Physical security 1

SECURITY AND PROTECTION OF FACILITIES

Physical Security

General objective
The idea is that security personnel handle a series of technical knowledge and the
necessary or relevant information so that they can function as “Security Operators
or Guards” in Industrial Facilities.

Specific objectives

o Update or reinforce knowledge

o Provides very useful security tools that are immediately applicable
o Guide attendees to carry out practical work, which helps them achieve tangible and
methodological work production.

Programmatic content
PHYSICAL SECURITY (SECURITY)

o Security Evolution
o Making history
o Stages of Security Evolution
o Safety
o Security Elements
o Security vs. Safety
o Facility Safety Hazards
o Human factors
o Environmental factors
o Biological Factors
o Animal Factors

THE MAN IN BUSINESS PROTECTION

o Generalities
o Purpose of the Custody or Surveillance Brigades or Corps
o Concepts and Scope
o Physical Security Functions
o Physical Security Activities
o Authority in the field of physical security
o Determination of a surveillance force
o Organization of the surveillance force
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o Selection of security and protection personnel

o Qualifications/competencies
o Attitude of human resources in the security area

ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL SECURITY

o Generalities
o Exterior protection, perimeter barriers
o security perimeter
o Access control
o Offices and offices
o Working in safe areas
o Location and protection of equipment
o Loading/unloading areas
o Monitoring and Alarm
o Protective lighting
o Safes and vaults
o Lock and key systems
o Identification and control
o Surveillance system
o Awareness program, security survey

PHYSICAL SECURITY INSPECTION AND INVESTIGATION

o Physical security inspection and investigation

o Generalities
o Security investigation and security inspection
o Security investigation
o Safety inspection
o Security Investigation Phases
o Exploratory investigation
o Descriptive research
o Causal investigation
o Models and Methods for physical security analysis

EMERGENCY PLANS APPLIED TO PHYSICAL SECURITY

o Generalities
o Related Concepts
o Classification of emergencies
o emergency attempt
o Partial emergency
o general emergency
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o The emergency plan

o Objectives of emergency plans
o Hazard identification
o Vulnerability Analysis
o Phases in the evacuation process
o First phase: danger detection
o Second phase: alarm
o Third phase: preparation for departure
o Fourth phase: exit
o Evacuation
o Actions during evacuation
o After the emergency
o Emergency plans
o The emergency committee
o Emergency brigades
o Stages to consider in the emergency plan

BUSINESS SECURITY AND DEFENSE – BOMB THREAT

o Generalities
o Presumption, Identification, Alert and Interfaces.
o Location of unidentified object allegedly containing explosives
o Reception of written message
o Telephone call announcing the threat of explosives
o Media
o Location
o Personnel evacuation
o If the explosion occurs
o Re-entry into the threatened area
o Event evaluation

BUSINESS SECURITY AND DEFENSE – IMMINENT FIRE

o Generalities
o Concepts and Scope
o Fire
o Ways to extinguish a fire
o The fires
o Fire prevention and control plan
o Emergency plan
o Drills

Linked COVENIN STANDARDS

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BUSINESS SECURITY AND DEFENSE – EARTHQUAKE DANGER

o Generalities
o Concepts and Scope
o Earthquake
o Earthquake
o Origin of earthquakes / earthquakes
o Hypocenter or focus
o Epicenter
o Failure
o Earthquake measurement
o Richter scale magnitude
o Emergency plan
o Brigade personnel and physical security
o Behaviors and conduct in emergencies
o Earthquake evacuation

BUSINESS SECURITY AND DEFENSE – TERRORISM AND KIDNAPPING

PROTECTION

o Generalities
o Concepts, Scope
o Protection personnel, bodyguards.
o Threats
o Terrorism
o Express kidnapping
o Generalities
o Concept and scope
o Virtual express kidnapping
o What to do in case of assault?

PHYSICAL SECURITY REGULATIONS

o Generalities
o Citizen Security Coordination Law
o Decree 699 of 1975
o Latin American example, surveillance services and private security law

THE MAN IN BUSINESS PROTECTION

Physical security functions

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 Deterrence: occurs when an adversary, otherwise motivated to carry out a

malicious act, is dissuaded from attempting it.
 Detection: is the discovery of an actual or attempted intrusion that could aim
at unauthorized removal or sabotage of a radioactive source.
 Hindering: Prevents an adversary's attempt to gain unauthorized access to
remove or sabotage a radioactive source, typically through barriers or other
physical means.
 Answer: It includes actions taken after detection to prevent an adversary
from achieving its objective, or to mitigate potential severe consequences.
 Physical security management: Includes ensuring adequate resources
(Human and financial) to guarantee the physical security of sources.

A well-designed physical security system must integrate measures to fulfill all five
physical security functions in a way that ensures the physical security of the target
against the threat.

 Deterrence cannot be measured

 Detection before obstruction
 Detection requires analysis
 The hindrance must be greater than the analysis plus the response time
 Balanced protection
 Defense in depth

A complete physical security program also requires security management

measures that help ensure that physical protection systems function properly:

 Physical security plan

 Contingency plan
 Physical information security
 Reliability and responsibility of staff
 Physical security culture
 Inventories and records
 Information about physical security incidents

Physical Security in Transportation

Transportation security is one of the most complex aspects of radioactive material
control, involving many national authorities.

 Customs, general physical and technological security, physical and

technological security in transportation, licensing/authorizations
 Transportation physical security can involve multiple operators
 Shipping facility (shipper)
 One or more carriers, means of transportation, and temporary storage
facilities
 Receiving facility (recipient)
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Physical security interfaces must operate without gaps so that physical security is
continuous during forwarding.

Radioactive material is one of nine classes of dangerous goods regulated in

transport (both for safety and security).

The physical security of radioactive material has to be compatible with the security
approaches of the shipper, the carrier, the port authority, the recipient, etc.

Security man functions

Private surveillance is essential to prevent damage and risks in any organization

or company. The figure that carries out this work is that of the private security
guard, who, through specific procedures and in compliance with the regulations, is
in charge of ensuring the maintenance of order and preventing any incident that
puts people's safety at risk. and goods.

What are the functions of a private security guard?

The security guard carries out a key job whose importance is sometimes
relegated to the background. Everything works correctly, because the guard is
doing his job, otherwise, the consequences would be immediately noticeable and
would be dire.

What is private security surveillance?

First of all, it is necessary to clarify the concept of security surveillance , which

according to the Private Investigation Agency (AIP) is “the attention and
observation placed on the things that are in charge to prevent damage or loss. "Its
main objective is prevention." Surveillance is responsible for maintaining security
whose purpose is to protect people, both physically and financially.

Thus , surveillance is the service organized and prepared to monitor , its key
bases or foundations being, according to AIP, "prevention, deterrence, action and
results." The guard must proceed in his/her task with the fundamentals of
surveillance as the main instrument.

What are the tasks and procedures of a private security guard?

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The private security guard always acts based on the fundamentals of surveillance
and the current regulations of his functions, which include the current Law, the
company's internal code and the specific manual of the assigned workplace.

Currently, Decree 356 of 1994 regulates the specific functions to be performed by

a private security guard. It includes the main functions that include:

 Deterrent nature: convincing someone not to carry out the activity that poses a
security risk.
 Carrying out rounds and controls.
 Checking entrances, accesses and stays in the property: the security guard must
always control the people who enter the building, as well as carry out an
exhaustive control of the vehicles that enter.
 Checking the condition of doors, windows…
 Checking security and fire systems.
 Checking other facilities that could pose a risk.
 Checking bags and backpacks.
 Supervision of video surveillance and/or computer systems.
 Behave appropriately, which includes a firm commitment to your work through
ethics , cunning, honesty, respect, discipline and responsibility.
 Exclusive dedication to its activities and not carrying out those that correspond to
the Security Bodies and Forces.

Each section of the law specifically describes the functions of the security guard
for maintaining order, for example, with respect to the figure of the security guard, it
restricts the access of the auxiliary to the total functions:
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«The job of the security guard is to monitor and protect property, establishments,
places and events, both private and public, as well as the protection of people who
may be there. This will be the function of the Security Guard, and cannot be carried
out, within the law, by personnel other than Private Security , that is, the so-called
controllers or assistants, in no case may they perform these tasks.

Guidelines for action of a security guard

The security guard acts according to the action guidelines to avoid criminal acts
or risk situations. The guard must ensure that criminal acts are not committed
within the scope of his protection. The guidelines in case of risk are:

 Protection or physical barrier against danger.

 Voice alerts the possible perpetrator of an infraction.
 Action and reaction: can be passive or active.

The security guard must always contribute to the prevention of crime and carry out
deterrent measures, and as stated in the law "he must immediately arrest and
place at the disposal of the competent Security Forces and Bodies the criminals
and the instruments, effects and evidence." of crimes.

Importance of the private security guard

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After analyzing the functions of a security guard , it is clear the importance of

their work that protects both people and material assets. The security guard has a
journey where he is trained and prepared to perform a relevant job in society. This
importance seems not to be taken into account by the relevant public and private
institutions and thanks to their policies of reducing costs, the surveillance sector
and the guards are in a precarious situation , endangering private security.

That is why training centers and schools strive to offer quality courses, in
accordance with the training plan authorized by the superintendency of
surveillance and private security, related to private security, to train the best
professionals and thus improve the quality of a good as important to everyone as
safety. A security guard can opt for several specialization options and have the
possibility of having a successful career in the Private Security sector.

