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STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. ___

4

MAINTENANCE OF THE BODY

MODULE OVERVIEW

The circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular system, is a vast network of organs and
blood vessels that acts both as a delivery and waste removal system for the body. Nutrients, oxygen and
hormones are delivered to every cell and as these necessities are provided, waste products such as carbon
dioxide are removed. Not only does the circulatory system keep our cells healthy, but it also keeps us alive.
The heart constantly receives signals from the rest of the body that direct how hard it needs to pump to
properly supply the body with what it needs, according to Nemours. For example, when asleep, the body
sends electrical signals to the heart that tell it to slow down. When participating in heavy exercise, the heart
receives the message to pump harder to deliver extra oxygen.
The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of toxins, waste and
other unwanted materials. The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport lymph, a fluid
containing infection-fighting white blood cells, throughout the body. The lymphatic system primarily consists of
lymphatic vessels, which are similar to the veins and capillaries of the circulatory system. The vessels are
connected to lymph nodes, where the lymph is filtered. The tonsils, adenoids, spleen and thymus are all part
of the lymphatic system.

The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. It includes your
airways, lungs, and blood vessels. The muscles that power your lungs are also part of the respiratory system.
These parts work together to move oxygen throughout the body and clean out waste gases like carbon
dioxide.

Your digestive system breaks down the food you eat into nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats and
proteins. They can then be absorbed into your bloodstream so your body can use them for energy, growth
and repair. Unused materials are discarded as feces (or stools). The digestive system is made up of the
digestive tract and other organs that help the body break down and absorb food.

The urinary system, also known as the renal system, produces, stores and eliminates urine, the fluid
waste excreted by the kidneys. The kidneys make urine by filtering wastes and extra water from blood. Urine
travels from the kidneys through two thin tubes called ureters and fills the bladder. When the bladder is full, a
person urinates through the urethra to eliminate the waste.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

1. Outline the functions of blood.
2. List the principal physical characteristics of blood.
3. Describe the principal components of blood.
4. Explain the origin of blood cells.
5. Discuss the external and internal structure and function of the chambers of the heart.
6. Describe the location of the heart.
7. Trace the outline of the heart on the surface of the chest.
8. Outline the flow of blood through the chambers of the heart and through the systemic and pulmonary circulations.
9. Describe the arteries and veins of the coronary circulation.
10. Explain the structural and functional features of the cardiac conduction system.
11. Define an electrocardiogram and indicate its diagnostic importance.
12. Describe the innervation of the heart.
13. Describe the phases associated with a cardiac cycle.
14. Describe how heart sounds are produced.
15. Describe the basic structure of a blood vessel.
16. Contrast the structure of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.
17. Compare the functions of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.

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18. Distinguish between the two pathways of blood circulation
19. Explain the importance of the two pathways of blood circulation.
20. Explain how blood pressure is regulated
21. Describe the effects of aging on the circulatory system.
22. Identify key medical terms associated with the circulatory system.
23. Describe the components and major functions of the lymphatic system.
24. Compare the structure and functions of the primary and secondary lymphatic organs and tissues.
25. Identify the locations and drainage regions of the principal groups of lymph nodes.
26. Describe the effects of aging on the circulatory system.
27. Identify key medical terms associated with the lymphatic system.
28. Describe the structure and function of the respiratory system.
29. Explain how the anatomy of the lungs makes respiration possible.
30. Distinguish among pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, and internal respiration.
31. Describe how inhalation and exhalation occur.
32. Explain the role of the respiratory center in respiration.
33. Describe the various factors that regulate the rate and depth of respiration.
34. Describe the effects of aging on the respiratory system.
35. Identify key medical terms associated with the respiratory system.

36. Describe the structure and function of the digestive system.

37. Distinguish between the two divisions of the digestive system
38. Describe the effects of aging on the digestive system.
39. Identify key medical terms associated with the digestive system.
40. Describe the structure and function of the excretory system.
41. Describe the effects of aging on the excretory system.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment
and help in fighting diseases and to maintain homeostasis. Circulatory system is made up of heart, blood and
blood vessels which each of this has its own function. The heart pumps blood throughout your body through
the blood vessels. Blood delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells and carries away carbon dioxide and other
waste materials.
The cells of the body need to continuous supply of gases and nutrients, and the regular elimination of
waste materials. Simple animals like sponges, corals and jellyfish have no need for circulatory systems. They
exchange oxygen and nutrients present in water by diffusion.

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THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The figure below shows the human circulatory system together with its parts

Fig. 1 The Human Circulatory System

Humans, just like other vertebrates, have a closed circulatory system. The system is composed of
heart, blood vessels, blood, lymph, lymph vessels, and associated organs, such as the thymus, spleen, and
liver.

The main function of the human circulatory system are: 1) to transport gasses, nutrients, waste
materials, hormones, hormones, enzymes, gases and heat within the body; 2) to assist in the maintenance of
fluid balance; 3) to prevent loss of blood within the blood vessels by the process called clotting; and 4) to help
fight infection or invasion of the body microorganisms.

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A. Heart
The figure bellow shows how heart pumps the blood throughout our body with the help of its parts.

Fig. 1.1 The Heart

Heart is an organ that pumps blood throughout the body via the circulatory system, supplying
oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes.

The heart is a large muscle, about the size of your clenched fist, that pumps blood through repeated
rhythmic contractions. The heart is situated in your thorax, just behind your breastbone, in space called
pericardial cavity. The heart is enclosed by a double protective membrane, called the pericardium. The region
between two pericardium layers is filled with pericardial fluid which protects the heart from shock and enables
the heart to contract without friction.

The heart is a muscle and consists of four chambers. The upper two chambers of the heart are
called atria (singular “atrium”), are receiving chambers. The two atria are separated by the inter-atrial- septum.
The lower two chambers of the heart are known as ventricles, are pumping chambers and are separated from
each other by the interventricular septum. The ventricles have more muscular walls than the atria, and the
walls of the right ventricle, which supplies blood to the lungs is less muscular than the walls of the left
ventricle, which must pump blood to the whole body.

In order to make sure that blood flows in only one direction (forward), and to prevent backflow of the
blood, there are valves between the atria and ventricles. These valves only open in one direction, to let blood
into ventricles, and are flapped shut by the pressure of the blood when the ventricles contract.

The tricuspid valve is situated between the right atrium and the right ventricle while the bicuspid/
mitral valve is found between the left atrium and the left ventricle. Strong tendinouscords (chordae
tendineae)attached to valves prevent them from turning inside out when they close. The semi-lunar- valves

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are located at the bottom of the aorta and pulmonary artery, and prevent blood from re-entering the ventricles
after it has been pumped out of the heart.

Heart beat

The heart is the key organ in circulatory system. As a hollow, muscular pump, its main function is to
propel blood throughout the body. It usually beats from 60 to 100 times per minute, but can go much faster if
necessary. It beats about 100,000 times a day, more than 30 million times per year, and about 2.5 billion
times in a 70- year lifetime.
The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occurs when the heart beats. As the heart beats, it
circulates blood through pulmonary and systematic circuits of the body. There are two phases of the cardiac
cycle. In the diastole phase, the heart ventricles are relaxed the heart fills with blood. In the systole phase, the
ventricles contract and pump blood out of the heart and to arteries. One cardiac cycle is completed when the
heart chambers fill with blood and blood is then pumped out of the heart.
The events of the cardiac cycle described below the trace the path of blood as it enters the heart, is
pumped to the lungs, travels back to the heart, and is pumped out to the rest of the body. It is important to
note that the events that occur in the first and second diastole periods actually happen at the same time. The
same is also true for the events of the first and second systole periods.
During the cardiac cycle, the electrical events in the heart muscle can be recorded using an
electrocardiogram or ECG. Many heart problems are diagnosed using the ECG.
The cardiac cycle can also be felt through the pulsation of arteries. You can feel your pulse by
replacing two fingers lightly cover the wrist just below the thumb. Blood surges through the arteries of your
arm are hand during diastole, and you feel the pulsating of the artery in your wrist. This gives your pulse rate.

B. Blood vessels
The figure bellow shows how the three kinds of blood vessels work.

Fig. 1.2. The Three Kinds of Blood Vessels

The blood vessels function is to transport blood throughout the body. There are three kinds of blood
vessels, these are: arteries, veins, and capillaries.

a) Arteries – it carries oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to all the body’s tissues. They
branch several times, becoming smaller and smaller as they carry blood farther from the
heart and into organs.

b) Veins – these are the blood vessels that take blood back from to the heart; this blood
contains less oxygen and is rich in waste products that are to be excreted or removed
from the body. Veins become larger as they get closer to the heart. The superior vena

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cava is the large vein that brings blood from the head and arms to the heart, and the
inferior vena cava brings blood from the abdomen and legs into the heart.

c) Capillaries – these are small, thin blood vessels that connect the arteries and the veins.
Their thin walls allow oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide, and other waste products to pass
to and from cells.
C. Blood
The figure bellow shows the four main component of the blood.

Fig. 1.3 The Blood and its Components

Blood is a specialized body fluid. It has four main components: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells,
and platelets. Blood has many different functions, including:
 Transporting oxygen and nutrients to the lungs and tissues.
 Forming blood clots to prevent excess blood loss.
 Carrying cells and antibodies that fight infection.
 Bringing waste products to the kidneys and liver, which filter and clean the blood.
 Regulating body temperature.
The blood that runs through the veins, arteries, and capillaries is known as whole blood, a mixture of
about 55 percent plasma and 45 percent blood cells. About 7 to 8 percent of your total body weight is blood.
An average-sized man has about 12 pints of blood in his body, and an average-sized woman has about nine
pints.

The Components of Blood

1. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) – the most abundant cell in the blood, accounting for about 40 to 45
percent of its volume. It is small, numerous, biconcave in shape, and without a nucleus. The red blood
cell survives on average only 120 days. The destruction of old RBC’s takes place in the spleen and
liver. The production of RBC’s occurs continuously in the bone marrow under the control of
erythropoietin, a growth factor. This factor is now a biotechnology product, and can be useful in
treating those suffering from anemia (a deficiency in hemoglobin accompanied by a decrease in the
number of RBC’s). The RBC contains a pigment, hemoglobin, which combines with oxygen thereby
transporting gases.

2. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) – they are much fewer in number than red blood cells but are
always nucleated, accounting for 1 percent of your blood. They defend body against infection by
searching and destroying foreign cells or bacteria. When one has wound, there is swelling and
reddening at the injured site, a reaction called inflammation reaction.

3. Platelets (thrombocytes) – unlike red and white blood cells, platelets are not actually cells but rather
small fragments of cells without nucleus. Platelets help the blood clotting process or coagulation.
When a blood vessel is damaged, collagen fibers are exposed. This stimulates the platelets to
adhere, get sticky and form a platelet plug. The platelets and the injured tissue release many clotting
factors, most which are produced in the liver. The clotting factor converts prothrombin to thrombin, in
the presence of calcium. Thrombin, in turn, act as an enzyme which converts fibrinogen into fibrin
threads. The latter will wind around the platelet plug and entangle the RBCs forming the clot which
appears reddish.

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4. Plasma – the liquid component of blood, a mixture of water, sugar, fat, protein, and salts. The main
job of the plasma is to transport blood cells throughout your body along with nutrients, waste
products, antibodies, clotting proteins, chemical messengers such as hormones, and proteins that
help maintain the body’s fluid balance.

Blood Typing

The blood type is determined by what kind of antigens your red blood cells have on the surface.
Antigens are substances that help your body differentiate between its own cells and foreign, potentially
dangerous ones. If your body thinks a cell is foreign, it will set out to destroy it.

The ABO blood typing system groups your blood into one of four categories:

 Type A has the A antigen.

 Type B has the B antigen.
 Type AB has both A and B antigens.
 Type O has neither A nor B antigens.

If blood with antigens that you don’t have enters your system, your body will create antibodies against
it. However, some people can still safely receive blood they receive doesn’t have any antigens that mark it as
foreign, their bodies wont attack it.
 O: Type O individuals can donate blood to anyone, because their blood has no antigens.
However, they can only receive blood with any antigens is seen as foreign.
 A: Type A individuals can donate to other type A individuals and type AB individuals. Type A
individuals can receive blood only from other type A individuals and type O individuals.
 B: Type B individuals can donate blood to other B individuals and AB individuals. Type B
individuals receive blood only from type B individuals and type O individuals.
 AB: Type AB individuals can give blood only to other AB individuals, but can receive blood of
any type.
Effects of Aging on the Heart and Blood Vessels

As people age, the heart tends to enlarge slightly, developing thicker walls and slightly larger
chambers. The increase in size is mainly due to an increase in the size of individual heart muscle cells. The
age-related stiffening of the heart walls causes the left ventricle to not fill as well and can sometimes lead
to heart failure (called diastolic heart failure or heart failure with preserved ejection fraction), especially in
older people with other diseases such as high blood pressure, obesity, and diabetes.
During rest, the older heart functions in almost the same way as a younger heart, except the heart rate
(number of times the heart beats within a minute) is slightly lower. Also, during exercise, older people's
heart rate does not increase as much as in younger people.

The walls of the arteries and arterioles become thicker, and the space within the arteries expands
slightly. Elastic tissue within the walls of the arteries and arterioles is lost. Together, these changes make
the vessels stiffer and less resilient. Since the arteries and arterioles are less elastic, blood pressure cannot
adjust quickly when people stand, and older people are at risk for dizziness or in some cases fainting when
they stand up suddenly.

