waves that can be perceived when you hear the crackling produced by
the discharges on the radio.

2.2.1 Wave equation for plane electromagnetic wave

From the chapter on mechanical waves, it was observed that all wave phenomena must
satisfy a wave equation. In the case of plane electromagnetic waves, their electric and
magnetic fields must satisfy the following wave equations
2 2
∂ E y (x ,t) 1 ∂ E z ( x , t)
2
= 2 2
∂x c ∂t
(2.1)

2
For plane electromagnetic waves, since the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction
of propagation, it must be true that⃗
C =⃗
E×⃗ B.
 2 2
∂ B y (x , t) 1 ∂ B z (x , t)
2
= 2 2
,
∂x c ∂t

called second-order differential equations, whose respective solutions are:

E z ( x , t )=Em á x cos ( kx−ω t ) wave function for electric field

(2.2)
B y ( x , t )=B m á x cos ( kx −ω t )wave function for the magnetic field,

where Em á x and Bm á x , represent, respectively, the maximum value (amplitude) of the

2π
electric field and the magnetic field;k = , propagation constant andω=2 πf , the angular
λ
frequency.

For the case of plane electromagnetic waves, using Maxwell's equations, the following
relationship of great importance is obtained
E z ( x , t) Em á x
c= =
B y (x ,t ) Bm á x
(2.3)

2.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

It is the classification of electromagnetic waves according to their range of wavelengths,

frequencies, applications and in some cases energies. Since electromagnetic waves
propagate at a constant speedC=3 , 0 ×108 m/s , in air or vacuum, the following condition
is always met
8
C 3 , 0× 10 m/s
λ= = ,
f f
(2.4)

It is from this expression that electromagnetic waves can be related, according to their
frequency and wavelength, in the electromagnetic spectrum , as shown below:

Fig 2.4. Electromagnetic spectrum. Available at:

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_2EdcHRDPGIg/S7ez2IDKZ5I/AAAAAAAAAA4/JE7PjRCFadE/s1600/neila.jpg
Example
An electromagnetic wave in air generates an electric field whose amplitude is220 V /m .
What is the amplitude of the corresponding magnetic field?

Solution
Since the amplitude of the electric field is known, Eq. 2.3 to find the missing field equation.
Emáx
Bm á x =
c
220 V /m
Bm á x = 8
=733 n T
3 , 0 ×10 m/ s

WhereT represents a Tesla.

Example
If the magnetic field of an electromagnetic wave propagating in the positive direction of x is
described by

Bz (x , t)=333 nT cos ( 1 ×10 7 x−ω t )

Calculate
a) The amplitude of the electric field
b) The wavelength of the electromagnetic wave
c) The wave function for the corresponding electric field; in which direction this field
oscillates if the magnetic field at a certain location is oscillating in the direction k
d) The shape of the electromagnetic wave fort=0 .
e) The behavior of the electric field found at the position x=50 m .
Note : express all results in units of the international system

Solution
a) Since the amplitude of the magnetic field is known, the amplitude of the electric
field can be found using Eq. 2.3.

Em á x =cB m á x

( )
8
10 m
Em á x = 3 , 0× ( 333 n T )
s

( )( 333CnmN s )=100 N /C
8
10 m
Em á x = 3 , 0×
s

b) Since the value ofk It appears in the wave equation of the electric field, and
remembering the relationship between it and the wavelength, we proceed to
calculate said quantity.
 2 π 2(3 , 14 rad )
λ= = =628 nm
k 1× 107 rad /m

c) To find the wave function of the electric field, we must take into account that the
electric and magnetic fields, for plane electromagnetic waves, have the same
frequency and propagation constant,

E y (x , t)=E m á x cos ( 1 ×107 x−ω t )