Related Vocational Training

A relative training within the area is the Security Audit Expert Course - Aucal
Foundation's own title - with 30 ECTS credits and six months of duration, it allows
the student to train as a Private Security Auditor. Its syllabus offers comprehensive
training so that, at the end of the course, the student is able to carry out a security
audit based on the highest quality standards. The study plan includes the concepts
and types of audits (physical security, logic and cybersecurity) and expertise in the
field of security, among other topics. With the supervision of a university professor
active in the sector and knowledgeable about its reality, the student will be able to
understand the legislation, prepare reports, develop security procedures and
guarantee the correct functioning of a security management system. .

ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL SECURITY

Physical security
Physical Security is the set of mechanisms and actions that seek the detection
and prevention of risks, in order to protect some resource or material good 1 . In the
case of premises such as buildings, offices, residences, etc., it is understood as
the mechanisms that lead to reducing the probability of events occurring that
threaten the well-being of individuals and their possessions (theft, rape, among
others).
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Physical security aimed at homes, offices and other buildings is put into practice by
citizens and by professionals in the area (private security, locksmiths, surveillance
systems)

Origins of Physical Security

Since ancient times man has sought protection. In the first days he sought
personal protection against the inclemencies of nature and then it became more
complex, making his needs also complex 2 .
At a certain point, man began to congregate, small communities were created that
shaped society as we know it.
The search for better opportunities in large cities as part of the Industrial
Revolution promoted the unequal distribution of the world's population. As a
consequence, many areas became overpopulated, becoming a problem that
directly affected human beings' sense of security. There were many of them, all
unknown, in a very small area.
Being surrounded by many strengthened in man the need to protect what he
considered his own and from there he began to propose mechanisms to defend his
property.
From that point, until today, humanity has perfected personal protection
mechanisms and systems; Along the way, technologies were added that made
security a more reliable action.
The increase in theft rates in certain areas also contributed to the development of
physical security as a necessity and turned it into a business and specialization. 3

Risk detection and prevention

As a consequence of the decrease in the feeling of security in human beings,
mechanisms were proposed for the detection and prevention of risk situations in
physical spaces.
For risk detection and prevention, fundamental variables are taken into account,
including:

 Study of the environment at risk

 Probability of risk occurrence according to type
 Characteristics of the enclosure to be protected

Physical security planning

Once a possible risk situation has been detected, physical security actions are
planned. Planning usually depends on:

 Safety expectation
 Technology to use
 Budget for investment in security
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Among the typical elements that are included in a physical security plan are 4 :

 Access protection (doors, windows and others)

 Monitored surveillance systems (cameras)
 Private security systems
 security guidelines for users (how to maintain the security level with daily
actions)

Participation of locksmiths and other professionals in physical security[ edit ]

Planning physical security in venues is usually a common action in today's society.
Generally, the participation of professionals in the field is necessary so that the
expectations of the system are met.
Locksmith professionals are usually direct actors in the physical security plan
because they are responsible for the installation and maintenance of the elements
that make up the security system (doors, windows and other accesses). With the
advancement of technology, new professionals have joined the physical security
plans work team.

Technological advance in venue security

The automation of processes in a home, known as home automation , is part of the
technological advance of physical security in search of improving the feeling of
security of human beings in society. The manufacturing technology of locksmith
parts has also evolved according to new protection needs. Currently, smart locks 5
and reinforced door opening and closing systems provide a new level of security
for both commercial and residential premises.

Elements of physical security

Physical security is known as the set of elements that make up a security plan to
protect a specific space in order to avoid damage and minimize threats. To provide
a good security service, it is necessary to identify the possible risks and threats
that exist in the place and look for the physical elements that are required to
provide excellent protection.

The threats that can be blocked with physical security elements are fires,
robberies, kidnappings, homicides, impersonation and theft of information, which
are analyzed and designated according to the probability of the threat (highly
probable, probable, unlikely and probability unknown)

-Perimeter barriers: they are physical barriers such as retaining fences, meshes
and fences, which are what determine the border between properties and define
 Physical security 12

private property. In security, these elements are required to delay the entry of
unscrupulous people or, in the case of an attack, react more quickly, because the
barriers delay the intrusion of criminals, while the security guards alert the police.

These barriers are the ring furthest from the safe point, that is, from this barrier all
the security systems begin to be built and assembled. These barriers are the most
important in the physical security system because they are the ones that protect
the place and those that will prevent the entry of outsiders without properly
identifying themselves.
-Access control: is the mechanism that allows a person to be identified by means
of a password or a biometric reader, which goes through three steps
(authentication, authorization and traceability) to be able to access the place or the
information required, as appropriate. the case. Although this control is not in all
cases electronic, since in residential buildings the security guards already know the
person who resides in the place and allow them to pass without access control.

In a company, this element restricts the passage of personnel at different times,

for example, workers cannot access the facilities at certain times and access
control is responsible for denying entry. On the other hand, this element sends
information about the person and the time they accessed, which helps to have
greater control through a database.

Access control generalities:

In every facility, the personnel in charge of access control form the first security
circle of the system with the support of physical barriers and electronic elements
designed to prevent, delay or delay the access of hostile elements or people.
unauthorized, that could violate the system, altering it partially or totally with their
actions.

From the above, it follows that the proper functioning of the scheme provided for
Access Control to a facility will depend on its complete security and the degree of
protection provided to people, goods or facilities.

For all the reasons indicated, effective Access Control must be based on a study
that clearly determines the following stages:

a) Identity Verification.
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b) Authorization.
c) Confirmation of authorization.
d) Access and registration.
e) Destination verification.
f) Exit

Each stage must be aimed at limiting the possibility of access by unauthorized

persons and channeling visitors through pre-established control points, which allow
their need to enter the area they intend to visit to be examined.
The personnel in charge of Access Control must base their actions on the principle
of “never deviating from the establishment procedure.” Improvising generally leads
to confusing situations that create potential danger.
The general mission of the personnel in an Access Control must be framed in the
following basic purposes:

1.- Identification Systems:

Access Control points for people must have a way of recognizing each person who
intends to enter, has authorization to do so, and at the same time must have a
means of identifying those people.

To optimize people's access control, it is advisable to design an identification card

whose falsification is as difficult as possible and combine its use with internal
controls within each area , based especially on person recognition.

Any type of identification card can be subject to falsification, but despite this, the
use of these has many advantages.

2.- Access authorization system:

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After determining their reliability, those people who fulfill their duties or who need to
enter certain areas for reasons of their activities are allowed to pass the
established protection barriers.

The entry authorization granted to a person must be limited only to those areas
where their presence is necessary to fulfill their functions or satisfy the specific
needs that justify their presence in that place.

Authorization systems cannot base their effectiveness solely on electronic media,

no matter how complete and advanced they may be, since the information on
which they support their actions can be modified or adulterated. It is therefore
essential that Security Guards be provided with adequate procedures that allow
them to satisfactorily complete the various stages of the electronic system.

3. Stages included in Access Control

a) Identity verification:
As its name indicates, its purpose is to individualize the person who wishes to
enter the premises.
Identity verification is carried out through physical inspection of the official identity
document, or failing that, of the credential that certifies the person's official status,
depending on whether it is a visitor or an employee of the company, respectively.
This verification is the first line of action in the access control process, therefore the
reliable identity instruments will be those that contain at least the bearer's
photograph.
b) Authorization/Confirmation:
Its purpose is to verify internally whether the person is authorized to enter the
premises. In certain cases it is done through computerized or manual lists,
memoranda or other documents. The alternative of turning to an executive or
person who is authorized to authorize or confirm the entry authorization is
considered.
This step defines whether the income proceeds or not. It is necessary to establish
that if access is denied to a specific person, this does not imply that the applicant
will be detained or the personal effects, materials or belongings he or she may be
carrying will be seized.
 Physical security 15

Each Security Office must determine the procedure to follow in the event that a
subject is caught trying to enter with false identity documentation or authorization
credentials, which must comply with the legal regulations related to the deprivation
of liberty.

c) Access / Registration:
Once the previous steps have been carried out in the manner established
internally, you will be granted a badge (credential, pass or card), which must
expressly indicate the area to which the visit has access (floors, sectors, rooms,
etc. .)

Subsequently, your personal data must be recorded in the respective Record

Book, recording the time of entry and exit; the name and title of the person who
made the authorization/confirmation, if applicable. In the latter case, it is
recommended that said official sign the registry or certify such authorization
through some type document or form intended for this purpose.

d) Destination verification:

Once the visitor has entered the premises, the destination check must be carried
out. This verification can be carried out through various procedures, including:

- Making a call via intercom or intercom, from the Access Control to the destination
office.
- Using a standard form in which the destination interlocutor notes the time at
which the visit left their office, signing it as a sign of agreement.

e) Exit:

Once the visit is finished, the person passing through will return the access
credential, receiving their personal credential or the corresponding document.
The effective departure time from the facility will be noted in the log book.
4. Types of Access Control:
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There are three types of Access Control. These are:

- Manual.
- Semi-annual.
- Automatic.

a) Manual Controls:
These systems base their actions on people, whether they are Security Guards,
administrative staff and/or receptionists.
For this system to work efficiently, a high percentage requires great effort, planning
and adequate distribution of restricted areas, in addition to full compliance with the
criteria defined by management to allow or deny access to areas and specific
areas.
As this system bases its efficiency on visual observation carried out by the
participants in the process, the best method would be for the personnel in charge
of it to know all the people authorized to enter, but such a modality would only work
properly when the authorized group is very small and the control staff never
changes.

b) Semi-manual controls:

A semi-manual Access Control uses equipment or electromechanical elements to

support staff in evaluating the access request and making the decision to allow or
deny entry.
These equipment or elements are incorporated in any of the stages of the process.
The most used elements or devices are digital keypads.
Notwithstanding the above, the role played by the people who carry out this control
is relevant, because no stage can fail, since when a failure of a component or a
stage occurs it will affect the others and ultimately, the total system will fail.
c) Automatic controls:
They are those in which the verification and access stages are carried out entirely
by electronic equipment or systems, which are pre-programmed to make decisions
when someone requires it.