Because arteries and arterioles become less elastic as people age, they cannot relax as quickly
during the rhythmic pumping of the heart. As a result, blood pressure increases more when the heart
contracts (during systole)—sometimes above normal—than it does in younger people. Abnormally high

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blood pressure during systole with normal blood pressure during diastole is very common among older
people. This disorder is called isolated systolic hypertension.
Many of the effects of aging on the heart and blood vessels can be reduced by regular exercise. Exercise
helps people maintain cardiovascular fitness as well as muscular fitness as they age. Exercise is beneficial
regardless of the age at which it is started.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

1.Draw and label the human circulatory system.

2. Draw the parts of the heart and outline the flow of blood through the chambers of the heart and through the
systemic and pulmonary circulations.
3. Draw and identify the parts of blood.
4. Write your name, year, course and section and the date at the upper part of your activity sheets.
5. Prepare your answers and sending it directly in the Learning Management System.

LEARNING ACTIVIT

SUMMARY

All cells in the body need to have oxygen and nutrients, and they need their wastes removed. These
are the main roles of the circulatory system. The heart, blood and blood vessels work together to service the
cells of the body. Using the network of arteries, veins and capillaries, blood carries carbon dioxide to the lungs
(for exhalation) and picks up oxygen. From the small intestine, the blood gathers food nutrients and delivers
them to every cell.

Blood
Blood consists of:
 Red blood cells – to carry oxygen
 White blood cells – that make up part of the immune system
 Platelets – needed for clotting
 Plasma – blood cells, nutrients and wastes float in this liquid.

The heart pumps blood around the body. It sits inside the chest, in front of the lungs and slightly to the left
side. The heart is actually a double pump made up of four chambers, with the flow of blood going in one
direction due to the presence of the heart valves. The contractions of the chambers make the sound of
heartbeats.

The right side of the heart

The right upper chamber (atrium) takes in deoxygenated blood that is loaded with carbon dioxide. The blood
is squeezed down into the right lower chamber (ventricle) and taken by an artery to the lungs where the
carbon dioxide is replaced with oxygen.

The left side of the heart

The oxygenated blood travels back to the heart, this time entering the left upper chamber (atrium). It is
pumped into the left lower chamber (ventricle) and then into the aorta (an artery). The blood starts its journey
around the body once more.

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Blood vessels
Blood vessels have a range of different sizes and structures, depending on their role in the body.

Arteries
Oxygenated blood is pumped from the heart along arteries, which are muscular. Arteries divide like tree
branches until they are slender. The largest artery is the aorta, which connects to the heart and picks up
oxygenated blood from the left ventricle. The only artery that picks up deoxygenated blood is the pulmonary
artery, which runs between the heart and lungs.

Capillaries
The arteries eventually divide down into the smallest blood vessel, the capillary. Capillaries are so small that
blood cells can only move through them one at a time. Oxygen and food nutrients pass from these capillaries
to the cells. Capillaries are also connected to veins, so wastes from the cells can be transferred to the blood.

Veins
Veins have one-way valves instead of muscles, to stop blood from running back the wrong way. Generally,
veins carry deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart, where it can be sent to the lungs. The exception is
the network of pulmonary veins, which take oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.

REFERENCES

Penecilla Gerald, L. Formacion, N. Fandialan, N. Valmote, M. Sandoval, and N.

Esmeralda. 2003. Basic Concepts in Biology. Philppines: Trintas Publishing, Inc.. pp 94-105

https://biologydictionary.net/circulatory-system/

https://www.helthline.com/health/blood-typing#types
https://www.hematology.org/patients/Basics
https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/blood_vessels.htm
https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-10-lifesciences/transport-sysytems-in- animals/07-
transport-systems-in-animals-02
https://www.webmb.com/heart/anatomy-picture-of-blood
https://www.webmd.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/qa/what-are-the-three- main-types-of-
blood-vessels
https://www.livescience.com/22486-circulatory-system.html
https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/circulatory-system

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system is closely related with the cardiovascular system/circulatory system. Together the two
systems move vital fluids throughout the body, and both have networks of vessels that transport this fluid.
However, the lymphatic system has a very special function in helping and destroy a large number of
microorganisms and other foreign substances that may lead to illnesses and even death.
The lymphatic system helps maintain fluid balance in the body by collecting excess fluid and
particulate matter from tissues and depositing them in the bloodstream. It also helps defend the body against
infection by supplying disease-fighting cells called lymphocytes.

The functions of the lymphatic system are:

1. Fluid balance. The lymphatic vessels transport back to the blood fluids that have escaped from
the blood vascular system. About 30 liters (L) of fluid pass from the bloodcapillaries into the interstitial
spaces each day, whereas only 27 L pass from the interstitial spaces back into the blood capillaries. If
the extra 3 L of interstitial fluid remained in the interstitial spaces, edema would result, causing tissue

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damage and eventually death. The remaining fluid enters the lymphatic capillaries, where the fluid is
called lymph.
2. Fat absorption. The lymphatic system absorbs fats and other substances from the digestive tract.
Lacteals are special lymphatic vessels located in the lining of the small intestine. Fats enter the
lacteals and pass through the lymphatic vessels to the venous circulation.
3. House of the body’s defenses. The lymphoid tissues and organs house phagocytic cells
and lymphocytes, which play essential roles in body defense and resistance to disease.

Anatomy of the Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system actually consists of two semi-independent parts: (1) a meandering network of lymphatic
vessels and (2) various lymphoid tissues and organs scattered throughout the body.

Lymphatic Vessels

The function of the lymphatic vessels is to form an elaborate drainage system that picks up excess tissue
fluid, now called lymph.

 Lymphatics. The lymphatic vessels, also called lymphatics, form a one-way system, and lymph flows
only toward the heart.

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 Lymph capillaries. The microscopic, blind-ended lymph capillaries weave between the tissue cells
and blood capillaries in the loose connective tissues of the body and absorb the leaked fluid.
 Minivalves. The edges of the endothelial cells forming their walls loosely overlap one another,
forming flaplike mini-valves that act as one-way swinging doors; the flaps, anchored by fine collagen
fibers to surrounding structures, gape open when the fluid pressure is higher in the interstitial space,
allowing fluid to enter the lymphatic capillary.
 Lymphatic collecting vessels. Lymph is transported from the lymph capillaries through successively
larger lymphatic vessels referred to as lymphatic collecting vessels, until it is finally returned to the
venous system through one of the two large ducts in the thoracic region.
 Right lymphatic duct. The right lymphatic duct drains the lymph from the right arm and the right side
of the head and thorax.
 Thoracic duct. The large thoracic duct receives lymph from the rest of the body; both ducts empty
the lymph into the subclavian vein on their own side of the body.

Lymph Nodes

The lymph nodes in particular help protect the body by removing foreign material such as bacteria
and tumor cells from the lymphatic stream and by producing lymphocytes that function in the immune
response.

 Macrophages. Within the lymph nodes are macrophages, which engulf and destroy bacteria, viruses,
and other foreign substances in the lymph before it is returned to the blood.
 Lymphocytes. Collections of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) are also strategically located in
the lymph nodes and respond to foreign substances in the lymphatic stream.
 Size and shape. Lymph nodes vary in size and shape, but most are kidney-shaped, less than 1
inch (approximately 2.5 cm) long, and “buried” in the connective tissue that surrounds them.
 Trabeculae. Each node is surrounded by a fibrous capsule from which strands called trabeculae
extend inward to divide the node into a number of compartments.
 Cortex. The outer part of the node, the cortex, contains collections of lymphocytes called follicles,
many of which have dark-staining centers called germinal centers.
 Plasma cells. These centers enlarge when specific lymphocytes (the B cells) are generating
daughter cells called plasma cells, which release antibodies.
 T cells. The rest of the cortical cells are lymphocytes “in transit”, the so-called T cells that circulate
continuously between the blood, lymph nodes and lymphatic stream, performing their surveillance
role.
 Medulla. Phagocytic macrophages are located in the central medulla of the lymph node.
 Afferent lymphatic vessels. Lymph enters the convex side of a lymph node through the afferent
lymphatic vessels.
 Efferent lymphatic vessels. It then flows through a number of sinuses that cut through the lymph
node and finally exits from the node at its indented region, the hilum, via the efferent lymphatic
vessels.

Other Lymphoid Organs

Lymph nodes are just one of the many types of lymphoid organs in the body. Others are the spleen, thymus
gland, tonsils, and Peyer’s patches of the intestine, as well as bits of lymphoid tissue scattered in the epithelial
and connective tissues.

Spleen

The spleen is a soft, blood-rich organ that filters blood.

 Location. The spleen is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity, just beneath the diaphragm,
and curls around the anterior aspect of the stomach.

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 Function. Instead of filtering lymph, the spleen filters and cleanses the blood of bacteria, viruses, and
other debris; it provides a site for lymphocyte proliferation and immune surveillance, but its most
important function is to destroy worn-out red blood cells and return some of their breakdown products
to the liver.
 Fetal spleen. In the fetus, the spleen is an important hematopoietic (blood cell-forming) site, but as a
rule only lymphocytes are produced by the adult spleen.

Thymus Gland

The thymus gland functions at peak levels only during youth.

 Location. The thymus gland is a lymphoid mass found low in the throat overlying the heart.
 Functions. The thymus gland produces thymosin and others, that function in the programming of
certain lymphocytes so they can carry out their protective roles in the body.

Tonsils

The tonsils are small masses of lymphoid tissue that ring the pharynx (the throat), where they are found in the
mucosa.

 Function. Their job is to trap and remove any bacteria or other foreign pathogens entering the throat.
 Tonsilitis. They carry out this function so efficiently that sometimes they become congested with
bacteria and become red, swollen, and sore, a condition called tonsilitis.

Peyer’s Patches

Peyer’s patches resemble the look of the tonsils.

 Location. Peyer’s patches are found in the wall of the small intestine.
 Function. The macrophages of Peyer’s patches are in an ideal position to capture and destroy
bacteria (always present in tremendous numbers in the intestine), thereby preventing them from
penetrating the intestinal wall.
 Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue. Peyer’s patches and the tonsils are part of the collection of
small lymphoid tissues referred to as mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT); MALT acts as a
sentinel to protect the upper respiratory and digestive tracts from the never-ending attacks of foreign
matter entering those cavities.

Physiology of the Lymphatic System

Every second of the day, an army of hostile bacteria, viruses, and fungi swarms on our skin and invades our
inner passageways- yet we stay amazingly healthy most of the time, thanks to our body defense, the
lymphatic system.

Body Defenses

The body’s defenders against these tiny but mighty enemies are two systems, simply called the innate and the
adaptive defense systems; together, they make up the immune system.

Innate Defense System

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The innate defense system, also called the non-specific defense system, responds immediately to protect the
body from all foreign substances, whatever they are.

 Definition. The term innate or nonspecific body defense refers to the mechanical barriers that cover
body surfaces and to the cells and chemicals that act on the initial battlefronts to protect the body
from invading pathogens.

Surface Membrane Barriers

The body’s first line of defense against the invasion of disease-causing microorganisms is the skin and
mucous membranes.

 Skin. As long as the skin is unbroken, its keratinized epidermis is a strong physical barrier to most
microorganisms that swarm on the skin.
 Mucous membranes. Intact mucous membranes provide similar mechanical barriers within the body;
recall that mucous membranes line all body cavities open to the exterior: the digestive, respiratory,
urinary, and reproductive tracts.
 Protective secretions. Besides serving as physical barriers, these membranes produce a variety of
protective secretion: (1) the acidic pH of skin secretions (pH of 3-5) inhibits bacterial growth,
and sebum contains chemicals that are toxic to bacteria; vaginal secretions of adult females are
also very acidic; (2) the stomach mucosa secretes hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting
enzymes, both kill pathogens; (3) Saliva and lacrimal fluid contain lysozyme, an enzyme that
destroys bacteria; and (4) sticky mucus traps many microorganisms that enter digestive and
respiratory passageways.
 Structural modifications. Mucus-coated hairs inside the nasal cavity trap inhaled particles, and the
respiratory tract mucosa is ciliated; the cilia sweep dust- and bacteria-laden mucus superiorly toward
the mouth, preventing it from entering the lungs.
 Damage. Although surface barriers are quite effective, they are broken from time to time by small
nicks and cuts resulting, for example from brushing the teeth or shaving, so microorganisms invade
deeper tissues, and then the internal innate mechanisms come into play.

Internal Defenses: Cells and Chemicals

For its second line of defense, the body uses an enormous number of cells and chemicals to protect itself.

 Phagocytes. Pathogens that make it through the mechanical barriers are confronted by phagocytes,
such as a macrophage or neutrophil, engulfs a foreign particle much the way an amoeba ingests a
food particle; flowing cytoplasmic extensions bind to the particle and then pull it inside, enclosing it in
a vacuole; the vacuole is then fused with the enzymatic contents of a lysosome, and its contents are
broken down, or digested.
 Natural killer cells. Natural killer cells, which “police” the body in blood and lymph, are a unique
group of lymphocytes that can lyse and kill cancer cells and virus-infected body cells well before the
adaptive arm of the immune system is enlisted to fight; they act spontaneously against any such
target by recognizing certain sugars on the “intruder’s” surface as well as their lack of certain “self”
cell surface molecules; they attack the target cell’s membrane and release a lytic chemical
called perforins.
 Inflammatory response. The inflammatory response is a nonspecific response that is triggered
whenever body tissues are injured; the four most common indicators of an acute inflammation
are redness, heat, swelling, and pain.
 Antimicrobial proteins. A variety of antimicrobial proteins enhances the innate defenses:
(1) Complement is a group of plasma proteins that lyses microorganisms, enhances phagocytosis by
opsonization, and intensifies inflammatory response; (2) Interferons are proteins released by virus-
infected cells that protect uninfected tissue cells from viral takeover and mobilize immune system;
(3) Urine has a normally acidic pH that inhibits bacterial growth, and cleanses the lower urinary tract
as it flushes from the body.