100 N
cos ( 1 ×10 x−ω t ) ,
7
E y ( x ,t )=
C

To completely characterize the wave function, it is necessary to calculate the

angular frequency

ω=2 π f
2π c
ω=
λ
8
2 π (3 , 0 ×10 m/ s)
ω=
628 n m
−9
ω=3 , 0 ×10 rad /s

( )
−9
100 N 10 rad
cos ( 1 ×10 ) x−(3 , 0×
7
E y ( x ,t )= )t
C s

Finally, to determine the direction of oscillation of the electric field, the following
equation is used
c⃗ = ⃗
E×⃗
B

Because the wave propagation is in the direction x +¿ and the magnetic field at a
certain point in space has the direction z +¿ , the only possibility is that the magnetic
field at such a location has the direction y +¿
c i=E y (x , t) j× B z (x , t)k

d) With the help of a graphing program (MATLAB, DERIVE, MAPLE, etc.) it can be
shown that the shape of the electric field int=0 is
 CAMPO ELÉCTRICO (en t=0s)
100

80

CAMPO ELECTRICO(V/m)
60

40

20

-20

-40

-60

-80

-100
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
POSICIÓN (m)

e) In the same way as in the previous section, with the help of graphing software, the
behavior over time of the electric field located in the position can be obtained.
x=50 m

CAMPO ELÉCTRICO EN (x=50m)

100
CAMPO ELÉCTRICO(V/m)

80

60

40

X: 800
Y: 17.36
20

-20

-40

-60

-80

-100
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
TIEMPO (s)

2.4 POYNTING VECTOR

The Poynting vector is a vector quantity, whose magnitude allows us to quantify the speed
at which an electromagnetic wave transfers energy to a surface in its path and its direction
is the same as that of propagation.c⃗ of the wave. The mathematical expression to
calculate it is the following:

⃗ ⃗
⃗S= E × B
μ0
(2.5)

For the case of plane electromagnetic waves, the poynting vector, with the help of the
wave functions (Eq. 2.3) and the vector products, is transformed into
 E m á x cos ( kx−ω t ) j× Bm á x cos ( kx−ω t ) k
⃗S= ,
μ0
2
( )
⃗S= E m á x B m á x cos kx−ω t j × k
μ0
2
( )
⃗S= E m á x B m á x cos kx−ω t i ,
μ0
It is a quantity that can vary both in position and in time and since in physics estimated or
approximate values of certain quantities are required in some cases, the mean value
theorem is used.3

[ ]
T
Emáx B 1
⃗S prom=
μ0
má x
∫
T 0
2
cos ( kx −ω t ) dt i ,

whereT is the period of the function. Applying the mean value theorem to the function, in
1
square brackets, we obtain as a result , therefore the average poynting vector is
2

Emáx Bmáx
⃗S prom= i. (2.6)
2 μ0

The magnitude of the average poynting vector can also be written solely in terms of Em á x
either Bm á x ,with the help of eq. 2.3, as presented below

S Em á x E m áx E2m á x
prom=¿ = ¿
2 c μ0 2 c μ0
(2.7)
S cBm á x Bm á x cB2m á x
prom=¿ = ¿
2 μ0 2 μ0

3.5 RADIATION INTENSITY

Like the magnitude of the average poynting vector, radiation intensity is an estimated
value of the speed at which an electromagnetic wave transfers energy to a surface in its
path, and is expressed mathematically in the following way

P prom
I= ( 2.8)
A

Where P prom is the average value of the power of the source that emits said radiation and A
is the surface area (real or imaginary) through which energy is being transferred. In the

3
Transverse mechanical waves are characterized because the particles of the medium oscillate in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave, but in the case of electromagnetic waves those
that oscillate perpendicular to the direction of propagation are the electric and magnetic fields.
case of point sources4 , or with spherical symmetry, the radiation intensity is always
calculated through an imaginary spherical surface where the radius r is the distance at
which you want to calculate the intensity

P prom
I= 2 (2.9)
4πr
In the case of radiation sources with cylindrical symmetry, for example the cell phone
antenna or a wireless phone, the radiation intensity at points close to them is obtained with
the following expression

P prom
I= (2.10)
2 π rL❑
where L is the length of the font and r It is the distance where you want to estimate the
value of the radiation intensity.