In these systems, the following equipment is used, among others:

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- Magnetic cards with additional secret code.

- Signature verifiers.
- Fingerprint verifiers.
- Pupil identifiers.

-Alarm system: it is an application that sends alert information to the authorities or

activates a siren to break into the tranquility of the space and put the place in a
state of emergency.

An alarm alone does not prevent a theft situation, what it really does is create an
alert, some do so only by sound, while others ring and automatically send
messages or calls to the phone numbers that are configured.

Alarm systems work with motion, gas, smoke and water sensors, which activate
and send the alert. This is an essential element to have optimal physical security.
Although they can also be activated by means of a panic button that is located in a
key place in the establishment.

-Closed circuit television (CCTV): is a video surveillance system that allows you
to observe an entire space through security cameras linked and connected to
transmission screens. Usually the transmission screens are grouped in a room
where there are security personnel who are in charge of monitoring what is
happening in the environment, without having to be outside.

 1. Technologies
 2. CCTV Systems
 3. Wiring and transmission
 4. Installation
 5. Connectivity, DMZ and band consumption

 6. Lenses
 7. Technical support
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Introduction
Designing and installing a security system is easier than you can imagine. This
guide is designed to teach a basic system of design and application.

The first step is to learn the different technologies that are currently on the market.
Its operation, advantages and disadvantages.

Currently, there are analog systems on the market that date back approximately
20 years to the latest technology digital systems.

1. Technologies: Types of cameras

There are two types of technologies in security systems, analog and digital.

1.Analog Technology: An analog transmission camera is one that transmits its

signal via RG6 or UTP with balun, it generally has an analog video format, that is,
its definition is measured in lines, however it can also perform digital transmission
in quality. HD.

2.Digital Technology: The digital video format divides the screen into pixels,
these cameras offer digital transmission, that is, it is carried out via TCP-IP from
the camera itself, for this reason they no longer require cards or DVR to transmit,
this type of system also offers HD quality.

Image capture is done through CCD and CMOS sensors.

Both CCD and CMOS sensors are made of Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (MOS)
materials and structured in the form of a matrix. They accumulate an electrical
 Physical security 19

charge in each cell of the matrix (or pixel) in proportion to the intensity of the light
that falls on it locally.

However, there are notable differences between both technologies:

CCD sensor

It is a CCD sensor (Charge Coupled Device), to recover an image, these charges

are read, through successive and sequential movements. The CCD finally
converts these charges into voltage and delivers an analog signal to its output,
which must be digitized and processed by the camera circuitry.

The size of the sensor is a fundamental part of the image quality that we are
going to obtain, the larger the size of the sensor, the larger the sensors will be for
the same resolution and the higher our capture quality will be, that is, we can
obtain an image with less noise in unfavorable lighting conditions.
In our market the sizes of 1/4 and 1/3 are easily obtained, the latter being the
largest size and the ideal.

CMOS sensor

In a CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) sensor, the photons

received by each cell are converted into electrical charge and voltage in the same
receiving cell, in this way, unlike in CCDs, the cells are totally independent of their
neighbors.
Unlike the CCD, the CMOS sensor performs digitization pixel by pixel, which
means that the result it delivers to the camera circuitry is already digitized.
 Physical security 20

In summary, CCD obtains more image quality at the cost of a larger size and
higher consumption.

For its part, CMOS is superior in integration and low consumption at the cost of
losing image quality in low light situations.
As always, there is nothing superior in itself, but rather situations in which each
technology is more appropriate.

2. CCTV systems: PC based system

A PC-based video recording system is made up of a PC-type computer, one or

more capture cards and specific software, the most common and recommended
being GeoVision (in the DOWNLOADS section you will find the brand's technical
manuals).

This system provides excellent quality, compared to the analog system. From an
economic point of view, today we can get PCs from $850,000, capture cards from
$89,000, including software.

PCI DVR Cards

Currently the market offers a wide variety of cards according to the need, the basic
difference between these is the image processing capabilities that are estimated in
Frames Per Second FPS, a card like the GeoVision 600 processes 30FPS, this
amount is It must be divided into the number of cameras installed, which implies
that it must be sized correctly to avoid obtaining robotic images.
 Physical security 21

An image in technical terms requires 30 fps to offer truly real time, however it is
possible to work at a refresh rate of 7.5 fps, so that 4 cameras can be connected
simultaneously to a 30 fps card.

To summarize a card by its characteristics, the most important thing to know is:

1. Number of video channels: The number of video channels is variable, the

most common are 4, 8, 16 and 32, and can reach up to 64 channels using more
cards. Each brand or model indicates the maximum number of cards that can be
installed in a device. PC.

2. Number of audio channels: Some cards have audio channels, they can range
from one to the same number of video and audio channels.

3. Number of frames per second and resolution: The frames per second is a
determinant of the price, the fps can be defined as the speed of a card, because
the more frames it offers, the greater detail in the movements will be observed in
the video and vice versa, for Give us an idea, television sends us 30fps to see a
good quality image and see the real movement of a movie projected in a cinema, it
shows us images at 24fps.

4. Compression format: The most commonly used compression formats are:

MPEG4 and H.264. The H.264 format is an improvement on MPEG4 since it
compresses images up to 1/3 that of the MPEG4 format, which allows us to save
three times as much information on a hard drive. In addition, the H.264 format
allows us to record images in higher resolution (depends on card brand). The
duration of the recordings can take up to 30 days or more depending on the hard
drive and the number of cameras installed. If we want to increase the duration of
the recording, we will simply increase the capacity of the disk, or we can expand
the system with another auxiliary disk. It is impossible to calculate the
 Physical security 22

compression size in advance because of the way H.264 works, which is block-
oriented and motion-predicted. Even different implementations of the same
standard will generate different sizes, sometimes VERY different.
Each frame is divided into blocks, and each block is analyzed to decide whether to
encode or reference the previous frame. In theory, a thousand-hour movie of the
same image would consist of a single frame... obviously this is not the case in real
life, but it gives you an idea of the difficulty in predicting the final size. H.262 is
also known as MPEG-4 or AVC part 10.

5. Connectivity: One of the great options that CCTVs offer and for which they
have also gained popularity is the possibility of monitoring via the Internet. In the
case of the cards, their configuration is quite simple, just activate the remote
transmission service in your own software, then assign a fixed IP to the PC and
configure the DMZ on the router (see DMZ section).

DVR System (Digital Video Recorder)

Another option for monitoring and recording video surveillance and perhaps the
most recommended is the DVR, because it is a device whose specific purpose is
video surveillance, which is why it is more stable in addition to offering sufficient
fps for each channel (30 fps/channel), which guarantees real time in each of the
videos, another great advantage of the DVR is that its video process is direct, that
is, it does not transform the image into pixelation as the card does. on the PC, and
this process guarantees much better quality.

One of the disadvantages of this system was the difficulty in connectivity and
manipulation, however, manufacturers offer current models with a mouse and
remote control, in addition to client software, which allows great ease. These
devices record with h264 and Mpej4 formats, on hard drives equal to those
assembled on a normal sata-type PC. All recordings can be extracted to a
removable hard drive, DVD ROM, CD, and USB memory etc.

Internet connectivity is quite simple, just assign the IP table in the same way as
on a common PC, and configure the particular router or, if it is the service
operator's, indicate the DMZ with it (see DMZ topic).
 Physical security 23

Likewise, we can view all the cameras remotely, being able to view them through
the Internet, VPN, etc. We can even send the images to a remote server, via ftp.

We can program the recording system by calendar, continuous, by motion (it will
only record the sequence if there is movement in the area of a certain camera
previously programmed by us).
The recording sequences are programmed by the user, and up to 16 cameras can
be recorded and viewed in real time (These specifications are required for certain
clients, such as gambling casinos.

We can also incorporate the system in a bus, plane, train, registering and
recording any image. We can also view this image remotely, in real time or by
accessing the recordings, from anywhere in the world, if said mobile phone
incorporates a transmission system such as UMTS, GPRS, or 3G, etc.

3. Wiring and Transmission

The coaxial cable (RG-59U or RG-6) is one of the options used to connect the
cameras to the central unit. If we use an RG-59U type coaxial cable we could
cover a distance of approximately 200 linear meters.
However, if we use an RG-6 type coaxial cable, we will be able to cover distances
of more than 300 meters. It is important to be careful when assembling the cable
and connector to avoid generating noise in the transmission.

Currently, devices called Balun are used, which combine two-wire cable
(telephone type or UTP) and can cover distances with amplifiers of up to 2000m.
 Physical security 24

Currently, due to the imminent arrival of IP cameras, it is recommended to

implement UTP cat6 cable, with balun or integrated transmission systems that
integrate video, power and data transmission in the same cable for analog
transmission cameras and thus have infrastructure if more is desired. go ahead
upgrade equipment to digital transmission. Each copper pair transmits a video
signal, so it is possible to transmit up to 4 analog video signals through a UTP
cable. Any analog streaming camera uses a standard type of connector, either
RCA or BNC type.