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 Fever. Fever, or abnormally high body temperature, is a systemic response to invading

microorganisms; normally the body’s “thermostat” is set at approximately 37 degrees Celsius, but it
can be reset upward in response to pyrogens, chemicals secreted by white blood cells and
macrophages exposed to foreign cells or substances in the body.

The Inflammatory Process

The inflammatory sequence of events are described below.

 Chemical alarm. When cells are injured, they release inflammatory chemicals,
including histamine and kinins.
 Body’s reaction. The release of histamine, kinins, and other chemicals cause blood vessels in the
involved area to dilate and capillaries to become leaky, activate painreceptors, and attract phagocytes
and white blood cells to the area (chemotaxis).
 Redness and heat. Dilatation of the blood vessels increases the blood flow to the area, accounting
for the redness and heat observed.
 Edema and pain. Increased permeability of the capillaries allows plasma to leak from the blood into
the tissue spaces, causing local edema (swelling) that also activates pain receptors in the area.
 Limitation of joint movement. If the swollen, painful area is a joint, its function may be impaired
temporarily, which forces the injured part to rest, which aids healing.

Adaptive Body Defenses

Sometimes referred to as the body’s third line of defense, the specific defense system is a functional system
that recognizes foreign molecules (antigens) and acts to inactivate or destroy them.

 Important aspects. There are three important aspects of the adaptive defense: (1) It is antigen-
specific, it recognizes and acts against particular pathogens or foreign substances; (2) It is systemic,
immunity is not restricted to the initial infection site; (3)It has “memory”, it recognizes and mounts
even stronger attacks on previously encountered pathogens.
 Classifications. Humoral immunity, also called antibody-mediated immunity, is provided by
antibodies present in the body’s “humors”, or fluids. while cellular immunity or cell-mediated immunity
involves lymphocytes that defend the body, as the protective factor is living cells.

Antigens

An antigen (Ag) is any substance capable of mobilizing our immune system and provoking an immune
response.

 Foreign intruders. An almost limitless variety of substances can act as antigens, including virtually
all foreign proteins, nucleic acids, many large carbohydrates, and some lipids; proteins are the
strongest antigens.
 Self-antigens. Our own cells are richly studded with a variety of protein molecules or self-antigens;
although these self-antigens do not trigger an immune response in us, they are strongly antigenic to
other people.
 Hapten. As a rule, small molecules are not antigenic, but when they link up with our own proteins, the
immune system may recognize the combination as foreign and mount an attack that is harmful rather
than protective; in such cases, the troublesome small molecule is called a hapten or incomplete
antigen.

Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: An Overview

The crucial cells of the adaptive system are lymphocytes and macrophages.

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Lymphocytes

Lymphocytes exist in two major “flavors”: the B lymphocytes, or B cells, and the T lymphocytes, or T cells.

 B lymphocytes. The B lymphocytes, or B cells, produce antibodies and oversee humoral immunity.
 T lymphocytes. The T lymphocytes, or T cells, are non-antibody-producing lymphocytes that
constitute the cell-mediated arm of the adaptive defense system.
 Origin. Like all blood cells, lymphocytes originate from hemocytoblasts in red bone marrow.
 Immunocompetent. Whether a given lymphocyte matures into a B cell or T cell depends on where in
the body it becomes immunocompetent, that is, capable of responding to a specific antigen by binding
to it.
 Maturation of T cells. T cells arise from lymphocytes that migrate to the thymus, where they undergo
a maturation process of 2 to 3 days, directed by thymic hormones; only those maturing T cells with
the sharpest ability to identify foreign antigens survive.
 Self-tolerance. Lymphocytes capable of binding strongly with self-antigens (and of acting against
body cells) are vigorously weeded out and destroyed; thus, the development of self-tolerance for the
body’s own cells is an essential part of a lymphocyte’s “education”.
 Maturation of B cell. B cells develop immunocompetence in bone marrow, but less is known about
the factors that regulate B cell maturation.
 Migration. After they become immunocompetent, both T cells and B cells migrate to the lymph nodes
and spleen (and loose connective tissues), where their encounters with antigens will occur.
 Full maturation. Then, when the lymphocytes bind with recognized antigens, they complete their
differentiation into fully mature T cells and B cells.

Macrophages

Macrophages, which also become largely distributed throughout the lymphoid organs and connective tissues,
arise from monocytes, formed in the bone marrow.

 Major role. A major role of macrophages in the innate defense system is to engulf foreign particles
and rid them from the area; they also present fragments of those antigens, like signal flags, on their
own surfaces, where they can be recognized by immunocompetent T cells.
 Cytokines. Macrophages also secrete cytokines proteins that are important in the immune response.
 Killer macrophages. Activated T cells, in turn, release chemicals that causes macrophages to
become insatiable phagocytes, or killer macrophages.
 Location. Macrophages tend to remain fixed in the lymphoid organs, but lymphocytes, especially T
cells circulate continuously through the body.

Humoral (Antibody Mediated) Immune Response

An immunocompetent but as yet immature B lymphocyte is stimulated to complete its development, when
antigens bind to its surface receptors.

 Clonal selection. An immunocompetent but as yet immature B lymphocyte is stimulated to complete

its development (into a fully mature B cell) when antigens bind to its surface receptors; this binding
event sensitizes, or activates, the lymphocyte to “switch on”, and undergo clonal selection.
 Primary humoral response. The resulting family of identical cells descended from the same
ancestor cell is called a clone, and clone formation is the primary humoral response to that antigen.
 Plasma cells. Most of the B cell clone members, or descendants, become plasma cells.
 Antibody production. After an initial lag period, these antibody-producing “factories” swing into
action, producing the same highly specific antibodies at an unbelievable rate of about 2000 antibody
molecules per second.

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 Life span. This flurry of activity lasts only 4 to 5 days, then the plasma cells begin to die; antibody
levels in the blood during this primary response peak about 10 days after the response begins and
then slowly decline.
 Memory cells. B cell clone members that do not become plasma cells become long-lived memory
cells capable of responding to the same antigen at later meetings with it; memory cells are
responsible for the immunological memory, and these later immune responses, called secondary
humoral responses, are produced much faster, are more prolonged, and are more effective than the
events of the primary response because all the preparations for this attack have already been made.

Active and Passive Humoral Immunity

There are two kinds of humoral immunity: active and passive humoral immunity.

 Active immunity. When your B cells encounter antigen and produce antibodies against them, you
are exhibiting active immunity; active immunity is (1) naturally acquiredduring bacterial and viral
infections, and (2) artificially acquired when we receive vaccines.
 Vaccines. We receive two benefits from vaccines: (1) they spare us most of the signs and symptoms
of the disease that would otherwise occur during the primary response and (2) the weakened antigens
are still able to stimulate antibody production and promote immunological memory.
 Booster shots. So-called booster shots, which may intensify the immune response at later meetings
with the same antigen, are also available.
 Passive immunity. In passive immunity, the antibodies are obtained from the serum of an immune
human or animal donor; as a result, the B cells are not challenged by the antigen, immunological
memory does not occur, and the temporary protection provided by the “borrowed antibodies” ends
when they naturally degrade in the body.
 Natural passive immunity. Passive immunity is conferred naturally on a fetus when the mother’s
antibodies cross the placenta and enter fetal circulation, and after birth during breastfeeding.
 Artificial passive immunity. Passive immunity is artificially conferred when one receives immune
serum or gamma globulin.
 Monoclonal antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies prepared commercially for use in research are
produced by descendants of a single cell and are pure antibody preparations that exhibit specificity for
one, and only one, antigen.

Antibodies

Antibodies, also referred to as immunoglobulins, or Igs, constitute the gamma globulin part of blood proteins.

 Antibodies. Antibodies are soluble proteins secreted by activated B cells or by their plasma-cell
offspring in response to an antigen and they are capable of binding specifically with that antigen.
 Basic antibody structure. Regardless of its class, every antibody has a basic structure consisting of
four amino acid (polypeptide) chains linked together by disulfide (sulfur-to-sulfur) bonds.
 Heavy chains. Two of the four chains are identical and contain approximately 400 amino acids each.
 Light chains. The two other chains, the light chains, are also identical to each other but are only
about half as long as the heavy chains.
 Antibody classes. There are five major immunogloblin classes- IgM, IgA, IgD, IgG, and IgE.
 IgD. IgD is virtually always attached to B cell and is believed to be the cell surface receptor of
immunocompetent B cell; and it is also important in activation of B cell.
 IgM. IgM is attached to B cell and free in plasma; when it is bound to the B cell membrane, it serves
as an antigen receptor; first Ig class released to plasma by plasma cells during primary response; it is
also a potent agglutinating agent and fixes complement.
 IgG. IgG is the most abundant antibody in plasma, representing 75% to 85% of circulating antibodies;
it is the main antibody of both primary and secondary responses; crosses the placenta and provides
passive immunity to fetus; fixes complement.
 IgA. Some are found in plasma; dimer in secretions such as saliva, tears, intestinal juice, and milk; it
bathes and protects mucosal surfaces from attachment of pathogens.

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 IgE. It is secreted by plasma cells in skin, mucosae of gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts,
and tonsils; it binds to mast cells and basophils and triggers release of histamine and other chemicals
that mediate inflammation and certain allergic responses.
 Antibody function. Antibodies inactivate antigens in a number of ways- by complement fixation,
neutralization, agglutination, and precipitation.
 Complement fixation. Complement is the chief antibody ammunition used against cellular antigens,
and it is fixed (activated) during innate defenses; it is also activated very efficiently when it binds to
antibodies attached to cellular targets.
 Neutralization. Neutralization occurs when antibodies bind to specific sites on
bacterial exotoxins (toxic chemicals secreted by bacteria) or on viruses that can cause cellular injury;
in this way they block the harmful effects of the exotoxin or virus.
 Agglutination. When the cross-linking involves cell-bound antigens, the process causes clumping of
the foreign cells, a process called agglutination; this type of antigen-antibody reaction occurs when
mismatched blood is transfused and is the basis of tests used for blood typing.
 Precipitation. When the cross-linking involves soluble antigenic molecules, the resulting antigen-
antibody complexes are so large that they become insoluble and settle out of solution; this cross-
linking reaction is more precisely called precipitation.

Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response

Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are activated to form a clone by binding with a “recognized” antigen;
however, T cells are not able to bind with free antigens.

 Antigen presentation. Apparently, T cell must recognize “nonself”, the antigen fragment presented
by the macrophage, and also “self” by coupling with a specific glycoprotein on the macrophage’s
surface at the same time; antigen binding alone is not enough to sensitize T cells; they must be
“spoon-fed” the antigens by macrophages, and something like a “double handshake” must occur; this
is called antigen presentation and is essential for activation and clonal selection of the T cells.
 Cytotoxic (killer) T cells. Some T cells are cytotoxic ,or killer, T cells that specialize in killing virus-
infected, cancer, or foreign graft cells; one way a cytotoxic T cell accomplishes this is by binding
tightly to a foreign cell and releasing toxic chemicals called perforins and granzymes from its
granules.
 Helper T cells. Helper T cells are the T cells that act as the “directors” or “managers” of the immune
system; once activated, they circulate through the body, recruiting other cells to fight the invaders; the
helper T cells also release a variety of cytokine chemicals that act indirectly to rid the body of antigens
by (1) stimulating cytotoxic T cells and B cells to grow and divide; (2) attracting other types of
protective white blood cells, such as neutrophils, into the area; and (3) enhancing the ability of
macrophages to engulf and destroy microorganisms.
 Regulatory T cells. Another t cell population, the regulatory T cells, formerly called suppressor T
cells, releases chemicals that suppress the activity of both T and B cells; regulatory T cells are vital
for winding down and finally stopping the immune response after an antigen has been successfully
inactivated or destroyed.
 Memory cells. Most of the T cells enlisted to fight in a particular immune response are dead within a
few days; however, a few members of each clone are long-lived memory cells thDedat remain behind
to provide immunological memory for each antigen encountered and enable the body to respond
quickly to subsequent invasions.

Lymphocyte Differentiation and Activation

The process of differentiation and activation of lymphocytes include the following:

 Immunocompetence. Lymphocytes destined to become T cells migrate from bone marrow to the
thymus and develop immunocompetence there; B cells develop immunocompetence in the bone
marrow.

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 Activation. After leaving the thymus or bone marrow as naive immunocompetent cells, lymphocytes
“seed” the infected connective tissues, where the antigen challenge occurs and the lymphocytes
become fully activated.
 Circulation. Activated (mature) lymphocytes circulate continuously in the bloodstream and lymph,
and throughout the lymphoid organs of the body.

Aging and the Lymphatic System

In a sense aging of the immune system actually begins before birth when nonself T cells are selected for
destruction via programmed cell death (apoptosis) in the thymus. The immune system begins to decline early
in life. The thymus gland reaches its maximal size in adolescence and then slowly shrinks. By age seventy,
the thymus is one-tenth the size it was at the age of ten, and the immune system is only 25% as powerful.

The declining strength of the immune response is why elderly people have a higher risk of developing cancer
and succumb more easily to infections that they easily immune system is fought off at an earlier age, such as
influenza, tuberculosis and pneumonia. Encephalitis due to infection by the West Nile virus, a newly described
illness, may cause very minor symptoms in young people, but kill the elderly. HIV infection progresses to
AIDS faster in people older than forty. AIDS is more difficult to diagnose in older people sometimes because
physicians do not initially suspect the condition, instead attributing the fatigue, confusion, loss of appetite, and
swollen glands to other causes. However, 11% of new cases of AIDS occur in those over age fifty.