Example
If the antenna of a wireless telephone whose approximate length is 2 , 0 cm emits a signal
with a frequency of900 MHz and a power of800 mW .

Calculate
a) The radiation intensity at a distance of1 ,5 cm of the antenna
b) The emf induced1 ,5 cm of the antenna
c) The amplitudes of the electric and magnetic fields at1 ,5 cm .
d) The signal strength in a radius200 m of the antenna
e) The minimum distance at which the phone can be placed so that it is not harmful to
human health (see the maximum permitted radiation intensity)

Solution

a) To calculate the radiation intensity, Eq. 2.10

−3
800 × 10 W
I= ❑
( 2 ) (3 , 14) ( 1 , 5 ×10−2 m ) (2 ×10−2 m)
2
I =424 W /m
b) The induced emf in the antenna is calculated with the help of the following
relationship

∆ V máx=E máx L

NS N VS
4
Magnetic field unit known as Tesla. A Tesla is equivalent to and which is equivalent to = =
cm Am m 2
To obtain this quantity, the first thing that must be calculated is the amplitude of the electric
field from Eq. 2.7

2
E máx
I=
2 c μ0
Emáx = √ 2 c μ0 I
❑

√ (
Emáx =❑ ( 2 ) 3 ×108
m
s )[( 4 )( 3 , 14 ) ×10−7
Emáx =565 V /m
Tm
A ]
(424 W /m2)

and in this way

(
∆ V máx= 565
V
m )
(2× 10−2 m)

∆ V máx=11 ,3 V

c) In part b) the value of the amplitude of the electric field was obtained and
consequently by using eq. 2.3 the amplitude of the magnetic field is obtained
E máx
Bmáx =
c

N
565
C
Bmáx =
m
3 ×10 8
s
Bmáx =1 ,88 μ T

d) As you can see the distance at which you want to calculate the intensity, 200 m of
the antenna, is very large, it is considered as a point source and Eq. 2.9

P prom
I= 2
4πr
−3
800 ×10 W
I=
( 4 ) ( 3 ,14 ) ¿ ¿
−3
800 ×10 W

e) The procedure is similar to paragraph a) with the difference that the distance is
6∈¿ 15 , 2 cm ,
 −3
800 × 10 W
I= ❑
( 2 ) (3 , 14) ( 15 , 2 ×10−2 m ) (2 ×10−2 m)

2
I =41, 9 W /m

3.6 ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY DENSITY

The region that surrounds every electromagnetic wave is characterized by having an

electromagnetic energy densityU , due one part to its electric field and the other to its
magnetic field

U =U E + U B

Electric field energy density.

Electric field energy densityU E , is derived from the study of parallel plate capacitors by
considering the ratio between the energy stored between its plates and the volume of the
region where the field is established as shown in Fig. 2.5

Fig. 2.5 Electric field in a parallel plate capacitor

Therefore the energy density5 of electric field, which is valid for all regions surrounded by
air where electric field lines exist, is given by the expression

1 2
U E= ε 0 E
2

Magnetic field energy density

The energy density of the magnetic fieldU B , which was demonstrated by finding the ratio
between the energy stored by an inductor and the volume of the region where it is located
(see fig. 2.6).

Fig. 2.6 Magnetic field in an ideal solenoid

5
It must be remembered that the cross product of the unit vectorsi× j=ki× j=k and j × k=i
In this way the magnetic field energy density, valid for all regions surrounded by air where
magnetic field lines exist, is expressed as
2
1B
U B=
2 μo

Therefore, the electromagnetic energy density is expressed as:

2
1 2 1 B
U = ε0 E +
2 2 μo

than for the case of plane electromagnetic waves, when using eq. 2.3 that the
electromagnetic energy density is equal to
2
2 B
U =ε 0 E =
μo