Camera feeders

Cameras need fully stabilized feeders. Pure direct current, this detail is essential
to avoid installation problems.
There are two types of power for cameras. One or the other will be chosen
depending on the installation.

• Individual power supply: They are usually installed in places where there is a
power outlet nearby as they are individual, if there is a power failure, it will only
affect the camera in question.

• General power supply or stabilized power supply: All cameras are powered
by a single power supply or general power supply. Likewise, the power cable will
go along with the coaxial cable.

There are coaxial cables on the market that have the power cable incorporated,
making installations much more convenient.

The power cable will be of the bipolar type: positive and negative (red and
black) through which direct current will circulate. Care must be taken not to
change its polarity, as this would cause serious installation problems, and this
circumstance will not be covered by the warranty.
 Physical security 25

4. Installation

When we carry out a site study to place surveillance cameras we must keep in
mind the luminosity of the place and the shooting distances, the sensitivity to light
is the most important aspect when choosing our camera correctly and in this we
must be clear about how to makes.

• Indoor cameras: There is a wide variety of types, sizes and styles. The most
popular are mini domes. For both black and white and color, they offer great
quality and resolution. They are economical and very effective.
Likewise, there are cameras in which we can choose the type of lens, since they
are equipped with universal threads, thus enabling the change of lens to adapt to
a certain position.

There are also the so-called infrared ones: These have a crown of infrared
diodes that illuminate at a certain distance in the total absence of light. They are
very popular.

Hidden cameras: These are camera modules adaptable to various accessories,

such as smoke detectors, watches, dolls, POS, lamps, etc. They tend to be highly
effective with very good results. Likewise, there are hidden cameras ready to
install. The most popular are those that are simulated in a smoke detector.
 Physical security 26

Cameras with movement and lens control, PTZ: These are motorized cameras
that can be controlled by video recorders, as well as telesurveillance desks.
Almost all of them have a standard communication protocol, with which they
communicate with the control and recording system.

These cameras allow us to control them remotely, turning them up, down, left and
right. Likewise, some models allow us to zoom in and out of the image. At the
moment they are quite expensive but the effectiveness we achieve is very high.

Outdoor cameras: These are cameras with the same technical characteristics as
the indoor ones, except that they are prepared to withstand inclement weather,
such as humidity, wind, water, etc. Likewise, many of the interior chambers can be
adapted to the exterior through accessories, such as waterproof housings.

These casings are equipped with heating systems so that fog does not form on the
 Physical security 27

outer glass, impeding vision.

Night vision cameras: It is a novelty in the field of CCTV. They are usually
infrared cameras like the one described above.

There are also color cameras during the day that switch to black and white when
the light fails. Black and white allows us a higher resolution and even much more
speed when it comes to transmitting over the Internet. Once light levels are
restored, they change back to color.

Wireless Cameras: Surely you know some very small cameras, which are made
up of the camera itself and a receiver that connects to a television or a video
recorder.

They are very inexpensive cameras that are continuously transmitting, and
unfortunately most cameras of this type simply do not work. We have tested many
low-cost wireless cameras, and the one that has lasted the longest has been 4
days.

If you want to try one, buy it and plug it in, but be careful not to throw away the
box. You will need it to return it.

There are very good quality cameras on the market but their cost far exceeds
$1,200,000 pesos per unit.

IP Cameras: The combination of technological advances that have been taking

place around video recording devices, robotics and the possibility of transmitting
images and sound over the Internet has given rise to a new technology: video
surveillance by IP.

It basically consists of mounting the camera, configuring the IP, connecting to the
router and that's it. Unlike the rest of the cameras is its ease of operation. Little by
 Physical security 28

little they are joining the video surveillance market and with more and more
features.

Disadvantages:

• Almost none of the cheap IP cameras incorporate a CCD sensor. They usually
come with CMOS, which means it comes with very little resolution.
Keep in mind that the cheapest professional camera recommended for CCTV
usually costs the professional around $120,000 and comes with a built-in CCD
(the same type of component used in camcorders). An inexpensive IP camera with
acceptable specifications, it is currently exceeding $240,000.

• An IP camera usually consumes a lot of bandwidth. Streaming images uses a lot

of network resources. The weight of an IP camera network, apart from the
financial outlay it entails, is a significant drain on resources for any company.

• The image recording control system must be done remotely, having in any case
to resort to hiring external servers to support all the sequences.

• However, they are ideal for small installations, where great performance is not
required.

Differences between IP and Recorders with internet connection

Let's keep one thing in mind; With the systems described above, whether PCI
cards for PC, or DVR, we can transform all the cameras in any old or modern
installation into IP cameras without having to sacrifice bandwidth, since it will only
consume when we connect.

Likewise, we will have recording control of all the sequences on site, with physical
recording on a hard drive (not virtual) or we can send them to a remote server or
computer.

We do not spend bandwidth resources, since we will only use it at the time we
want to connect, and we will also only consume the bandwidth of the video server.

We can use up to 32 normal cameras per DVR or with 2 PCI cards, transforming
all of them into IP cameras.

We can use them as a closed circuit television system, with monitors and screens
in situ.

4. connectivity, dmz and bandwidth consumption

 Physical security 29

The DMZ is used when Our local network services open to the Internet, it consists
of relating an internal IP of our LAN with the public Internet IP address established
by our Internet provider (ISP).

The public IPs offered by ISPs are of two types depending on the type of service
we contract:

• Static IP: It will never change, so the configuration we make is more reliable
and stable), or dynamic IP (it will change continuously so we will have to resort to
a service called DYNDNS that you can configure on your own Router and on the
page www.dyndns.org.)

The DMZ can be configured from the internal router (most manufacturers include
this option) connected to the cable that comes from the service provider's MODEM
(Ex. UNE, Telecom) on the WAN or Internet port of the router (this is provided that
the provider's MODEM only has one output port) and at this time the DMZ is the
internal IP address of our LAN, the router will then relate the internal address that
It is configured, with the public IP, if there is no internal router or the service
provider's MODEM has 4 ports or more, then we must contact our service provider
so that they can enable it (this service has no cost with the majority of service
providers in Colombia).

Video bandwidth consumption

 Physical security 30

Video over IP consumes a large amount of bandwidth. A camera may consume

between 100 kbps and 2 Mbps – compared to audio, which typically consumes
only 80 kbps. The factors that affect bandwidth consumption are described in the
following table.

If you run out of bandwidth on your network, you will begin to experience the
following:

• Video Flaws, for example increased lack of clarity.

• Some frames may be left uncaptured at random.
• The video resolution may drop from 4CIF to 2CIF making the image even less
clear.
• The video may freeze entirely and you may lose connection temporarily.

What is the relationship between bandwidth and disk storage?

Both are directly related. If video is transmitted at a certain transmission rate over
a network to be stored, then it will consume disk space at exactly the same rate.
For example, a 1 Mbps connection will use 1 Mb of space in one second, or about
1/8 = 0.125 Megabytes per second, equals 0.125 week).

How do we know how much bandwidth it needs?

This is an excellent question, especially since it is spoiled by any certainty. As

explained earlier, it depends on so many factors that you can really only estimate
your bandwidth and/or disk/space consumption rate. This initial analysis is based
 Physical security 31

on your experience with previous projects and is useful – but the best way to
predict your needs is to run the actual test.

Bandwidth consumption reference table

The following table is a quick guide to the most popular quality calculations and
associated bandwidth to anticipate how much disk space was required for a week
of MPEG4 video.

The table assumes 24x7 recording without interruptions (which is naturally

unrealistic). Typically, you will increase the retention time by about 50 percent or
reduce the required disk space by about 60 percent if you can assume 12 hours of
logging on Monday through Friday, and only on-alarm/motion during weekends. of
week.

How much bandwidth does an IP camera consume?

The formula to calculate bandwidth consumption is: AB=Image Size X Frames per
Second X Channels.

For example, an NTSC camera in real time (30Fps) at normal compression and
normal size (see table above) consumes as much as:

8Kb X 30Fps X 1 = 240Kbps.

Example applied and analyzed

 Physical security 32

A series of high security interview rooms needs to record eight cameras for two
weeks, the required quality is 2CIF at 15 FPS. The system is used all day and with
a motion alarm at night and on weekends. The table suggests a rate of 400 kbps
(kilobits per sec), which tells us that the network should expect at least eight
cameras X 400 kbps or a maximum rate of 3,200 kbps (3.2 Mbps).

The table also tells us that this camera will need 29 GB per week. Allowing for
quiet time, this will be around 60 percent of 29 GB or 17 GB. For two weeks, a
camera will consume two x 17 GB or 34 GB. Eight cameras will require 8 x 34 (or
278) GB for two weeks of recording.

Choose the right system for your client's needs

• Location: It is important to understand that the lens has an angular aperture to

capture the image, which is why it is advisable to locate cameras in the corners,
and also take into account, if you have a budget, the coverage between cameras
of dead spots in contrast preferably covering the accesses to the place.

The following information will allow you to choose between the various
systems for advising your clients.

• If cost is the main reason for your customer: Consider installing a PC with a
PCI card. The quality will be good.

• If image quality is the main reason: You can choose both solutions. The DVR
will provide you with more professionalism and presentation than a PC. Regarding
the issue of display and quality, both options are good, however the industry has
recently released DVRs with excellent specifications to the market.

• If the client does not want PC-based systems: The DVR must be considered,
whose handling is similar to any DVD or VHS video recorder.

If what interests you most is remote viewing without caring much about image
recording.