Interestingly, numbers of T cells diminish only slightly with increasing age, and numbers of B cells not at all.
However, activity levels change for both types of lymphocytes. Because T cell function controls production of
B cells, effects on B cells are secondary. The antibody response to antigens is slower, and as a result,
vaccines that would ordinarily be effective in one dose may require an extra dose. The proportions of the
different antibody classes shift, with IgA and IgG increasing, and IgM and IgE decreasing. A person may
produce more autoantibodies than at a younger age, increasing the risk of developing an autoimmune
disorder. Because of the declining function of the immune system, elderly people may not be candidates for
certain medical treatments that suppress immunity, such as can such as cancer chemotherapy and steroids to
treat inflammatory disorders. Overall, the immune system makes it possible for us to survive in a world that is
also home to many microorganisms. Clinical Application 16.1 looks at the devastation of immunity that is
AIDS.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

1.Draw and label the parts of the lymphatic system.

2.Describe the main functions of lymphatic system.
3.Prepare your answers and sending it directly in the Learning Management System.

SUMMARY
 The lymphatic system is a series of vessels, ducts, and trunks that remove interstitial fluid from the
tissues and return it the blood.
 The lymphatics are also used to transport dietary lipids and cells of the immune system.
 Cells of the immune system all come from the hematopoietic system of the bone marrow.
 Primary lymphoid organs, the bone marrow and thymus gland, are the locations where lymphocytes
of the adaptive immune system proliferate and mature.
 Secondary lymphoid organs are site in which mature lymphocytes congregate to mount immune
responses. Many immune system cells use the lymphatic and circulatory systems for transport
throughout the body to search for and then protect against pathogens.

REFERENCES

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 Human Anatomy and Physiology work Book and Laboratory Manual by Ho,Gan,Verbo,Guerrero
pp348-350
 Anatomy and Physiology by Seeley,Stephen,Tate,3rd Ed.pp 75
 Human Anatomy and Physiology by David Shier,Jackie Butler, Riccki Lewis 10th Ed. Pp 634

 https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/21-1-anatomy-of-the-lymphatic-and-immune-
systems/

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The term “respiration” was once used for the process of breathing. Where oxygen
is necessary for most plants and animals if certain cellular activities are so continue. cells
need energy, and the process making energy available, usually respiration usually cells for their survival. Most
have in addition a respiratory system in which make possible diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between
the blood and the surroundings of the organism.

I. The function of Respiratory System

a. Ventilation

b. Gas Exchange

c. Oxygen utilization

II. Human Respiratory System

1. Two major parts of Human Respiratory

a. Upper respiratory tract

• Nasal Cavity

• Pharynx

• Larnyx

b. Lower Respiratory tract

• Tranchea

• Lungs

• Bronchi

2. Mechanics of Respiration

a. Breathing

b. External Respiration

c. Internal Respiration

d.Cellular Respiration

III. Variations in Respiratory Organs among Animals

IV. Diseases of the Respiratory System

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THE FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The functions of the respiratory system include the following:

1. Ventilation- This is mechanical process that moves air into and out of the lungs. Since

air in the lungs has a higher oxygen concentration than blood, oxygen diffuses from air

to blood. Carbon dioxide moves from the blood to the air within the lungs by diffusing

down its concentration gradient.

2. Gas Exchange- Which occurs between the blood and other tissues in the body.

3. Oxygen utilization- by the tissues in the energy liberating reactions of cell respiration

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking oxygen and expelling carbon
dioxide. The primary organs of the respiratory system are lung, which carry out this exchange of gases as we
breathe. Where external respiration occurs, starts at the nose and the mouth and end in the lungs, (Fig 1.)
Present the major structure of the respiratory system.

Figure 1. The Human Respiratory System

Two major parts of Human Respiratory

A. Upper respiratory tract
Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx and the larynx, (Fig 2.) the organs of the
upper respiratory tract are located outside the chest cavity.
 Nasal cavity- inside the nose

 Pharynx- both food and air pass through the pharynx before reaching

Their appropriate destination.

 Larynx – is essential to human speech

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Figure 2. The Upper Respiratory Tract

B. Lower respiratory tract
Composed of the trachea, lungs and all segments of the bronchial tree (including the
alveoli), (Fig 3.) the organs of the lower respiratory tract are located inside the chest
cavity.
 Tranchea- Is the main airway to the lungs.

 Lungs- They’re responsible for providing oxygen to capillaries and

exhaling carbon dioxide.

 Bronchi- the bronchi branch from the trachea into each lung and create the network of
intricate passages that supply the lungs with air.

Figure 3. The Lower Respiratory Tract

Mechanics of Respiration
The respiratory system may also divided into two: the conducting division and respiratory division. The
former includes all of the cavities and structures that transport gases to the respiratory division, while the latter
are those involved in gas exchange between the air and blood.
1. Breathing- This consists of taking air into the lungs or inspiration, and expelling air from the lungs. During
inspiration, the diaphragm contracts,, flattens and the ribs rise increasing the volume of the chest cavity to
allow inward rush of air. At the end of an expiration, the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles are relaxed.
It take a domeshape and the ribs fall, reducing the volume of the chest cavity and expelling air.
Air is warmed and cleared as it passes through the nasal passages and into the lungs. The trachea
(windpipe) is comprised of stout cartilaginous rings that divide into bronchi. At the top of the trachea is the
larynx, which contains the vocal cords. The trachea extends from the neck into the thorax, where it divides
into right and left main bronchi, which enter the right and left lungs, breaking up into smaller bronchi and
bronchioles and ending in small air sacs or alveoli where gaseous exchange occurs. The lungs are divided
first into right and left, the left being smaller to accommodate the heart, then into lobes ( three on the right,
two on the left) supplied by bronchi.
The respiratory tract, from nasal cavities to the smallest bronchi, is lined by a layer of sticky mucus
secreted by the epithelium. Particles which hit the side wall of the tract are trapped in this mucous. This is
encouraged by the air stream changing direction, as it repeatedly does in a continually dividing tube and
random movement of small particles suspended in the airstream.

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Figure 4. Inspiration and Expiration after breathing

2. External Respiration- This take place in the lungs as carbon dioxide leaves the blood, diffusing into
alveoli, and oxygen enters the blood from the blood from the alveoli. Ga-seous exchange relies on simple
diffusion. In order to provide sufficient oxygen and to get rid of sufficient carbon dioxide there must be a large
surface area for gaseous exchange, a very short diffusion path between alveolar air and blood, and
concentration gradients for oxygen and carbon dioxide between alveolar air and blood (see Figure 4).
Carbon dioxide moves down a pressure gradient, diffusing from the blood in Capi-llaries surrounding the
alveoli to air in the alveoli. Oxygen also moves down a pressure gradient, diffusing from the alveolar air to the
blood in the capillaries surrounding the alveoli. Carbon dioxide is carried in the fluid portion of the blood as
bicarbonate ions, while oxygen is carried within the red blood cells by hemoglobin.
3.Internal Respiration- In a process, carbon dioxide moves down a pressure gradient, diffusing from the
tissue fluid surrounding the body cells to the blood. Oxygen moves down a pressure gradient, diffusing from
the blood within capillaries to the tissue fluid. The pathway of blood carrying these gases is further detailed in
the discussion in circulation (see Figure 5).
4. Cellular respiration- Energy in the form of ATP is generated by the breaking down of
glucose into water and carbon dioxide.

Aging and the Respiratory System

Changes in the respiratory system over a lifetime reflect both the accumulation of environmental influences
and the effects of aging in other organ systems. The lungs and respiratory passageways of a person who has
breathed only clean air are pinker and can exchange gases much more efficiently as the years pass than can
the respiratory system of a person who has breathed polluted air and smoked for many years. Those who
have been exposed to foul air are more likely to develop chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and/or lung cancer.
Long-term exposure to particulates in the workplace can also raise the risk of developing these conditions.
Still, many age-associated changes in the respiratory system are unavoidable.

With age, protection of the lungs and airways falters, as ciliated epithelial cells become fewer, and their cilia
less active or gone. At the same time, mucus thickens; the swallowing, gagging, and coughing reflexes slow;
and macrophages lose their efficiency in phagocytizing bacteria. These changes combine to slow the
clearance of pathogens from the lungs and respiratory passages, which increases susceptibility to and
severity of respiratory infections.

Several changes contribute to an overall increase in effort required to breathe that accompanies aging.
Cartilage between the sternum and ribs calcifies and stiffens, and skeletal shifts change the shape of the
thoracic cavity into a "barrel chest" as posture too changes with age. In the bronchioles, fibrous connective
tissue replaces some smooth muscle, decreasing contractility. As muscles lose strength, breathing comes to
depend more upon the diaphragm. The vital capacity, which reaches a maximum by age forty, may drop by a

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third by the age of seventy years. Keeping fresh air in the lungs becomes more difficult with age. As the
farthest reaches of the bronchiole walls thin, perhaps in response to years of gravity, they do not stay as open
as they once did, trapping residual air in the lower portions of the lungs. Widening of the bronchi and
alveolar ducts increase dead space. The lungs can still handle the same volume of air, but a greater
proportion of that air is "stale," reflecting lessened ability to move air in and out. The maximum minute
ventilation drops by 50% from age 20 to 80.

Aging-associated changes occur at the microscopic level too. The number of alveoli is about 24 million at
birth, peaking at 300 million by age eight years. The number remains constant throughout life, but the alveoli
expand. Alveolar walls thin and may coalesce, and the depth of alveoli begins to diminish by age forty,
decreasing the surface area available for gas exchange-about three square feet per year. In addition, an
increase in the proportion of collagen to elastin and a tendency of the collagen to cross-link impair the ability
of alveoli to expand fully. As a result, oxygen transport from the alveoli to the blood, as well as oxygen loading
onto hemoglobin in red blood cells, becomes less efficient. Diffusion of CO, out of the blood and through the
alveolar walls slows too. As with other organ systems, the respiratory system undergoes specific changes, but
these may be unnoticeable at the whole-body level. A person who is sedentary or engages only in light activity
would probably not be aware of the slowing of air flow in and out of the respiratory system. Unaccustomed
exercise, however, would quickly reveal how difficult breathing has become compared to in years past.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

1. Draw and label the gross anatomy of respiratory system

2. Trace the flow of air through the tracheobronchial tree starting from the nasal cavity down to the
alveoli.
3. Write your name, year, course and section and the date at the upper part of your activity sheets.
4. Prepare your answers and sending it directly in the Learning Management System.

SUMMARY

Respiratory System
Your respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. This system helps your
body absorb oxygen from the air so your organs can work. It also cleans waste gases, such as carbon
dioxide, from your blood. Common problems include allergies, diseases or infections.

The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. It includes your airways,
lungs, and blood vessels. The muscles that power your lungs are also part of the respiratory system. These
parts work together to move oxygen throughout the body and clean out waste gases like carbon dioxide.

The respiratory system has many functions. Besides helping you inhale (breathe in) and exhale (breathe out),
it:

 Allows you to talk and to smell.

 Brings air to body temperature and moisturizes it to the humidity level your body needs.
 Delivers oxygen to the cells in your body.
 Removes waste gases, including carbon dioxide, from the body when you exhale.
 Protects your airways from harmful substances and irritants.

The respiratory system has many different parts that work together to help you breathe. Each group of parts
has many separate components.

Your airways deliver air to your lungs. Your airways are a complicated system that includes your:

 Mouth and nose: Openings that pull air from outside your body into your respiratory system.
 Sinuses: Hollow areas between the bones in your head that help regulate the temperature and
humidity of the air you inhale.

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 Pharynx (throat): Tube that delivers air from your mouth and nose to the trachea (windpipe).
 Trachea: Passage connecting your throat and lungs.
 Bronchial tubes: Tubes at the bottom of your windpipe that connect into each lung.
 Lungs: Two organs that remove oxygen from the air and pass it into your blood.

From your lungs, your bloodstream delivers oxygen to all your organs and other tissues.

Muscles and bones help move the air you inhale into and out of your lungs. Some of the bones and muscles
in the respiratory system include your:

 Diaphragm: Muscle that helps your lungs pull in air and push it out
 Ribs: Bones that surround and protect your lungs and heart

When you breathe out, your blood carries carbon dioxide and other waste out of the body. Other components
that work with the lungs and blood vessels include:

 Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
 Bronchioles: Small branches of the bronchial tubes that lead to the alveoli.
 Capillaries: Blood vessels in the alveoli walls that move oxygen and carbon dioxide.
 Lung lobes: Sections of the lungs – three lobes in the right lung and two in the left lung.
 Pleura: Thin sacs that surround each lung lobe and separate your lungs from the chest wall.

Some of the other components of your respiratory system include:

 Cilia: Tiny hairs that move in a wave-like motion to filter dust and other irritants out of your airways.
 Epiglottis: Tissue flap at the entrance to the trachea that closes when you swallow to keep food and
liquids out of your airway.
 Larynx (voice box): Hollow organ that allows you to talk and make sounds when air moves in and
out.

REFERENCES

 Human Anatomy and Physiology work Book and Laboratory Manual by Ho,Gan,Verbo,Guerrero
pp380
 Human Anatomy and Physiology by David Shier,Jackie Butler, Riccki Lewis 10th Ed.pp764
 Morgan David, Anthony Lee, John Nicolas and Michael Pitman. 2000.Biological Science
 the web of life.Australia: Sydney. pp 402-409
 Penecillia Gerald L, Formacion, N. Fandialan, N. Valmote, M. Sandoval, and
 N.Esmeralda.2003. Basic Concepts in Biology.Philippines: Trintas Publishing, Inc. pp 135-145
 hhtps://basicbiology.net/animal/fish/gills.com
 https://en.m.wikipedia.com
 https://healthline.com
 https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/21205-respiratory-system#:~:text=The%20respiratory
%20system%20is%20the,waste%20gases%20like%20carbon%20dioxide

DIGESTIVE SYSYTEM

The digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal tract—also called the GI tract or digestive
tract, the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. The function of the digestive system is digestion and absorption.