Therefore for an electric field that fluctuates in the direction y , the electromagnetic energy
density is
2 2
U =ε 0 Em á x cos ( kx−ω t )

It is a quantity that is varying in position and time over one or more cycles. It is advisable,
for approximate calculations, to take its average value.
2
ε0 E m á x
U prom =
2
2
1 Em á x
U prom = 2
c μ0 2
2
1 Em á x
U prom =
c 2 c μ0
Obtaining the following expression
2
1 Em á x
U prom = (2.11)
c 2 c μ0

or its equivalents

2
Bm á x 1
U prom = = S
2 μ 0 c prom

3.7 RADIATION PRESSURE AND MOMENTUM OF MOVEMENT

Electromagnetic waves, upon encountering a surface in their path, transport and transfer
momentum that depends mainly on the total energy they carry and exert radiation
pressure that is related to the speed of transfer of said energy (magnitude of the Poynting
vector). . Although the study of the expressions shown below meant several years of
dedication for Albert Einstein, only the results obtained from his research will be
presented, for practical purposes, in tables 2.2 and 2.3.

kgm
MOMENTUM OF MOVEMENT p ( )
s
PERFECT ABSORBENT PERFECT REFLECTOR REAL BODY
(absorbs all radiation) (reflects all radiation) (reflects a part of the
radiation)
U 2U U
(1+ f )
c c c
f (Fraction of the incident
wave that is reflected)
f =[0 , 1]
Table 3.2 Formulas to calculate the momentum

RADIATION PRESSURE P (Pa)

PERFECT ABSORBENT PERFECT REFLECTOR REAL BODY
S 2S S
(1+ f )
c c c
Table 3.3 Formulas to calculate radiation pressure.

Did you know! One of the main applications of radiation pressure is seen in the solar sails
used for propulsion on some satellites or shuttles.

Example
A laser whose average power is0 , 88 mW generates a point, on a screen that reflects 60%
of the incident radiation, whose diameter is5 , 00 mm as shown in the following figure.

Calculate
a) The amplitude of the electric and magnetic field generated by that beam on the
screen.
b) What is the average energy density of the laser?
c) What is the amount of motion that is transferred to the screen?
d) What is the total energy contained when the beam is one meter from the screen?
e) What is the radiation pressure exerted by the beam on the screen?
f) If it is assumed that the region of the screen illuminated by the beam has a mass of
2.5g, what is the acceleration it would support?

Solution
a) To calculate the amplitude of the electric field, combine Eqs. 2.7 and 2.8
 2
E máx P prom
=
2 c μ0 A

Em á x =❑
√ P prom
A
2 c μ0
where A represents the circular cross-sectional area that is illuminated on the
screen, therefore

√ ( ) [ ]
10 8 m −7 Tm
❑ ( 2 ) 3× (0 ,88 mW ) ( 4 ) ( 3 ,14 ) × 10
s A
Emáx =
( 3 , 14 ) (2 ,5 ×10−2 m)2

Emáx =18 , 4 N /C

The amplitude of the magnetic field is obtained with eq. 2.3

E máx
Bmáx =
c
18 , 4 N /C
Bmáx = 8
10 m
3×
s
−8
Bmáx =6 , 13× 10 T

b) The calculation of the average energy density is performed with Eq. 2.11
2
1 Emáx
U prom = 2
c 2 μ0

2
18 , 4 N
( )
C
U prom =
( ) [ ]
8 2
10 m Tm
3× ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 3 ,14 ) × 10−7
s A
 −9 3
U prom =1, 50 ×10 J /m

c) The average total energy is calculated taking into account the volume of the
cylindrical region occupied by the electromagnetic wave at the distance of1 , 0 m
and the average energy density

U =U prom V

( )
−9
10 J 2
U = 1 , 50× 3
(3 ,14 ) ( 2, 5 ×10−2 m ) (1 , 0 m)
m
−12
U =2 ,94 ×10 J

d) Since the screen reflects 60% of the incident radiation, the calculation of the
momentum is done with the equation, for a real body, found in table 3.2