We have to think about an IP camera system.

• If the installation is very small (one or two cameras): We will think about IP
cameras.

• If what you are interested in is controlling multiple centers or locations: We

have to think about a PC-based system. It will allow us great flexibility.

• If you are interested in installing cameras in shops or self-service: What

interests you is a PC-based system. If what you have are cash registers with PC-
based POS, our client will not have to make any investment in the recording
equipment. We will simply place one or more PCI cards in one of the boxes with
 Physical security 33

an independent hard drive. In this way we will transform the POS into a
professional telesurveillance system.

Camera Features Guide

There are different parameters when choosing a camera for location in a certain
location. Almost all current cameras more than meet the normal characteristics of
any remote surveillance installation.

It should be noted, however, that there are special cameras, such as those
specified above, (PTZ type and others) that are required for a certain situation.

Some characteristics must be highlighted to be able to distinguish one camera

from another.

1st Lines of resolution: Each camera is based on a number of lines that its chip
provides.

The most common is 420 lines to 480 lines in color. With these resolutions we can
address 90% of the installations.

Currently, technology has managed to increase the resolution of cameras,

achieving up to 7000 TV lines of resolution as standard.

6. Lenses

1st Type of lens or objective: Within cameras there are a variety of lens or
objective models, each with its own characteristics.

There are three types of lenses, pin/hole lens, mini lens and CS type mini lens is
used for most cameras. And they are usually with fixed openings. On rare
 Physical security 34

occasions with variable aperture (varifocal) and with autoiris.

The CS lens is used by professional cameras. These lenses are usually used with
varifocal and autoiris apertures.

• The focus: The lens is the eyes of the camera and depending on the
measurement used, a different angle and observation distance will be obtained.

Depending on the CCD that the camera has, the type of lens that should be used,
for example, for a 1/3” camera, a 1/3” lens must also be used, otherwise we will
obtain an image with a ring around it. Comparing a lens with our eyes, with a 1/3”
shoulder-mounted camera and an 8mm lens. our eyes get the same image. The
following table shows the area covered by a 1/3" lens at 10 meters away:

There are also lenses that have various sizes, these are called varifocals, they
allow you to have different sizes and angles in the same lens by simply moving a
ring manually, the most common is 3.5-8mm. Another type of lens is the motorized
zoom lens that ranges from wide angle or normal to telephoto with a motor that
moves the lens and is controlled remotely, now how to know when to use this type
of lens, well if we have to control a place where we have to observe places at near
and far distances, this is where its use is recommended. The most common
measurements for these lenses are 4-48mm or 8-80mm.

• The Iris: This name has a lot to do with our eyes, just as in our eyes the iris
opens or closes to let in more or less light according to needs. In photography it is
called the diaphragm and it performs the same function. There are three types of
 Physical security 35

iris: fixed, manual and autoiris.

The first always has the same opening and is recommended in closed places that
always have the same lighting condition, in the second the mechanical
management of the iris is manual, as its name indicates, and will be varied
according to how the lighting conditions change. light, however if these constantly
change or the lens is out of our reach, this is not the lens to use, for these
circumstances self-iris lenses should be used. These lenses automatically
manage the opening or closing of the iris, with the use of electronics that can be
found in the lens or in the camera, according to this they are called active, video or
VD and PASSIVE, direct. or DD.

Well now, how do they know when to open or when to close, they measure the
video level, which should always be 1vpp, that is, if there is a lot of light, the video
level rises above this measurement, then the lens closes the iris, if in However,
there is little light, the video level is below 1vpp and the lens opens the iris.
Depending on the iris aperture obtained, there will be a different depth of field,
although this is the distance between which the images will be in focus; the larger
the aperture, the smaller the depth of field and the smaller the aperture, the
greater the depth of field. That is to say that during the day there will be long
focusing distances and at night these will be short. Another important factor is the
size of the lens: the smaller the size, the more depth and the larger the size, the
less depth.

It is really very important to get good focus and that is why all cameras have a
way to reverse or advance the CCD to get perfect focus. Another characteristic of
the lenses is the focal aperture or f-stop and these indicate the maximum aperture
that the lens can obtain, the f-stops are numbers, the smaller they are, the larger
the aperture, the larger the number, the smaller the aperture. . These numbers are
always found accompanying the measurement of the lens and are, f1-4, f-2, f-2.8,
f-4, f-5.6, f-8, f-11, f-16 and f-22.

The range of objectives that exist on the market more than covers almost all the
possibilities or problems that may arise.
The most widespread lenses that are supported by surveillance cameras with a
fixed 3.2 mm lens.

The larger the size of the lens you specify, the greater the capture distance will be,
however the smaller the angle will be, a lens can be from 1.8 mm to 80 mm.
Likewise, it is best to use an objective equipped with a varifocal lens. It is very
similar to those found in video cameras. In this way we can cover almost all the
distances and angles that a remote surveillance installation requires.

• Sensitivity to light: The more sensitive a camera is to light, it can work in low
light: it is measured in luxes.
1 lux is a low sensitivity.
0.5 lux is good.
 Physical security 36

0.2 lux is ideal for places where there is little light.

0.01 lux is for extremely poorly lit locations.

No camera can work at 0.0 lux because it uses photosensitive elements. To be

able to see in an environment with 0.0 lux, it is necessary to use some type of
lighting or infrared sensors. Depending on the number of infrared LEDs used, it is
the distance that can be reached with 0. Lux.

What determines the quality and price of a camera?

Firstly, the determinant of the price of a camera is the brand of the processor, the
best quality being the SONY brand CCD sensor, this is determined by the way in
which they capture light and achieve color fidelity secondly in quality is the SHARP
processor next to the SAMSUNG and LG sensor last.

After knowing the brand of the processor, the second point is the size of the CCD,
the most expensive is the 1/3 and the most economical is the 1/4.

Finally, what increases the price of a camera the most is the resolution as a
percentage; it is around 50% higher than the cost of a high-resolution camera.

-Fire detectors and sensors: it is an alarm that identifies the presence of smoke
in the environment and recognizes foreign components in the place. There are two
types of detectors, one is the ion manager that is responsible for detecting toxic
gases and substances in the environment, which are not visible, the others are
optical detectors, which detect heavier smoke that is visible.

-Security guards: they are the uniformed people who provide security and
monitor all the elements mentioned above. They are the face of private
security.

The best private security companies take all the elements and organize them
into a security plan, in order to cover the establishments to which they will
provide security 100% and avoid any type of theft or attack.

EMERGENCY PLANS APPLIED TO PHYSICAL SECURITY

Emergency
 Physical security 37

An emergency is a situation that presents an immediate risk to health, life, property

or the environment. [1] Most emergencies require urgent intervention to prevent a
worsening of the current situation, although in some cases mitigation may not be
possible, and humanitarian actors must take care of possible future consequences.
While some emergencies are obvious (such as a natural disaster that threatens
many lives), many smaller incidents require the subjective opinion of an observer
(or affected party) to make the decision about whether it qualifies as an emergency
or No.
The precise definition of an emergency, the actors involved and the procedures
that must be used are diverse and vary depending on the area and context. This is
usually established by the government, which provides emergency services and is
responsible for emergency planning and management .

In colombia
According to Law 1523 of 2012, Article 4, Definition 9, an emergency is a "situation
characterized by the intense and serious alteration or interruption of the normal
conditions of functioning or operation of a community, caused by an adverse event
or by the imminence of the itself, which requires an immediate reaction and
requires the response of the State institutions, the media and the community in
general." [2]

Define the emergency

To be defined as an emergency, the incident must be one of the following:

 An immediate Threat to life, health, property or the environment.

 Has already caused loss of life, detriment to health, damage to property or
damage to the environment
 Have a high Probability of escalating into impact to cause immediate danger to
life, health, property or the environment.
Most emergency services seek to protect life, health and property, but
environmental impacts are not considered as important by some actors. This also
happens in the case of animal welfare, where there are several emergency
response organizations covering this aspect through the definition of 'ownership',
where animals belong to someone and are under threat (this definition does not
include to wild animals). This means that there are several actors who will not
design an 'emergency' response when wild animals or the environment are in
danger (except for those organizations and entities that are charged with such a
task).