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Digestion is important because our body needs nutrients from food and drink to work properly and stay
healthy. Proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and water are nutrients. Your digestive system
breaks nutrients into parts small enough for your body to absorb and use for energy, growth, and cell repair.
To further understand the digestive system, the following are the topics to be discussed:
I. Parts of the Digestive System
A. Mouth
B. Esophagus
C. Stomach
D. Small Intestine
E. Pancreas
F. Liver
G. Gallbladder
H. Large Intestine
I. Rectum
II. How the Digestive System Work
A. Food movement in the GI tract
B. The digestion of food into small parts
C. The use of digested food
D. How the body control the digested process
III. Types of Digestive Systems
A. Complete Digestive System
B. Incomplete Digestive System
IV. Stages of Digestion
A. Movement
B. Secretion
C. Digestion
D. Absorption
E. Elimination
V. How Unicellular Organisms Take in Nutrients

Below is the image of the human digestive system (Figure 1).

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PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system is composed of different organs performing together to facilitate digestion and

absorption. These organs are the following:

A. Mouth

The mouth is the beginning of the digestive

tract; and, in fact, digestion starts here when taking the

first bite of food. Chewing breaks the food into pieces

that are more easily digested, while saliva mixes with

Figure 1. The Human Digestive System
food to begin the process of breaking it down
Figure 2. The Mouth
into a form your body can absorb and use.

Figure 2 shows the image of the mouth

B. Esophagus

Located in your throat near your trachea

(windpipe), the esophagus receives food from your

mouth when you swallow. By means of a series of

muscular contractions called peristalsis, the esophagus

delivers food to your stomach. Below is the image of the

esophagus (Figure 3).

Figure 3. The Esophagus

C. Stomach

The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds

food while it is being mixed with enzymes that continue the process

of breaking down food into a usable form. Cells in the lining of the

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stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the breakdown process. When

the contents of the stomach are sufficiently processed, they are released into the small intestine. Shown in

Figure 4 is the image of the stomach.

D. Small intestine

Made up of three segments - the

duodenum, jejunum, and ileum - the small

intestine is a 22-foot long muscular tube that

breaks down food using enzymes released by the

pancreas and bile from the liver. Peristalsis also is

at work in this organ, moving food through and

mixing it with digestive secretions from the

pancreas and liver. The duodenum is largely

responsible for the continuous breaking-down

process, with the jejunum and ileum mainly Figure 5. The Small Intestine
responsible for absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.

Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid, and end in a liquid form after passing through the

organ. Water, bile, enzymes, and mucous contribute to the change in consistency. Once the nutrients have

been absorbed and the leftover-food residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then moves on to

the large intestine, or colon. Figure 5 is the image of the small intestine.

E. Pancreas

The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the

duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine. These

enzymes break down protein, fats, and carbohydrates. The

pancreas also makes insulin, secreting it directly into the

bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone for metabolizing

sugar. Below is the image of the pancreas (Figure 6).

Figure 6. The Pancreas
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F. Liver

The liver has multiple functions, but

its main function within the digestive system

is to process the nutrients absorbed from the

small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted

into the small intestine also plays an

important role in digesting fat. In addition, the

liver is the body's chemical "factory." It takes

the raw materials absorbed by the intestine

and makes all the various chemicals the

body needs to function. The liver also

detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It

Figure 7. The Liver
breaks down and secretes many drugs.

Shown in Figure 7 is the liver.

G. Gallbladder The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, and then releases it into the duodenum

to help absorb and digest fats. Figure 8is the image of gallbladder.

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Figure 8. The Gallbladder

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H. Colon (large intestine)

The colon is a 6-foot long muscular tube that

connects the small intestine to the rectum. The large

intestine is made up of the cecum, the ascending

(right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the

descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which

connects to the rectum. The appendix is a small tube

attached to the cecum. The large intestine is a highly

specialized organ that is responsible for processing

waste so that emptying the bowels is easy and

Figure 9. The Colon
convenient. Shown in Figure 9 is the colon.

I. Rectum

The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch

chamber that connects the colon to the anus. It is the

rectum's job to receive stool. Below is the image of the

rectum (Figure 10).

Figure 10. The Rectum

HOW THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM WORK

Each part of your digestive system helps to move food and liquid through your GI tract, break food

and liquid into smaller parts, or both. Once foods are broken into small enough parts, your body can absorb

and move the nutrients to where they are needed. Your large intestine absorbs water, and the waste products

of digestion become stool. Nerves and hormones help control the digestive process.

A. Food movement in the GI tract

Food moves through your GI tract by a process called peristalsis. The large, hollow organs of your GI

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tract contain a layer of muscle that enables their walls to move. The movement pushes food and liquid

through your GI tract and mixes the contents within each organ. The muscle behind the food contracts and

squeezes the food forward, while the muscle in front of the food relaxes to allow the food to move. The

following are the movement of food through the different parts of the digestive system:

A1.Mouth - Food starts to move through your GI tract when you eat. When you swallow, your tongue

pushes the food into your throat. A small flap of tissue, called the epiglottis, folds over your windpipe to

prevent choking and the food passes into your esophagus.

A2.Esophagus - Once you begin swallowing, the process becomes automatic. Your brain signals the

muscles of the esophagus and peristalsis begins.

A3.Lower esophageal sphincter - When food reaches the end of your esophagus, a ringlike muscle

—called the lower esophageal sphincter —relaxes and lets food pass into your stomach. This sphincter

usually stays closed to keep what’s in your stomach from flowing back into your esophagus.

A4.Stomach - After food enters your stomach, the stomach muscles mix the food and liquid with

digestive juices. The stomach slowly empties its contents, called chyme, into your small intestine.

A5.Small intestine - The muscles of the small intestine mix food with digestive juices from the

pancreas, liver, and intestine, and push the mixture forward for further digestion. The walls of the small

intestine absorb water and the digested nutrients into your bloodstream. As peristalsis continues, the waste

products of the digestive process move into the large intestine.

A6.Large intestine - Waste products from the digestive process include undigested parts of food,

fluid, and older cells from the lining of your GI tract. The large intestine absorbs water and changes the waste

from liquid into stool. Peristalsis helps move the stool into your rectum.

A7.Rectum - The lower end of your large intestine, the rectum, stores stool until it pushes stool out of

your anus during a bowel movement.

B. The Digestion of Food into Small Parts

As food moves through your GI tract, your digestive organs break the food into smaller parts using:

● motion, such as chewing, squeezing, and mixing

● digestive juices, such as stomach acid, bile, and enzymes

The parts of the digestive system aid in digestion by exerting motion and secreting digestive juices:

B1.Mouth. The digestive process starts in your mouth when you chew. Your salivary glands make

saliva, a digestive juice, which moistens food so it moves more easily through your esophagus into your

stomach. Saliva also has an enzyme that begins to break down starches in your food.

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B2.Esophagus. After you swallow, peristalsis pushes the food down your esophagus into your

stomach.

B3.Stomach. Glands in your stomach lining make stomach acid and enzymes that break down food.

Muscles of your stomach mix the food with these digestive juices.

B4.Pancreas. Your pancreas makes a digestive juice that has enzymes that break down

carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The pancreas delivers the digestive juice to the small intestine through

small tubes called ducts.

B5.Liver. Your liver makes a digestive juice called bile that helps digest fats and some vitamins. Bile

ducts carry bile from your liver to your gallbladder for storage, or to the small intestine for use.

B6.Gallbladder. Your gallbladder stores bile between meals. When you eat, your gallbladder

squeezes bile through the bile ducts into your small intestine.

B7.Small intestine. Your small intestine makes digestive juice, which mixes with bile and pancreatic

juice to complete the breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Bacteria in your small intestine make

some of the enzymes you need to digest carbohydrates. Your small intestine moves water from your

bloodstream into your GI tract to help break down food. Your small intestine also absorbs water with other

nutrients.

B8.Large intestine. In your large intestine, more water moves from your GI tract into your

bloodstream. Bacteria in your large intestine help break down remaining nutrients and make vitamin K . Waste

products of digestion, including parts of food that are still too large, become stool.

C. The Use of Digested Food

The small intestine absorbs most of the nutrients in your food, and your circulatory system passes

them on to other parts of your body to store or use. Special cells help absorbed nutrients cross the intestinal

lining into your bloodstream. Your blood carries simple sugars, amino acids, glycerol, and some vitamins and

salts to the liver. Your liver stores, processes, and delivers nutrients to the rest of your body when needed.

The lymph system , a network of vessels that carry white blood cells and a fluid called lymph

throughout your body to fight infection, absorbs fatty acids and vitamins.

Your body uses sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol to build substances you need for

energy, growth, and cell repair.

D. How the Body Control the Digestive Process

Your hormones and nerves work together to help control the digestive process. Signals flow within

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your GI tract and back and forth from your GI tract to your brain.

D1.Hormones - Cells lining your stomach and small intestine make and release hormones that

control how your digestive system works. These hormones tell your body when to make digestive juices and

send signals to your brain that you are hungry or full. Your pancreas also makes hormones that are important

to digestion.

D2.Nerves - You have nerves that connect your central nervous system—your brain and spinal cord

—to your digestive system and control some digestive functions. For example, when you see or smell food,

your brain sends a signal that causes your salivary glands to "make your mouth water" to prepare you to eat.

STAGES OF DIGESTION

The process of digestion can be summarized through the following stages:

A. Movement, where food is propelled thr4the digestive system through ingestion (taking food into

the mouth) mastication (chewing), deglutition (swallowing) and peristalsis (rhythmic action of muscles to force

the food into the gut).

B. Secretion, digestive juices are released in response to a specific stimulus.

C. Digestion, food is broken down into molecular components small enough to cross the plasma

membrane.

D. Absorption, molecules passed from the stomach and small intestine into the blood or lymph, then

to the cells.

E. Elimination, undigested food and waste products are removed.

Aging and the Digestive System

Changes to the digestive system that are associated with the passing years are slow and slight, so most
people can enjoy eating a variety of foods as they grow older. Maintaining healthy teeth, of course, is vital to
obtaining adequate nutrition. This requires frequent dental checkups, cleanings and plaque removal, plus care
of the gums. Tooth loss due to periodontal disease becomes more likely after age thirty-five. Despite regular
dental care, some signs of aging may affect the teeth. The enamel often thins from years of brushing, teeth
grinding, and eating acidic foods. Thinning enamel may make the teeth more sensitive to hot and cold foods.
At the same time, the cementum may thicken. The dentin heals more slowly and enlarges as the pulp shrinks.
Loss of neurons in the pulp may make it more difficult to be aware of tooth decay. The gums recede, creating
more pockets to harbor the bacteria whose activity contributes to periodontal disease. The teeth may loosen
as the bones of the jaw weaken. On a functional level, older people sometimes do not chew their food
thoroughly, swallowing larger chunks of food that may present a choking hazard. A common complaint of
older individuals is dry mouth," or xerostomia. This condition is not a normal part of aging-studies have shown
that the oldest healthy people make just as much saliva as healthy younger people. Dry mouth is common,
however, because it is a side effect of more than 400 medications, many of which are more likely to be taken
by older persons. These include antidepressants, antihistamines, and drugs that treat cancer or hypertension.
In addition, radiation and chemotherapy used to treat cancer can cause mouth sores and tooth decay. It is a
good idea for cancer patients to coordinate dental visits with other aspects of their cane. Once past the mouth,

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food travels through a gastrointestinal tract that declines gradually in efficiency with age.

A slowing of peristalsis may result in frequent heartburn as food backs up into the esophagus. The stomach
lining thins with age, and secretion of hydrochloric acid, pepsin, and intrinsic factor decline. Exit of chyme
from the stomach slows. Overall, these changes may affect the rate at which certain medications are
absorbed. Because the small intestine is the site of absorption of nutrients, it is here that noticeable signs of
aging on digestion arise. Subtle shifts in the microbial species that inhabit the small intestine alter the rates of
absorption of particular nutrients. With age, the small intestine becomes less efficient at absorbing vitamins A,
D, and K and the mineral zinc. This raises the risk of deficiency symptoms-effects on skin and vision due to a
lack of vitamin A; weakened bones from inadequate vitamin D; impaired blood clotting seen in vitamin K
deficiency; and slowed healing, decreased immunity, and altered taste evidenced in zinc deficiency. Many
people who have inherited lactose intolerance begin to notice the telltale cramping after eating dairy with
foods in the middle years. They must be careful that by can avoiding dairy products, they do not also lower
their calcium intake. Less hydrochloric acid also adversely affects the absorption of calcium, as well as iron.
Too little intrinsic factor may lead to vitamin B12 deficiency anemia.

The lining of the large intestine changes too, thinning and containing less smooth muscle and mucus. A
dampening of the responsiveness of the smooth muscle to neural signs of aging may stimulation slows
peristalsis, ultimately causing constipation Compounding this common problem is a loss of elasticity in the
wall of rectum an declining strength and responsiveness of the internal and external sphincters. The
accessory organs to digestion age too, but not and enlarges as the pulp necessarily in ways that affect health.
Both the pancreas pulp may make it more and the liver are large organs with cells to spare so a decline of
their secretion abilities does not usually hampered digestion. Only 10% of the pancreas and 20% of the
liver is required to digest foods. However, the liver may not be able to detoxify certain medications as quickly
as it once did. The gallbladder becomes less sensitive to cholecystokinin, but in a classic feedback response,
cells of the intestinal mucosa secrete more of it into the bloodstream, and the gallbladder continues to be able
to contract. The bile ducts widen in some areas, but the end of the common bile duct narrows as it
approaches the small intestines. As long as gallstones do not become entrapped in the ducts, the gall bladder
generally functions well into the later years.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

1.Draw and label the parts of Human digestive system.