U
p=(1+ f )
c
−12
2 , 94 ×10 J
p=(1+0 , 6) 8
10 m
3×
s
−20
p=1 , 57 ×10 kgm/ s

e) The calculation of the radiation pressure is done with the help of the equation,
found in table 3.3, for a real body

S prom
P prom=(1+ f )
c
P prom
A
P prom=(1+ f )
c
 0 , 88 mW
( 3 ,14 ) (2 , 5× 10−2 m)2
P prom=(1+0 , 6) 8
10 m
3×
s
−9
P prom=2 , 39 ×10 Pa

f) To calculate the average acceleration of the body, the average radiation force must
first be calculated with the help of the following equation

F prom=P prom A

2
F prom=(2, 39 ×10 Pa) ( 3 , 14 ) ( 2 , 5 ×10 m )
−9 −2

−12
F prom=4 , 69× 10 N

finalmente, empleando la segunda ley de Newton , se calcula la aceleración prom . del cuerpo

F prom
a prom=
m
−12
4 , 69 ×10 N
a prom= −3
2 ,5 × 10 Kg
−9 2
a prom=1 , 87× 10 m/s

COMPLEMENTARY ACTIVITIES

Text Analysis

1. For what reason can we say that plane electromagnetic waves are transverse?
2. Which of the significant facts, when studying blackbody radiation, explain why it is
easier to observe the radiation emitted by a copper bar at 120 ° C that at room
temperature27 ° C .
3. Why is the energy emitted by an atom, when it goes from a state of higher energy
to a lower energy state, negative?
4. Consult what thermography, odometer and radiation thermometer consist of and
their possible relationships with the theory of black body radiation.

Complementary Exercises

5. A small helium-neon laser beam emits visible red light (650 nm ) with power of
5 , 0 mW in a ray whose diameter is3 , 00 mm . a) what is the frequency of light b)
What are the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic fields of light? c) What are the
average energy densities associated with the electric and magnetic field? d) What
is the total energy contained in a section of the beam?1 , 0 m of length?
6. A circular loop of wire can be used with an antenna. If an antenna 20 cm in
diameter is located at5 , 0 km from a source with95 , 0 MHz and total power60 , 0 kW
,a) What is the wavelength of the signal, b) what are the amplitudes of the electric
and magnetic fields at the distance from the antenna?, c) what is the maximum emf
induced by the loop∆ V máx=E máx d ? (Assume that the plane of the antenna loop is
perpendicular to the direction of the radiation magnetic field and that the source
radiates uniformly in all directions.)

7. It has been proposed to place satellites that collect solar energy in Earth orbit. The
energy thus obtained would be sent to the earth in the form of a beam of
microwave radiation. In the case of a microwave beam with cross-sectional area of
2
50 , 0 m and a total power of6 , 0 kW on the Earth's surface, a) what is the radiation
pressure that this exerts on the surface of the planet, if the atmosphere absorbs the
85 % of incident radiation? b) What is the total energy contained in the beam if the
satellite is at575 km of the earth's surface?

8. You are the sole crew member of the interplanetary spacecraft, which makes
regular trips between Earth and the asteroid belt. One day, he is working outside
the warehouse at a distance of3 , 0 UA [1 UA (Astronomical Unit) is the average
distance between the Earth and the Sun:149.600 .000 km )]. Unfortunately, you lose
contact with the hull of the ship and begin to float in space. You then try to return to
the ship with the help of your spacesuit's rockets, but the fuel runs out and they
stop working before you manage to return to the ship. It's in trouble floating around
12 , 0 m of the spacecraft with zero speed relative to it. Fortunately, you carry a
flashlight.180 W and turns it on to use its beam as a “light rocket” to propel him
back to his ship. a) If you, your spacesuit, and the flashlight have a combined mass
of200 kg , How long does it take to return to the ship? b) How fast does it arrive
when it hits the ship? c) Is there another alternative way to use the flashlight to
return to the ship?