Types of Emergencies
Danger to life
Many emergencies cause immediate danger to the lives of the people involved.
This ranges from emergencies affecting a single person, such as Medical
Emergencies including heart attacks, hemorrhages and physical trauma, to
 Physical security 38

incidents impacting large populations such as Natural Disasters , including

Hurricanes , Floods and Avalanches .
[3]
Most actors consider the latter as the highest priority during emergencies.
Health hazards
Some emergencies do not present an immediate threat to life, but can have
serious implications for the health and well-being of a person or people (although a
medical emergency may later escalate to being life-threatening).
The causes of a 'health' emergency are often very similar to the causes of a life-
threatening emergency, such as medical emergencies and natural disasters,
armed conflict and other incidents. However, there are many more incidents in this
category, including fractures, which often do not lead to death, but which require
immediate intervention for proper recovery.
Property Hazards
Emergencies not only threaten people, they also put people's property at risk. For
example, a fire in a warehouse that has been evacuated. The situation is treated
as an emergency since it can expand to affect other types of infrastructure, or
cause enough damage to harm a business (affecting the well-being of employees)
and, therefore, a livelihood.
Many actors categorize the emergency affecting property as the lowest priority,
and may not take as many risks in dealing with it. For example, a firefighter may
not enter a burning building if they know it is empty, since the risk would not be
justified, but they are more likely to enter when there are reports of people trapped,
unless they believe they can stop the spread of the fire. fire, or "save" the building.
Environmental hazards
Some emergencies affect the environment and animal life. Not all humanitarian
actors consider it a real emergency, but it can have a devastating impact on
animals and the condition of the land in the long term. Examples of this may be
forest fires and oil spills .
Emergencies classified by the World Food Program (WFP)
For the purposes of WFP emergency projects, emergencies are defined as urgent
situations where there is clear evidence that an event or series of events has
occurred that causes human suffering or creates an imminent threat to human life
or livelihoods and that the The government in question cannot remedy it with the
means at its disposal; It is a demonstrably abnormal event or a series of events
that produces dislocation of a community on an exceptional scale. The event or
series of events may consist of one or a combination of the following:

1. abrupt calamities such as earthquakes , floods , locust infestations or

unforeseen disasters;
2. man-made emergencies that result in an influx of refugees or the internal
displacement or suffering of otherwise affected populations;
 Physical security 39

3. problems of severe food inaccessibility or lack of availability resulting from

economic shocks, market failure or economic collapse - and which as a
result erodes the ability of communities and vulnerable populations to meet
their food needs; and
4. a complex emergency where the Government of an affected country or the
Secretary-General of the United Nations has requested WFP support.
WFP emergency interventions continue after dechlorination based on advised
needs, also taking into account other criteria or considerations according to WFP
criteria, rules and mandate.

Emergency classification systems

Usually, the first stage in classifying emergencies includes defining an incident as
such and, therefore, whether it merits an emergency response. Some humanitarian
actors, however, will respond to so-called non-emergencies, depending on their
mandates and available resources. For example, the fire department that rescues
a cat from a tree.
Secondly, the humanitarian actor assigns the emergency a sub-classification,
prioritizing incidents of potential greatest risk to life, health or property (in that
order). For example, many ambulance services use a dispatch system.

Actors who deal with emergencies

Most developed countries have a number of Emergency Services operating with
the aim of providing assistance in responding to an emergency. Typically the
government service, which comes from taxes, is operated as a public service,
although it can also be private companies responding to emergencies for payment,
or voluntary organizations, such as NGOs .
The central emergency services are:

 Police - who respond to the safety of a person or property, and can cover all
three categories of emergencies. It is also punitive to those who deliberately
cause an emergency.
 Fire Department - which responds to Fires that can cause damage, as well as
Search and Rescue operations and vehicle accidents. Their focus is saving
lives and reducing damage to health and property.
 Emergency Medical Service - including Ambulance and Paramedic services,
seeking to reduce loss of life or damage to health.
Request for emergency services
Typically, a country will operate a universal emergency telephone line, for example,
Colombia uses Service 123 .
Key Principles of Emergency Response
The key principle in almost every response system is that the rescuer, whether
layman or professional, must evaluate the Risk situation [4] [5]
 Physical security 40

This is because a danger assessment allows the rescuer to not become a

secondary victim in the incident, creating an additional emergency to deal with.
A typical assessment includes observing the environment, starting with the cause
of the Accident and then looking for Situational Threats .

Emergency management
The majority of actors who must respond to an emergency work on the different
phases of it, through an Emergency Management system. This system stipulates
all the protocol that emergency responders must follow.

State of emergency
In the event of a major impact incident, such as evictions or a major Disaster ,
many governments reserve the right to declare a state of emergency.

TYPES OF EMERGENCIES
As has been said previously, it is difficult to rigorously define the aforementioned
emergencies, firstly due to the subjectivity of people when cataloging them, and
secondly because an accident that is originally only a Partial or controlled
Emergency, due to multiple and unpredictable factors. can become General.

In any case, it seems appropriate to give a definition because this determines a

series of actions to be taken.

 Emergency attempt.
 Partial emergency.
 General emergency.

Emergency Attempt

It is the accident or possibility of risk that can be assessed, controlled and

mastered simply and quickly by the staff and means of the Center itself. In an
emergency situation, the PPE will act corresponding to the area and the General
Brigade that, if deemed necessary, will request outside help (Firefighters, police,
etc.).

It has been highlighted that the fundamental characteristic of Emergency Attempt is

that its resolution is done with the means available in the place where it occurs.
The person in charge of the Disaster Committee must always be informed of the
situation and its resolution.

Likewise, the Maintenance Service will be notified, which will keep a Record of all
Emergency attempts that occur at the Center.
 Physical security 41

(Increase)

Partial Emergency

It is the accident that to be controlled requires the action of the special teams of the
Center and means of Public Services.

To be such, the effects of the Partial Emergency will be limited to an easily

controllable area or zone and, foreseeably, will not affect other neighboring areas.

Supposedly, patients will have to be transferred from the risk area to another
protected area, due to the possible effect of smoke or flames.
In the event of a Partial Emergency, the Disaster Committee, in addition to the
general actions stated above, will carry out the following:

1. Opening of the Center's Emergency Plan.

2. Call control by telephone switchboard.
3. Ensure the maintenance of expeditious access routes.
4. Cessation of certain activities.
5. Prepare for possible evacuation, according to the rules detailed below.
6. Activation of the Information Team, for this the Admission Service will
provide a list of patients admitted to the affected area.
7. Preparation of the Information Area for family members.
8. Preparation of the Press Information Office.
9. Alert to Central and General Services:
o General areas of the facility.
o Rest of administrative services
10. Internal redistribution of existing Human Resources in the Center.
11. Enabling free spaces and security areas. The Internal Disaster Plan of each
Center will necessarily contemplate the existence of security zones in each
Area and the alternative if it is the one affected.
12. Give instructions to create a security cordon around the Hospital and
prevent the entry of outsiders.
13. Ensure that the usual measures have been taken to control the incident.
14. Suspend the operation of elevators (except those declared for use by
firefighters).
15. Cut off gas and fluid supplies, by the Maintenance Service, after
consultation and assessment of the affected areas.

General Emergency

It is the accident that requires the action of all the equipment and means of
protection and external help.

The General Emergency may involve the evacuation or isolation of certain areas.
 Physical security 42

The Disaster Committee will develop the actions stated in the Partial Emergency
and also the following:

1. At the proposal of the Firefighters, partial or total Evacuation will be

launched.

2. It will give the appropriate instructions for the Location and Mobilization of
Personnel who, by virtue of their schedule, are not physically in the Center.

The mobilization of Medical Personnel will be done selectively based on the

dimensions of the incident and the affected area. The Disaster Committee
will decide its number for the care of evacuated patients and the possibility
of discharge. The Directorate must have its own location system for Faculty
Personnel.

The criteria for the mobilization of Personnel are based on their assignment
to the affected area, especially due to knowledge of the sick and the
continuation of care in the area where they have been evacuated. will have
established its own system for locating out-of-service personnel. It is
recommended that you initially mobilize the work shift following the one in
which the disaster occurs. A relief system will also be organized to
guarantee the necessary rest.

The Head of Junior Personnel will have established the mobilization of

Guards, with general criteria similar to those described for Personnel.

The Maintenance Service will also have to provide for the mobilization of
Maintenance personnel in such a way as to guarantee additional needs,
light points, etc.

The Management Department will have its own pre-established system for
mobilizing Administrative Assistant Personnel.

The location system will be telephone, which is why it is necessary that the
first place to reinforce is the Telephone Switchboard. It is recommended that
all staff telephones be in an accessible place at any time of the day. The
most appropriate place will be the telephone switchboard or the Command
Center that you designate. In any case, an adequate custody system will be
available to guarantee that access to said data is restricted to the Head of
the Disaster Committee and only in justified special circumstances.

It is also recommended that Hospitals have a possible alternative to the

Telephone Exchange, in case the incident affects you directly. The
replacement could come with "point-to-point" telephones or radio stations,
for whose location it is recommended, the place chosen as the Command
Center or the Emergency Area.
 Physical security 43

3. Although you must continue attending vital emergencies, the Disaster

Committee will give orders to divert those patients who arrive at the
emergency room and who are in clinical conditions that allow their referral to
another previously designated health center.

4. Evaluate the need. To do this, it must previously have certain security zones
that can be used for possible expansion. Likewise, the use of areas adjacent
to these will be considered.

It is recommended that the Center's Disaster Commission, in its Internal

Disaster Plan, include a Guide to Contiguous Security and Expansion
Zones. It is a constant fact in the centers, the lack of spaces, and the
maximum use that is made of them, both for the placement of offices and
facilities, but one must be very aware that their occupation does not limit or
exclude the minimum security levels to which all professionals and users of
the Center are entitled. For this reason, it is recommended that when using
a place that apparently has no function, the consequences are analyzed,
from the point of view of safety, in case this could represent an obstacle in
the transfer or evacuation of patients.

Likewise, the preparation of this Guide to contiguous security and expansion

zones will contribute to assessing whether there are currently elements that,
for aesthetic or functional reasons, limit or prevent a rapid and effective
evacuation.

In any case, the Disaster Committee will be subject to the decision of the
Firefighters for the evacuation of patients, whose methodology must be
adequately systematized (See specific section).