2.Trace the flow of food through the digestive system process.
3.Write your name, year, course and section and the date at the upper part of your activity sheets.
4.Prepare your answers and sending it directly in the Learning Management System.

SUMMARY

The digestive system consists of organs that break down food, absorb its nutrients, and expel any remaining
waste. Most of these organs make up the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Food actually passes through these
organs. The rest of the organs of the digestive system are called accessory organs. These organs secrete
enzymes and other substances into the GI tract, but food does not actually pass through them.
Functions of the Digestive System

The digestive system has three main functions relating to food: digestion of food, absorption of nutrients from
food, and elimination of solid food waste. Digestion is the process of breaking down food into components the
body can absorb. It consists of two types of processes: mechanical digestion and chemical digestion.
Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of chunks of food into smaller pieces. This type of digestion

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takes place mainly in the mouth and stomach. Chemical digestion is the chemical breakdown (bonds are
broken) of large, complex food molecules into smaller, simpler nutrient molecules that can be absorbed by
body fluids (blood or lymph). This type of digestion begins in the mouth and continues in the stomach but
occurs mainly in the small intestine.

After food is digested, the resulting nutrients are absorbed. Absorption is the process in which substances
pass into the bloodstream or lymph system to circulate throughout the body. Absorption of nutrients occurs
mainly in the small intestine. Any remaining matter from food that is not digested and absorbed passes out of
the body through the anus in the process of elimination.

REFERENCES

 Human Anatomy and Physiology by David Shier,Jackie Butler, Riccki Lewis 10th Ed. Pp686
 Penecilla, Gerard, L. Valmonte, M. Formacion, A.M. Sandoval, and N. Esmeralda. 2003. Basic
Concepts in Biology. Philippines: Trinitas Publishing, Inc..pp.83-84

 https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7041-the-structure-and-function-of-the-digestive-system
 https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/digestive-system-how-it-works
 https://www.britannica.com/science/digestion-biology

URINARY SYSTEM

function of the kidneys are as follows:

1. Filter. Every day, the kidneys filter gallons of fluid from the bloodstream.
2. Waste processing. The kidneys then process this filtrate, allowing wastes and excess ions to leave
the body in urine while returning needed substances to the blood in just the right proportions.
3. Elimination. Although the lungs and the skin also play roles in excretion, the kidneys bear the major
responsibility for eliminating nitrogenous wastes, toxins, and drugsfrom the body.
4. Regulation. The kidneys also regulate the blood‘s volume and chemical makeup so that the proper
balance between water and salts and between acids and bases is maintained.
5. Other regulatory functions. By producing the enzyme renin, they help regulate bloodpressure, and
their hormone erythropoietin stimulates red blood cell production in the bone marrow.
6. Conversion. Kidney cells also convert vitamin D to its active form.

Anatomy of the Urinary System

The urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder, and a urethra. The kidneys alone
perform the functions just described and manufacture urine in the process, while the other organs of the
urinary system provide temporary storage reservoirs for urine or serve as transportation channels to carry it
from one body region to another.

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The Kidneys

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The kidneys, which maintain the purity and constancy of our internal fluids, are perfect examples of
homeostatic organs.

 Location. These small, dark red organs with a kidney-bean shape lie against the dorsal body wall in a
retroperitoneal position (beneath the parietal peritoneum) in the superior lumbar region; they extend
from the T12 to the L3 vertebra, thus they receive protection from the lower part of the rib cage.
 Positioning. Because it is crowded by the liver, the right kidney is positioned slightly lower than the
left.
 Size. An adult kidney is about 12 cm (5 inches) long, 6 cm (2.5 inches) wide, and 3 cm (1 inch)
thick, about the size of a large bar of soap.
 Adrenal gland. Atop each kidney is an adrenal gland, which is part of the endocrine system is a
distinctly separate organ functionally.
 Fibrous capsule. A transparent fibrous capsule encloses each kidney and gives a fresh kidney
a glistening appearance.
 Perirenal fat capsule. A fatty mass, the perirenal fat capsule, surrounds each kidney and acts
to cushion it against blows.
 Renal fascia. The renal fascia, the outermost capsule, anchors the kidney and helps hold it in place
against the muscles of the trunk wall.
 Renal cortex. The outer region, which is light in color, is the renal cortex.
 Renal medulla. Deep to the cortex is a darker, reddish-brown area, the renal medulla.
 Renal pyramids. The medulla has many basically triangular regions with a striped appearance, the
renal, or medullary pyramids; the broader base of each pyramid faces toward the cortex while its tip,
the apex, points toward the inner region of the kidney.
 Renal columns. The pyramids are separated by extensions of cortex-like tissue, the renal columns.
 Renal pelvis. Medial to the hilum is a flat, basinlike cavity, the renal pelvis, which is continuous with
the ureter leaving the hilum.
 Calyces. Extensions of the pelvis, calyces, form cup-shaped areas that enclose the tips of the
pyramid and collect urine, which continuously drains from the tips of the pyramids into the renal
pelvis.
 Renal artery. The arterial supply of each kidney is the renal artery, which divides into segmental
arteries as it approaches the hilum, and each segmental artery gives off several branches
called interlobar arteries.
 Arcuate arteries. At the cortex-medulla junction, interlobar arteries give off arcuate arteries, which
curve over the medullary pyramids.
 Cortical radiate arteries. Small cortical radiate arteries then branch off the arcuate arteries and run
outward to supply the cortical tissue.

Nephrons

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Nephrons are the structural and functional units of the kidneys.

 Nephrons. Each kidney contains over a million tiny structures called nephrons, and they are
responsible for forming urine.
 Glomerulus. One of the main structures of a nephron, a glomerulus is a knot of capillaries.
 Renal tubule. Another one of the main structures in a nephron is the renal tubule.
 Bowman’s capsule. The closed end of the renal tubule is enlarged and cup-shaped and completely
surrounds the glomerulus, and it is called the glomerular or Bowman’s capsule.
 Podocytes. The inner layer of the capsule is made up of highly modified octopus-likecells called
podocytes.
 Foot processes. Podocytes have long branching processes called foot processes that intertwine
with one another and cling to the glomerulus.
 Collecting duct. As the tubule extends from the glomerular capsule, it coils and twists before forming
a hairpin loop and then again becomes coiled and twisted before entering a collecting tubule called
the collecting duct, which receives urine from many nephrons.
 Proximal convoluted tubule. This is the part of the tubule that is near to the glomerular capsule.
 Loop of Henle. The loop of Henle is the hairpin loop following the proximal convoluted tubule.
 Distal convoluted tubule. After the loop of Henle, the tubule continues to coil and twist before the
collecting duct, and this part is called the distal convoluted tubule.
 Cortical nephrons. Most nephrons are called cortical nephrons because they are located almost
entirely within the cortex.

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 Juxtamedullary nephrons. In a few cases, the nephrons are called juxtamedullary nephrons
because they are situated next to the cortex-medullary junction, and their loops of Henle dip deep into
the medulla.
 Afferent arteriole. The afferent arteriole, which arises from a cortical radiate artery, is the “feeder
vessel”.
 Efferent arteriole. The efferent arteriole receives blood that has passed through the glomerulus.
 Peritubular capillaries. They arise from the efferent arteriole that drains the glomerulus.

Ureters

The ureters do play an active role in urine transport.

 Size. The ureters are two slender tubes each 25 to 30 cm (10 to 12 inches) long and 6 mm (1/4 inch)
in diameter.
 Location. Each ureter runs behind the peritoneum from the renal hilum to the posterior aspect of the
bladder, which it enters at a slight angle.
 Function. Essentially, the ureters are passageways that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder
through contraction of the smooth muscle layers in their walls that propel urine into the bladder
by peristalsis and is prevented from flowing back by small valve-like folds of bladder mucosa that flap
over the ureter openings.

Urinary Bladder

The urinary bladder is a smooth, collapsible, muscular sac that stores urine temporarily.

 Location. It is located retroperitoneally in the pelvis just posterior to the symphysis pubis.
 Function. The detrusor muscles and the transitional epithelium both make the bladder uniquely
suited for its function of urine storage.
 Trigone. The smooth triangular region of the bladder base outlined by these three openings is called
the trigone, where infections tend to persist.
 Detrusor muscles. The bladder wall contains three layers of smooth muscle, collectively called the
detrusor muscle, and its mucosa is a special type of epithelium, transitional epithelium.

Urethra

The urethra is a thin-walled tube that carries urine by peristalsis from the bladder to the outside of the body.

 Internal urethral sphincter. At the bladder-urethral junction, a thickening of the smooth muscle forms
the internal urethral sphincter, an involuntary sphincter that keeps the urethra closed when the urine
is not being passed.
 External urethral sphincter. A second sphincter, the external urethral sphincter, is fashioned
by skeletal muscle as the urethra passes through the pelvic floor and is voluntarily controlled.
 Female urethra. The female urethra is about 3 to 4 cm (1 1/2 inches) long, and its external orifice, or
opening, lies anteriorly to the vaginal opening.
 Male urethra. In me, the urethra is approximately 20 cm (8 inches) long and has three named
regions: the prostatic, membranous, and spongy (penile) urethrae; it opens at the tip of the penis
after traveling down its length.

Physiology of the Urinary System

Every day, the kidneys filter gallons of fluid from the bloodstream. The normal physiology that takes place in
the urinary system are as follows:

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Urine Formation

Urine formation is a result of three processes:

 Glomerular filtration. Water and solutes smaller than proteins are forced through the capillary walls
and pores of the glomerular capsule into the renal tubule.
 Tubular reabsorption. Water, glucose, amino acids, and needed ions are transported out of the
filtrate into the tubule cells and then enter the capillary blood.
 Tubular secretion. Hydrogen, potassium, creatinine, and drugs are removed from the peritubular
blood and secreted by the tubule cells into the filtrate.

Characteristics of Urine

In 24 hours, the marvelously complex kidneys filter some 150 to 180 liters of blood plasmathrough their
glomeruli into the tubules.

 Daily volume. In 24 hours, only about 1.0 to 1.8 liters of urine are produced.
 Components. Urine contains nitrogenous wastes and unneeded substances.
 Color. Freshly voided urine is generally clear and pale to deep yellow.
 Odor. When formed, urine is sterile and slightly aromatic, but if allowed to stand, it takes on
an ammonia odor caused by the action of bacteria on the urine solutes.
 pH. Urine pH is usually slightly acidic (around 6), but changes in body metabolism and certain foods
may cause it to be much more acidic or basic.
 Specific gravity. Whereas the specific gravity of pure water is 1.0, the specific gravity of urine usually
ranges from 1.001 to 1.035.
 Solutes. Solutes normally found in urine include sodium and potassium ions, urea, uric acid,
creatinine, ammonia, bicarbonate ions, and various other ions.

Micturition

Micturition or voiding is the act of emptying the bladder.

 Accumulation. Ordinarily, the bladder continues to collect urine until about 200 ml have
accumulated.
 Activation. At about this point, stretching of the bladder wall activates stretch receptors.
 Transmission. Impulses transmitted to the sacral region of the spinal cord and then back to the
bladder via the pelvic splanchnic nerves cause the bladder to go into reflex contractions.
 Passage. As the contractions become stronger, stored urine is forced past the internal urethral
sphincter into the upper part of the urethra.
 External sphincter. Because the lower external sphincter is skeletal muscle and voluntarily
controlled, we can choose to keep it closed or it can be relaxed so that urine is flushed from the body.

Fluid and Electrolyte Balance

Homeostasis, or the maintenance of constant conditions in the body, is a fundamental property of all
living things. In the human body, the substances that participate in chemical reactions must remain within
narrows ranges of concentration. Too much or too little of a single substance can disrupt your bodily functions.
Because metabolism relies on reactions that are all interconnected, any disruption might affect multiple
organs or even organ systems. Water is the most ubiquitous substance in the chemical reactions of life. The
interactions of various aqueous solutions—solutions in which water is the solvent—are continuously

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monitored and adjusted by a large suite of interconnected feedback systems in your body. Understanding the
ways in which the body maintains these critical balances is key to understanding good health.

Figure 1. The body has critically important mechanisms for balancing the intake and output of bodily fluids. An
athlete must continuously replace the water and electrolytes lost in sweat. (credit: “Edwin
Martinez1”/Wikimedia Commons)

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Body Water Content

Figure 1. Water content varies in different body organs and tissues, from as little as 8 percent in the teeth to
as much as 85 percent in the brain.

Human beings are mostly water, ranging from about 75 percent of body mass in infants to about 50–60
percent in adult men and women, to as low as 45 percent in old age. The percent of body water changes with
development, because the proportions of the body given over to each organ and to muscles, fat, bone, and
other tissues change from infancy to adulthood. Your brain and kidneys have the highest proportions of water,
which composes 80–85 percent of their masses. In contrast, teeth have the lowest proportion of water, at 8–
10 percent.