EMERGENCY PLAN
The emergency plan is the planning and human organization for the optimal use of
the technical means provided with the purpose of reducing to a minimum the
possible human and economic consequences that may arise from the emergency
situation; This plan integrates a set of strategies that reduce the possibility of being
affected if the emergency occurs.
The distinction follows that the emergency plan seeks to optimize the available
resources, so its implementation implies having previously provided the
infrastructure confinement establishment with the necessary material or technical
means depending on the characteristics of the facility and the activity that he
himself carries out. This in turn entails having previously carried out an
identification and analysis of the risks or deficiencies of the detention
establishment, essential to know the provision of the means of prevention and
protection that are required therein.
 Physical security 44

The implementation of an emergency plan is always technically required when

dealing with facilities in which there is a serious risk situation or in facilities where
the level of risk is not high, although the human consequences may be high with
materials that would occur.
The emergency plan is applied differently depending on the magnitude of the
incident and the place where it originates: when the danger is internal and cannot
be controlled, the facilities refer to the evacuation of the building (evacuation plan);
If it is external danger, reference is made to confinement.
Benefits.

• Improves the response and reaction capacity of staff in providing first aid.
• Reduces vulnerability to emergencies by having trained personnel.
• Facilitates the understanding of technical knowledge through the use of practical
material based on play.
• Promotes and motivates personnel to participate in disaster prevention activities.
• In the work environment it is calmer and more reliable.
• Avoids human and economic losses.
• Minimizes the consequences and severity of possible catastrophic events, thus
avoiding human and economic losses.

Objectives of the Emergency Plan

The main objective of the emergency plan is preventive.
The main objectives of this model are:
• Establish general skills, conditions and procedures that allow users of the
facilities to prevent and protect themselves in cases of disasters or collective
threats that endanger their integrity, through very fast, coordinated and reliable
conditions aimed at moving to places. lower risk (evacuation). And, if they are
injured, have an organizational structure to provide them with adequate health
care.
• Identify and apply a planning process in prevention, forecasting, mitigation,
preparation, attention and recovery in cases of disasters.
• Have an adequate organizational structure for emergency cases.
• Determine threats vulnerability analysis and define the respective levels of.
• Establish a standardized evacuation procedure for all users and well-established
workers of the facilities (operators, employees, contractors and visitors).
• Establish an operational scheme for the care of possible injuries, known and
applicable to all types of emergencies.
• General workers created good conditions of trust and motivated their participation
towards emergency prevention actions.
• Develop in workers the necessary skills so that individually and as a group, they
can be safe in case of emergency.
 Physical security 45

Basic Aspects that make it up

• Identification of threats. It consists of analyzing the types of disasters that can

occur such as fire and explosion, earthquakes, floods, terrorism, gas leaks, among
others.
• Vulnerability analysis. It allows you to identify how likely it is that a specific threat
will be triggered in an emergency situation.
• Resource inventory. Defines the resources available to prevent and respond to an
emergency.
• Formation of emergency brigades and support groups. Emergency brigades and
support groups are very important to carry out operational actions such as
coordination of the evaluation and carry out the initial emergency care tasks while
external emergency agencies arrive. support such as firefighters or Red Cross, civil
defense.

It consists of defining the procedure and evacuation routes so that people protect
climbs by moving to places of lower risk.
In an emergency situation, it is necessary that all people in the company, including
visitors, know how to act and where to leave if necessary.

To prepare the emergency plan, you must know the characteristics of each
building, its facilities and its surroundings (nearby gas stations, chemical
companies, etc.) and have plans for it. The document must also include the places
with the highest risk (where evacuation, emergency exit, etc.). Likewise, it is
 Physical security 46

necessary to plan rules of action, designate the people responsible for carrying out
the provisions of the emergency plan, establish communication channels and
locate the location of the meeting point in the case of an evacuation (place located
in the exterior of the building towards which you have to go).
All building occupants must be informed of how they must act in an emergency and
carry out periodic drills (at least once a year), in order to verify the effectiveness of
the emergency plan and detect possible errors. The evacuation plan is the most
important chapter of a facility's emergency plan. This is the organized exit of all the
people in a building. This action will always be completed when it is considered
that the cause that caused the danger has not disappeared and may cause the
danger to spread throughout the building, that is, the conditions of an emergency
occur.
It is important to have a general communication system with which the evacuation
signal can be transmitted to the entire building. The different means used to give
the alarm signal can be: a siren, a message recorded on the public address
system. Whatever the alarm signal is, it is important that it is perfectly identified by
everyone. If the acoustic signal is accompanied by a visual signal, for example a
flashing red light, it is much more effective because visual stimuli are always easier
to capture than auditory ones.
When the evacuation signal has been given, all occupants of the establishment
must leave quickly, but in an orderly manner, through the designated evacuation
routes to a safe outdoor space (meeting or concentration point) where the
evacuation will take place. count of people who have left the building. The advisor
should never be used in the event of an emergency.
Evacuation routes will be signposted, will have emergency lighting and will be kept
free of obstacles (furniture, boxes, work materials, etc.) that prevent the smooth
passage of people. Exit doors that give access to an evacuation route must be
wide, open in the direction of traffic and be easily located. For each security zone
of the building, evacuation routes will be established, one main and another
alternative. If you have to use the alternative, the emergency manager will
communicate it via public address system.
You must remain organized inside the building in case an external danger occurs,
this situation is called confinement.
Basically what you have to do in these cases is to close yourself inside the
building, place yourself in the place furthest from external danger, communicate
the incident to external aid and wait for their instructions.

They constitute the group of specially dedicated people organized for the
prevention and action of actions within the scope of the establishment.
In terms of prevention, fundamental submission consists of examining the
coexistence of conditions that may cause the accident. In terms of protection,
making use of the equipment and facilities provided in order to control the incident
 Physical security 47

was its controlled defect until the arrival of external aid, ensuring, in any case, that
the cost in human damages will be zero or the lowest possible.
To do this, they must be informed of the resources available, trained in their use
and delivered in order to optimize their effectiveness.
They will be named according to the actions that their members must carry out.

Evacuation Brigades
Fundamental missions include preparing the evacuation, understood as verifying
that the evacuation routes are clear, taking positions at strategic points on the
evacuation routes, etc., and directing the evacuation flow:
• Driving and sweeping people towards evacuation routes.
• At doors, controlling the evacuation speed and preventing crowds.
• At stair access, controlling the flow of people.
• Preventing the use of elevators in the event of fire.
• When going outside, preventing crowds of evacuated individuals near the doors.
• The evacuation brigades must also check the evaluation of their works and
control their absences at the external meeting point once the evacuation has been
carried out.
The number of people that make up the brigade can be very variable, because the
components necessary for the neighborhood's work depend on the characteristics
of the activity and the facilities: occupation, number of floors and surface area, etc.
The profile of these people must be such that, among other characteristics, they
have serenity and know how to instill peace of mind in others.
First Aid Brigade
Submission will be to provide first aid to the injured during an emergency. For this
purpose, the person must be trained to decide the care to be provided to the
injured so that the injuries they present do not worsen or to proceed to the
stabilization of the seriously injured, in order to be evacuated. It must also have
prioritization criteria for injury care.
For the correct and effective development of their duties, the members of this
brigade must have confirmed information and training in medical emergencies,
medical emergencies, immobilization, mobilization and transportation of the
wounded.
Fire Brigades
Its tasks will be the following:
• Important preventive work since they knew the fundamental rules of fire
prevention.
• Fight fires with portable fire extinguishers (first intervention means) in their area of
action (plant, sector, etc.). The brigade components are outside their area of
 Physical security 48

action. One more occupant of the establishment is given, unless intervention is

necessary in other areas (in exceptional cases).
Its members will also have information on the following topics: knowledge of fire,
extinguishing methods, extinguishing agents, portable extinguishers, extinguishing
practice with portable extinguishing, operations in fixed extinguishing systems (if
applicable) and emergency plan.
They must be people who can be permanently located during the work day through
some reliable means of transmission (collective call, pager, radio, etc.).
Emergency Chief
He is the highest authority in establishment during emergencies. He will act from
the command post, have solid knowledge of fire safety and a self-protection plan,
and must be a person with command skills and can be reached 24 hours a day,
and will decide the moment of evacuation of the establishment.

It will be carried out at least once a year.

The main objectives of the drills are:
• Detect errors and commissions both in the content of the plan and the actions to
be carried out for its implementation into practice.
• Get the occupants used to evacuating the facilities.
• Proof of and the reality and sufficiency of equipment and means of
communication, alarm, signaling, special lighting and extinguishing, if applicable.
• Acquire experience and ease in the use of equipment and media.
• Estimation of evacuation times, intervention of own equipment and intervention of
external aid.