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Fluid Compartments

Figure 2. The intracellular fluid (ICF) is the fluid within cells. The interstitial fluid (IF) is part of the extracellular
fluid (ECF) between the cells. Blood plasma is the second part of the ECF. Materials travel between cells and
the plasma in capillaries through the IF.
Body fluids can be discussed in terms of their specific fluid compartment, a location that is largely separate
from another compartment by some form of a physical barrier. The intracellular fluid (ICF) compartment is
the system that includes all fluid enclosed in cells by their plasma membranes. Extracellular fluid
(ECF) surrounds all cells in the body. Extracellular fluid has two primary constituents: the fluid component of
the blood (called plasma) and the interstitial fluid (IF) that surrounds all cells not in the blood.

Intracellular Fluid

The ICF lies within cells and is the principal component of the cytosol/cytoplasm. The ICF makes up about 60
percent of the total water in the human body, and in an average-size adult male, the ICF accounts for about
25 liters (seven gallons) of fluid. This fluid volume tends to be very stable, because the amount of water in
living cells is closely regulated. If the amount of water inside a cell falls to a value that is too low, the cytosol
becomes too concentrated with solutes to carry on normal cellular activities; if too much water enters a cell,
the cell may burst and be destroyed.

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Figure 3. Most of the water in the body is intracellular fluid. The second largest volume is the interstitial fluid,
which surrounds cells that are not blood cells.

Extracellular Fluid

The ECF accounts for the other one-third of the body’s water content. Approximately 20 percent of the ECF is
found in plasma. Plasma travels through the body in blood vessels and transports a range of materials,
including blood cells, proteins (including clotting factors and antibodies), electrolytes, nutrients, gases, and
wastes. Gases, nutrients, and waste materials travel between capillaries and cells through the IF. Cells are
separated from the IF by a selectively permeable cell membrane that helps regulate the passage of materials
between the IF and the interior of the cell.

The body has other water-based ECF. These include the cerebrospinal fluid that bathes the brain and spinal
cord, lymph, the synovial fluid in joints, the pleural fluid in the pleural cavities, the pericardial fluid in the
cardiac sac, the peritoneal fluid in the peritoneal cavity, and the aqueous humor of the eye. Because these
fluids are outside of cells, these fluids are also considered components of the ECF compartment.

Composition of Body Fluids

The compositions of the two components of the ECF—plasma and IF—are more similar to each other than
either is to the ICF. Blood plasma has high concentrations of sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, and protein. The
IF has high concentrations of sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate, but a relatively lower concentration of
protein. In contrast, the ICF has elevated amounts of potassium, phosphate, magnesium, and protein. Overall,
the ICF contains high concentrations of potassium and phosphate, whereas both plasma and the ECF contain
high concentrations of sodium and chloride.

Figure 4. The graph shows the composition of the ICF, IF, and plasma. The compositions of plasma and IF
are similar to one another but are quite different from the composition of the ICF.
Most body fluids are neutral in charge. Thus, cations, or positively charged ions, and anions, or negatively
charged ions, are balanced in fluids. As seen in the previous graph, sodium (Na+) ions and chloride (Cl–) ions
are concentrated in the ECF of the body, whereas potassium (K+) ions are concentrated inside cells. Although
sodium and potassium can “leak” through “pores” into and out of cells, respectively, the high levels of
potassium and low levels of sodium in the ICF are maintained by sodium-potassium pumps in the cell
membranes. These pumps use the energy supplied by ATP to pump sodium out of the cell and potassium into
the cell.

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Figure 5. The sodium-potassium pump is powered by ATP to transfer sodium out of the cytoplasm and into
the ECF. The pump also transfers potassium out of the ECF and into the cytoplasm. (credit: modification of
work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)

Fluid Movement between Compartments

Hydrostatic pressure, the force exerted by a fluid against a wall, causes movement of fluid between
compartments. The hydrostatic pressure of blood is the pressure exerted by blood against the walls of the
blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. In capillaries, hydrostatic pressure (also known as capillary
blood pressure) is higher than the opposing “colloid osmotic pressure” in blood—a “constant” pressure
primarily produced by circulating albumin—at the arteriolar end of the capillary. This pressure forces plasma
and nutrients out of the capillaries and into surrounding tissues. Fluid and the cellular wastes in the tissues
enter the capillaries at the venule end, where the hydrostatic pressure is less than the osmotic pressure in the
vessel. Filtration pressure squeezes fluid from the plasma in the blood to the IF surrounding the tissue cells.
The surplus fluid in the interstitial space that is not returned directly back to the capillaries is drained from
tissues by the lymphatic system, and then re-enters the vascular system at the subclavian veins.

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Figure 6. Net filtration occurs near the arterial end of the capillary since capillary hydrostatic pressure (CHP) is
greater than blood colloidal osmotic pressure (BCOP). There is no net movement of fluid near the midpoint of
the capillary since CHP = BCOP. Net reabsorption occurs near the venous end of the capillary since BCOPis
greater than CHP.

Hydrostatic pressure is especially important in governing the movement of water in the nephrons of the
kidneys to ensure proper filtering of the blood to form urine. As hydrostatic pressure in the kidneys increases,
the amount of water leaving the capillaries also increases, and more urine filtrate is formed. If hydrostatic
pressure in the kidneys drops too low, as can happen in dehydration, the functions of the kidneys will be
impaired, and less nitrogenous wastes will be removed from the bloodstream. Extreme dehydration can result
in kidney failure.

Fluid also moves between compartments along an osmotic gradient. Recall that an osmotic gradient is
produced by the difference in concentration of all solutes on either side of a semi-permeable membrane. The
magnitude of the osmotic gradient is proportional to the difference in the concentration of solutes on one side
of the cell membrane to that on the other side. Water will move by osmosis from the side where its
concentration is high (and the concentration of solute is low) to the side of the membrane where its
concentration is low (and the concentration of solute is high). In the body, water moves by osmosis from
plasma to the IF (and the reverse) and from the IF to the ICF (and the reverse). In the body, water moves
constantly into and out of fluid compartments as conditions change in different parts of the body.

For example, if you are sweating, you will lose water through your skin. Sweating depletes your tissues of
water and increases the solute concentration in those tissues. As this happens, water diffuses from your blood
into sweat glands and surrounding skin tissues that have become dehydrated because of the osmotic
gradient. Additionally, as water leaves the blood, it is replaced by the water in other tissues throughout your
body that are not dehydrated. If this continues, dehydration spreads throughout the body. When a dehydrated
person drinks water and rehydrates, the water is redistributed by the same gradient, but in the opposite
direction, replenishing water in all of the tissues.

Solute Movement between Compartments

The movement of some solutes between compartments is active, which consumes energy and is an active
transport process, whereas the movement of other solutes is passive, which does not require energy. Active
transport allows cells to move a specific substance against its concentration gradient through a membrane
protein, requiring energy in the form of ATP. For example, the sodium-potassium pump employs active
transport to pump sodium out of cells and potassium into cells, with both substances moving against their
concentration gradients.

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Figure 7. Glucose molecules use facilitated diffusion to move down a concentration gradient through the
carrier protein channels in the membrane. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)

Passive transport of a molecule or ion depends on its ability to pass through the membrane, as well as the
existence of a concentration gradient that allows the molecules to diffuse from an area of higher concentration
to an area of lower concentration. Some molecules, like gases, lipids, and water itself (which also utilizes
water channels in the membrane called aquaporins), slip fairly easily through the cell membrane; others,
including polar molecules like glucose, amino acids, and ions do not. Some of these molecules enter and
leave cells using facilitated transport, whereby the molecules move down a concentration gradient through
specific protein channels in the membrane. This process does not require energy. For example, glucose is
transferred into cells by glucose transporters that use facilitated

DISORDER OF A FLUID IMBALANCE

Edema is the accumulation of excess water in the tissues. It is most common in the soft tissues of the
extremities. The physiological causes of edema include water leakage from blood capillaries. Edema is almost
always caused by an underlying medical condition, by the use of certain therapeutic drugs, by pregnancy, by
localized injury, or by an allergic reaction. In the limbs, the symptoms of edema include swelling of the
subcutaneous tissues, an increase in the normal size of the limb, and stretched, tight skin. One quick way to
check for subcutaneous edema localized in a limb is to press a finger into the suspected area. Edema is likely
if the depression persists for several seconds after the finger is removed (which is called “pitting”).
Pulmonary edema is excess fluid in the air sacs of the lungs, a common symptom of heart and/or kidney
failure. People with pulmonary edema likely will experience difficulty breathing, and they may experience
chest pain. Pulmonary edema can be life threatening, because it compromises gas exchange in the lungs,
and anyone having symptoms should immediately seek medical care.
In pulmonary edema resulting from heart failure, excessive leakage of water occurs because fluids get
“backed up” in the pulmonary capillaries of the lungs, when the left ventricle of the heart is unable to pump
sufficient blood into the systemic circulation. Because the left side of the heart is unable to pump out its
normal volume of blood, the blood in the pulmonary circulation gets “backed up,” starting with the left atrium,
then into the pulmonary veins, and then into pulmonary capillaries. The resulting increased hydrostatic
pressure within pulmonary capillaries, as blood is still coming in from the pulmonary arteries, causes fluid to
be pushed out of them and into lung tissues.

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Other causes of edema include damage to blood vessels and/or lymphatic vessels, or a decrease in osmotic
pressure in chronic and severe liver disease, where the liver is unable to manufacture plasma proteins. A
decrease in the normal levels of plasma proteins results in a decrease of colloid osmotic pressure (which
counterbalances the hydrostatic pressure) in the capillaries. This process causes loss of water from the blood
to the surrounding tissues, resulting in edema.

Figure 8. An allergic reaction can cause capillaries in the hand to leak excess fluid that accumulates in the
tissues. (credit: Jane Whitney)
Mild, transient edema of the feet and legs may be caused by sitting or standing in the same position for long
periods of time, as in the work of a toll collector or a supermarket cashier. This is because deep veins in the
lower limbs rely on skeletal muscle contractions to push on the veins and thus “pump” blood back to the heart.
Otherwise, the venous blood pools in the lower limbs and can leak into surrounding tissues.
Medications that can result in edema include vasodilators, calcium channel blockers used to treat
hypertension, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, estrogen therapies, and some diabetes medications.
Underlying medical conditions that can contribute to edema include congestive heart failure, kidney damage
and kidney disease, disorders that affect the veins of the legs, and cirrhosis and other liver disorders.
Therapy for edema usually focuses on elimination of the cause. Activities that can reduce the effects of the
condition include appropriate exercises to keep the blood and lymph flowing through the affected areas. Other
therapies include elevation of the affected part to assist drainage, massage and compression of the areas to
move the fluid out of the tissues, and decreased salt intake to decrease sodium and water retention.

Electrolyte Balance

The body contains a large variety of ions, or electrolytes, which perform a variety of functions. Some ions
assist in the transmission of electrical impulses along cell membranes in neurons and muscles. Other ions
help to stabilize protein structures in enzymes. Still others aid in releasing hormones from endocrine glands.
All of the ions in plasma contribute to the osmotic balance that controls the movement of water between cells
and their environment.

Electrolytes in living systems include sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, phosphate,
magnesium, copper, zinc, iron, manganese, molybdenum, copper, and chromium. In terms of body
functioning, six electrolytes are most important: sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, and
phosphate.

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Roles of Electrolytes

These six ions aid in nerve excitability, endocrine secretion, membrane permeability, buffering body fluids,
and controlling the movement of fluids between compartments. These ions enter the body through the
digestive tract. More than 90 percent of the calcium and phosphate that enters the body is incorporated into
bones and teeth, with bone serving as a mineral reserve for these ions. In the event that calcium and
phosphate are needed for other functions, bone tissue can be broken down to supply the blood and other
tissues with these minerals. Phosphate is a normal constituent of nucleic acids; hence, blood levels of
phosphate will increase whenever nucleic acids are broken down.

Excretion of ions occurs mainly through the kidneys, with lesser amounts lost in sweat and in feces. Excessive
sweating may cause a significant loss, especially of sodium and chloride. Severe vomiting or diarrhea will
cause a loss of chloride and bicarbonate ions. Adjustments in respiratory and renal functions allow the body to
regulate the levels of these ions in the ECF.

Sodium

Sodium is the major cation of the extracellular fluid. It is responsible for one-half of the osmotic pressure
gradient that exists between the interior of cells and their surrounding environment. People eating a typical
Western diet, which is very high in NaCl, routinely take in 130 to 160 mmol/day of sodium, but humans require
only 1 to 2 mmol/day. This excess sodium appears to be a major factor in hypertension (high blood pressure)
in some people. Excretion of sodium is accomplished primarily by the kidneys. Sodium is freely filtered
through the glomerular capillaries of the kidneys, and although much of the filtered sodium is reabsorbed in
the proximal convoluted tubule, some remains in the filtrate and urine, and is normally excreted.

Hyponatremia is a lower-than-normal concentration of sodium, usually associated with excess water

accumulation in the body, which dilutes the sodium. An absolute loss of sodium may be due to a decreased
intake of the ion coupled with its continual excretion in the urine. An abnormal loss of sodium from the body
can result from several conditions, including excessive sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea; the use of diuretics;
excessive production of urine, which can occur in diabetes; and acidosis, either metabolic acidosis or diabetic
ketoacidosis.

A relative decrease in blood sodium can occur because of an imbalance of sodium in one of the body’s other
fluid compartments, like IF, or from a dilution of sodium due to water retention related to edema or congestive
heart failure. At the cellular level, hyponatremia results in increased entry of water into cells by osmosis,
because the concentration of solutes within the cell exceeds the concentration of solutes in the now-diluted
ECF. The excess water causes swelling of the cells; the swelling of red blood cells—decreasing their oxygen-
carrying efficiency and making them potentially too large to fit through capillaries—along with the swelling of
neurons in the brain can result in brain damage or even death.

Hypernatremia is an abnormal increase of blood sodium. It can result from water loss from the blood,
resulting in the hemoconcentration of all blood constituents. Hormonal imbalances involving ADH and
aldosterone may also result in higher-than-normal sodium values.

Potassium

Potassium is the major intracellular cation. It helps establish the resting membrane potential in neurons and
muscle fibers after membrane depolarization and action potentials. In contrast to sodium, potassium has very
little effect on osmotic pressure. The low levels of potassium in blood and CSF are due to the sodium-
potassium pumps in cell membranes, which maintain the normal potassium concentration gradients between
the ICF and ECF. The recommendation for daily intake/consumption of potassium is 4700 mg. Potassium is
excreted, both actively and passively, through the renal tubules, especially the distal convoluted tubule and
collecting ducts. Potassium participates in the exchange with sodium in the renal tubules under the influence
of aldosterone, which also relies on basolateral sodium-potassium pumps.

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Hypokalemia is an abnormally low potassium blood level. Similar to the situation with hyponatremia,
hypokalemia can occur because of either an absolute reduction of potassium in the body or a relative
reduction of potassium in the blood due to the redistribution of potassium. An absolute loss of potassium can
arise from decreased intake, frequently related to starvation. It can also come about from vomiting, diarrhea,
or alkalosis.

Some insulin-dependent diabetic patients experience a relative reduction of potassium in the blood from the
redistribution of potassium. When insulin is administered and glucose is taken up by cells, potassium passes
through the cell membrane along with glucose, decreasing the amount of potassium in the blood and IF,
which can cause hyperpolarization of the cell membranes of neurons, reducing their responses to stimuli.

Hyperkalemia, an elevated potassium blood level, also can impair the function of skeletal muscles, the
nervous system, and the heart. Hyperkalemia can result from increased dietary intake of potassium. In such a
situation, potassium from the blood ends up in the ECF in abnormally high concentrations. This can result in a
partial depolarization (excitation) of the plasma membrane of skeletal muscle fibers, neurons, and cardiac
cells of the heart, and can also lead to an inability of cells to repolarize. For the heart, this means that it won’t
relax after a contraction, and will effectively “seize” and stop pumping blood, which is fatal within minutes.
Because of such effects on the nervous system, a person with hyperkalemia may also exhibit mental
confusion, numbness, and weakened respiratory muscles.

Chloride

Chloride is the predominant extracellular anion. Chloride is a major contributor to the osmotic pressure
gradient between the ICF and ECF, and plays an important role in maintaining proper hydration. Chloride
functions to balance cations in the ECF, maintaining the electrical neutrality of this fluid. The paths of
secretion and reabsorption of chloride ions in the renal system follow the paths of sodium ions.

Hypochloremia, or lower-than-normal blood chloride levels, can occur because of defective renal tubular
absorption. Vomiting, diarrhea, and metabolic acidosis can also lead to hypochloremia. Hyperchloremia, or
higher-than-normal blood chloride levels, can occur due to dehydration, excessive intake of dietary salt (NaCl)
or swallowing of sea water, aspirin intoxication, congestive heart failure, and the hereditary, chronic lung
disease, cystic fibrosis. In people who have cystic fibrosis, chloride levels in sweat are two to five times those
of normal levels, and analysis of sweat is often used in the diagnosis of the disease.

Bicarbonate

Bicarbonate is the second most abundant anion in the blood. Its principal function is to maintain your body’s
acid-base balance by being part of buffer systems. This role will be discussed in a different section.

Bicarbonate ions result from a chemical reaction that starts with carbon dioxide (CO2) and water, two
molecules that are produced at the end of aerobic metabolism. Only a small amount of CO2 can be dissolved
in body fluids. Thus, over 90 percent of the CO2 is converted into bicarbonate ions, HCO3–, through the
following reactions:
CO2+ H 2 ↔ H2 + CO3 ↔ H2 + CO3− + H +
The bidirectional arrows indicate that the reactions can go in either direction, depending on the concentrations
of the reactants and products. Carbon dioxide is produced in large amounts in tissues that have a high
metabolic rate. Carbon dioxide is converted into bicarbonate in the cytoplasm of red blood cells through the
action of an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. Bicarbonate is transported in the blood. Once in the lungs,
the reactions reverse direction, and CO2 is regenerated from bicarbonate to be exhaled as metabolic waste.

Calcium

About two pounds of calcium in your body are bound up in bone, which provides hardness to the bone and
serves as a mineral reserve for calcium and its salts for the rest of the tissues. Teeth also have a high
concentration of calcium within them. A little more than one-half of blood calcium is bound to proteins, leaving

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2+
the rest in its ionized form. Calcium ions, Ca , are necessary for muscle contraction, enzyme activity, and
blood coagulation. In addition, calcium helps to stabilize cell membranes and is essential for the release of
neurotransmitters from neurons and of hormones from endocrine glands.

Calcium is absorbed through the intestines under the influence of activated vitamin D. A deficiency of vitamin
D leads to a decrease in absorbed calcium and, eventually, a depletion of calcium stores from the skeletal
system, potentially leading to rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults, contributing to osteoporosis.

Hypocalcemia, or abnormally low calcium blood levels, is seen in hypoparathyroidism, which may follow the
removal of the thyroid gland, because the four nodules of the parathyroid gland are embedded in
it. Hypercalcemia, or abnormally high calcium blood levels, is seen in primary hyperparathyroidism. Some
malignancies may also result in hypercalcemia.

Phosphate

Phosphate is present in the body in three ionic forms: \displaystyle {\text{H}}_{2}{\text{PO}}_{4-}H2PO4−, \

displaystyle {\text{HPO}}_{4}^{2-}HPO42−, and \displaystyle {\text{PO}}_{4}^{3-}PO43−. The most common
form is \displaystyle {\text{HPO}}_{4}^{2-}HPO42−. Bone and teeth bind up 85 percent of the body’s
phosphate as part of calcium-phosphate salts. Phosphate is found in phospholipids, such as those that make
up the cell membrane, and in ATP, nucleotides, and buffers.
Hypophosphatemia, or abnormally low phosphate blood levels, occurs with heavy use of antacids, during
alcohol withdrawal, and during malnourishment. In the face of phosphate depletion, the kidneys usually
conserve phosphate, but during starvation, this conservation is impaired greatly. Hyperphosphatemia, or
abnormally increased levels of phosphates in the blood, occurs if there is decreased renal function or in cases
of acute lymphocytic leukemia. Additionally, because phosphate is a major constituent of the ICF, any
significant destruction of cells can result in dumping of phosphate into the ECF.

Regulation of Sodium and Potassium

Sodium is reabsorbed from the renal filtrate, and potassium is excreted into the filtrate in the renal collecting
tubule. The control of this exchange is governed principally by two hormones—aldosterone and angiotensin II.

Aldosterone

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Figure 1. Aldosterone, which is released by the adrenal gland, facilitates reabsorption of Na + and thus
the reabsorption of water.

Recall that aldosterone increases the excretion of potassium and the reabsorption of sodium in the distal
tubule. Aldosterone is released if blood levels of potassium increase, if blood levels of sodium severely
decrease, or if blood pressure decreases. Its net effect is to conserve and increase water levels in the plasma
by reducing the excretion of sodium, and thus water, from the kidneys. In a negative feedback loop, increased
osmolality of the ECF (which follows aldosterone-stimulated sodium absorption) inhibits the release of the
hormone.

Angiotensin II

Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction and an increase in systemic blood pressure. This action increases the
glomerular filtration rate, resulting in more material filtered out of the glomerular capillaries and into Bowman’s
capsule. Angiotensin II also signals an increase in the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex.

In the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of the kidneys, aldosterone stimulates the synthesis and
activation of the sodium-potassium pump. Sodium passes from the filtrate, into and through the cells of the
tubules and ducts, into the ECF and then into capillaries. Water follows the sodium due to osmosis. Thus,
aldosterone causes an increase in blood sodium levels and blood volume. Aldosterone’s effect on potassium
is the reverse of that of sodium; under its influence, excess potassium is pumped into the renal filtrate for
excretion from the body.

Figure 2. Angiotensin II stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex.

Regulation of Calcium and Phosphate

Calcium and phosphate are both regulated through the actions of three hormones: parathyroid hormone
(PTH), dihydroxyvitamin D (calcitriol), and calcitonin. All three are released or synthesized in response to the
blood levels of calcium.

PTH is released from the parathyroid gland in response to a decrease in the concentration of blood calcium.
The hormone activates osteoclasts to break down bone matrix and release inorganic calcium-phosphate salts.

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PTH also increases the gastrointestinal absorption of dietary calcium by converting vitamin D
into dihydroxyvitamin D (calcitriol), an active form of vitamin D that intestinal epithelial cells require to absorb
calcium.

PTH raises blood calcium levels by inhibiting the loss of calcium through the kidneys. PTH also increases the
loss of phosphate through the kidneys.

Calcitonin is released from the thyroid gland in response to elevated blood levels of calcium. The hormone
increases the activity of osteoblasts, which remove calcium from the blood and incorporate calcium into the
bony matrix.

Aging and Urinary System

Age-related changes in the kidneys

As people age, there is a slow, steady decline in the weight of the kidneys. After about age 30 to 40, about
two thirds of people (even those who do not have kidney disease) undergo a gradual decline in the rate at
which their kidneys filter blood. However, the rate does not change in the remaining one third of older
people, which suggests that factors other than age may affect kidney function.
As people age, the arteries supplying the kidneys narrow. Because the narrowed arteries may no longer
supply enough blood for normal-sized kidneys, kidney size may decrease. Also, the walls of the small
arteries that flow into the glomeruli thicken, which decreases the function of the remaining glomeruli.
Accompanying these losses is a decline in the ability of the nephrons to excrete waste products and many
drugs and an inability to concentrate or dilute urine and to excrete acid.
Despite age-related changes, however, sufficient kidney function is preserved to meet the needs of the
body. Changes that occur with age do not in and of themselves cause disease, but the changes do reduce
the amount of reserve kidney function that is available. In other words, both kidneys may need to work at
nearly their full capacity to carry out all the normal kidney functions. Thus, even minor damage to one or
both of the kidneys may result in a loss of kidney function.

Age-related changes in the ureters

The ureters do not change much with age, but the bladder and the urethra do undergo some changes. The
maximum volume of urine that the bladder can hold decreases. A person's ability to delay urination after
first sensing a need to urinate also declines. The rate of urine flow out of the bladder and into the urethra
slows.
Throughout life, sporadic contractions of bladder wall muscles occur separately from any need or
appropriate opportunity to urinate. In younger people, most of these contractions are blocked by spinal cord
and brain controls, but the number of sporadic contractions that are not blocked rises with age, resulting
sometimes in episodes of urinary incontinence. The amount of urine that remains in the bladder after
urination is completed (residual urine) increases. As a result, people may have to urinate more frequently
and have a higher risk of urinary tract infections.

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Age-related changes in the urethra

In women, the urethra shortens and its lining becomes thinner. These changes in the urethra decrease the
ability of the urinary sphincter to close tightly, increasing the risk of urinary incontinence. The trigger for
these changes in a woman's urethra seems to be a declining level of estrogen during menopause.

Age-related changes in the prostate gland

In men, the prostate gland tends to enlarge with aging, gradually blocking the flow of urine (see Benign
Prostatic Hyperplasia). If untreated, blockage may become nearly complete or complete, causing urinary
retention and possibly kidney damage.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

1.Draw and label the parts of Human urinary system.

2.Enumerate at least 5 examples of fluid and electrolytes imbalance.
3.Write your name, year, course and section and the date at the upper part of your activity sheets.
4.Prepare your answers and sending it directly in the Learning Management System.

SUMMARY

 The renal system eliminate wastes from the body, controls levels of electrolytes and
metabolites, controls the osmoregulation of blood volume and pressure, and
regulates blood pH.
 The renal system organs include the kidneys, ureter, bladder, and urethra. Nephrons
are the main functional component of the kidneys.
 The respiratory and cardiovascular systems have certain functions that overlap with
renal system functions.
 Metabolic wastes and excess ions are filtered out of the blood, combined with water,
and leave the body in the form of urine.
 A complex network of hormones controls the renal system to maintain homeostasis.
 Your body is mostly water. Body fluids are aqueous solutions with differing
concentrations of materials, called solutes. An appropriate balance of water and

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solute concentrations must be maintained to ensure cellular functions. If the cytosol

becomes too concentrated due to water loss, cell functions deteriorate. If the cytosol
becomes too dilute due to water intake by cells, cell membranes can be damaged,
and the cell can burst. Hydrostatic pressure is the force exerted by a fluid against a
wall and causes movement of fluid between compartments. Fluid can also move
between compartments along an osmotic gradient. Active transport processes
require ATP to move some solutes against their concentration gradients between
compartments. Passive transport of a molecule or ion depends on its ability to pass
easily through the membrane, as well as the existence of a high to low concentration
gradient.

 Electrolytes serve various purposes, such as helping to conduct electrical impulses

along cell membranes in neurons and muscles, stabilizing enzyme structures, and
releasing hormones from endocrine glands. The ions in plasma also contribute to the
osmotic balance that controls the movement of water between cells and their
environment. Imbalances of these ions can result in various problems in the body,
and their concentrations are tightly regulated. Aldosterone and angiotensin II control
the exchange of sodium and potassium between the renal filtrate and the renal
collecting tubule. Calcium and phosphate are regulated by PTH, calcitrol, and
calcitonin.

REFERENCES

 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap2/chapter/body-fluids-and-fluid-
compartments-no-content/
 https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/kidney-and-urinary-tract-disorders/biology-of-
the-kidneys-and-urinary-tract/effects-of-aging-on-the-urinary-tract

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