Drills should be carried out with the knowledge and collaboration of the fire
department and other external aid that must intervene in an emergency. Likewise,
it is necessary to request permission from the authorities if it is anticipated that they
may cause traffic problems.
The prevention of drills must be exhaustive, leaving as little room as possible for
improvisation, anticipating, among others, the problems that the interruption of the
activity, even for a short period of time, may cause. Personnel must be available
for timing.
The personnel information in a first drill must be complete, including indicating the
day and time. Depending on the results, it will be gradually reduced, until the
actions are carried out without prior notice, which will ensure that the actions are
carried out almost automatically. Finally, it will be necessary to consider the
possibility of a real emergency during the drills and have the necessary means to
control it.
 Physical security 49

LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR AN EMERGENCY PLAN

Colombian legislation on occupational health establishes in several regulations the

obligation for companies to organize emergency brigades in their facilities. Among
the regulations that refer to the subject we can mention:

LEGISLATION /
YEAR DESCRIPTION
Standards to preserve, conserve and improve the health of
individuals in their occupations.
Art. 80, literal e: Protect officials and the population from
health risks
Art. 93 – Circulation areas: Clearly demarcated, with
sufficient width for the safe movement of people and provided
with adequate signage.
Art. 96 – Exit doors: In sufficient number and with appropriate
characteristics to facilitate the evacuation of personnel in the
event of an emergency or disaster, which cannot be kept
obstructed or locked during the work day.
Art. 114 Fire prevention and extinguishing: Have trained
personnel, methods, equipment and adequate and sufficient
materials
Art. 116 – Equipment and devices for extinguishing fires:
With design, construction and maintenance that allows their
immediate use with maximum efficiency
Art. 117 – Equipment, tools, installations and electrical
networks: Designed, built, installed, maintained, operated and
marked in such a way as to prevent the risk of fire or contact
with live elements.
Title III – Occupational Health
Title VIII – Disasters.
Article 501. Each Emergency Committee must develop a
contingency plan for its respective jurisdiction with the results
obtained in the vulnerability analyses. In addition, the different
types of disaster that may occur in the respective community
must be considered. The National Emergency Committee will
prepare, for the approval of the Ministry of Health, a model with
instructions that will appear in the contingency plans.
Article 502. The Ministry of Health will coordinate training
programs for contingency plans in health aspects linked to
emergencies or disasters.
Law 9 Title III Paragraph. The National Emergency Committee must monitor
January 24, 1979 and control the training and training tasks carried out for the
correct functioning of the contingency plans.
 Physical security 50

LEGISLATION /
YEAR DESCRIPTION
Strategy to consolidate the execution of the National Plan for
Disaster Prevention and Attention – PNPAD, in the short and
CONPES 3146/01. medium term.
“By which provisions are established on housing, hygiene
and industrial safety in the
“work establishments”
Article 2. All employers are obliged to organize and develop
permanent programs
of Preventive Medicine, Hygiene and Industrial Safety”

Art. 4 – Buildings and premises: Safe and firm construction;

roofs or trusses with sufficient resistance to the effects of wind
and their own load; foundation or floor without overload;
Structural steel safety factor (4 for static loads and 6 for
dynamic loads).

Art. 14 – Communication stairs between floors of the

RESOLUTION building: With conditions of solidity, stability and safety,
2400/79 preferably made of non-combustible and spacious materials.
INDUSTRIAL Art. 205 – Danger of fire or explosion in workplaces:
SAFETY Provided with water intakes with their corresponding hoses,
STATUTE reserve tanks and fire extinguishers
“By which the bases for the organization of occupational
health administration are determined
in the country"
Article 24. Employers will have the following responsibilities:
Responsible for the execution of the Occupational Health
program
DECREE 614/84
Law 46 The National System for Disaster Prevention and Attention is
November 2, 1988 created and organized
Extraordinary powers are granted to the President of the
Republic and other powers are dictated
provisions”
Article 3. National Plan for Disaster Prevention and Attention .
The National Office for Disaster Response will prepare a
National Plan for Prevention and

Disaster Assistance, which, once approved by the National

Committee for Disaster Prevention and Response, will be
 Physical security 51

LEGISLATION /
YEAR DESCRIPTION
adopted by decree of the National Government.

The Plan will include and determine all guidelines, actions,

programs and projects, both

sectoral character as well as the national, regional and local

order that refer, among others, to the following

aspects:

a) The phases of prevention, immediate attention,

reconstruction and development in relation to the different
types of Disasters.

b) Technical, scientific, economic, financing, community, legal

and institutional issues.

c) Education, training and community participation.

d) Integrated information and communication systems at the

national, regional and local level.

e) The function that corresponds to the mass media.

f) Human and physical resources of a technical and operational

order.

g) Interinstitutional and intersectoral coordination.

h) Scientific research and necessary technical studies.

i) The systems and procedures for control and evaluation of

prevention and care processes

Article 14. Specific Action Plan for Disaster Response

Declared a situation of
national disaster, the National Office for Disaster Response will
proceed to prepare,

Based on the national plan, a specific action plan for the

management of the declared Disaster situation, which will be
mandatory for all public or private entities that must contribute
to its execution, in the terms indicated in the declaration
decree. .

When dealing with situations classified as departmental,

 Physical security 52

LEGISLATION /
YEAR DESCRIPTION
mayoral, commissionerate, district or municipal, the action plan
will be prepared and coordinated in its execution by the
Committee.

Regional or Local Operational, in accordance with the

guidelines established in the decree of

declaration and with the instructions given by the National

Committee and the National Office for the

Disaster Attention.

Legislative
Decree 919
May 1, 1989 Organization of the National System for disaster prevention
and response, made up of public and private entities.
Decree 93
January 13, 1998 By which the National Plan for disaster prevention and
response is adopted.
Resolution 1016 By which the organization, operation and form of Health
March 31, 1989 programs is regulated
Occupational training that employers or employers in the
country must develop”
Article 11. Section 18. Organize and develop an emergency
plan taking into account the
following branches:

a) Preventive Branch: Application of legal and technical

standards on fuels, electrical equipment, heat sources and
dangerous substances typical of the economic activity of the
Entity.

b) Passive or Structural Branch: Design and construction of

buildings with resistant materials, sufficient and appropriate exit
routes for evacuation, in accordance with the existing risks and
the number of workers.

c) Active Branch or Emergency Control: Formation and

organization of Brigades (selection, training, emergency and
evacuation plans), Detection system, alarm, communication,
inspection, signaling and maintenance of control systems.

Article 14. The Occupational Health program must keep the

 Physical security 53

LEGISLATION /
YEAR DESCRIPTION
following minimum records updated: Specific emergency plans
and drill minutes in Entities whose processes, location
conditions or storage of hazardous materials may become a
source of danger for workers, community or environment.
DECREE LAW “By which the National System for Disaster Prevention
919/89 and Attention is organized and other provisions are
issued.”
Article 3. National Plan for Disaster Prevention and Attention.
The National Office for Disaster Response will prepare a
National Plan for Prevention and

Disaster Assistance, which, once approved by the National

Committee for Disaster Prevention and Response, will be
adopted by decree of the National Government.

The Plan will include and determine all policies, actions and
programs, both sectoral and

of the national, regional and local order that refer, among

others, to the following aspects:

a) The prevention, immediate care, reconstruction and

development phases in relation to the

different types of disasters and public calamities;

b) Economic, financial, community, legal and institutional

issues;

c) Education, training and community participation;

d) Integrated information and communication systems at the

national, regional and local level;

e) Interinstitutional and intersectoral coordination;

f) Scientific research and necessary technical studies;

g) The systems and procedures for control and evaluation of

prevention and care processes.

Article 13 . Contingency plans.

The National Technical Committee and the Regional and Local
Committees for the Prevention and Care of
 Physical security 54

LEGISLATION /
YEAR DESCRIPTION
Disasters, as the case may be, will prepare, based on
vulnerability analyses, contingency plans to facilitate
prevention or to adequately and timely address probable
disasters. For this purpose, the National Office for Disaster
Response will prepare an instructional model for the
preparation of contingency plans.

Article 14 . Health aspects of contingency plans.

The Ministry of Health will coordinate training programs for
contingency plans in aspects of health order, under the
surveillance and control of the National Technical Committee.

“By which the organization and administration of the

General Risk System is determined
Professionals"
Article 2. Objectives of the General System of Professional
Risks
a) Establish promotion and prevention activities aimed at
improving the working and health conditions of the working
population, protecting them against risks derived from the
organization of work that may affect individual or collective
health in workplaces such as physical ones. , chemical,
biological, ergonomic, sanitation and safety.
DECREE1295/94
Resolution 2413 of 1979 of the Ministry of Labor and
Social Security, article 105: establishes the duty of the
employer to have the necessary equipment to attend to any
emergency medical treatment in the workplace, there must be
a first aid kit equipped with sufficient medicine according to the
characteristics of the work or activity. The handling of the first
RESOLUTION aid kit will be done by personnel with knowledge of first aid
2413/79 practice.
Resolution 2309 of 1986 of the Ministry of Health:
RESOLUTION contemplates the general provisions of sanitary order for the
2309/86 management, use, disposal and transportation of solid waste.

Decree 321 The National Contingency Plan is adopted against spills of

February 17, 1999 hydrocarbons, derivatives and harmful substances in marine,
river and lake waters.
DECREE 2222/93 Decree 2222 of 1993 of the Ministry of Mines and Energy,
article 234: establishes the formation of fire brigades. The
 Physical security 55

LEGISLATION /
YEAR DESCRIPTION
personnel that integrate them must be qualified and trained to
fulfill their functions.
LAW 400/97 Law 400 of 1997: standards on Earthquake Resistant
Constructions are adopted.
v Article 10: Establishes minimum criteria and requirements
for the design, construction and technical supervision of new
buildings, as well as those essential for the recovery of the
community after the occurrence of an earthquake, which may
be subjected to seismic and other forces. forces imposed by
nature or use, in order for them to be able to resist them,
increase their resistance to the effects they produce, reduce
the risk of loss of human life to a minimum, and defend as
much as possible the heritage of the State and citizens.
v Article 53. Pre-existing buildings before the validity of this law
and its regulations, which through an intervention where they
are updated and adjusted to their requirements, may be
exempt from paying the remodeling license issuance tax and
property taxes, for a period of time. defined by the competent
district or municipal authority.

v Article54. Existing constructions whose use classifies them

as essential buildings and community services, located in
areas of high and intermediate seismic threat, must have their
seismic vulnerability evaluated in a period of no more than
three (3) years from the validity of this law.
These buildings must be intervened or reinforced to bring them
to a level of seismic safety equivalent to that of a new building
designed and built in accordance with the requirements of this
law and its regulations, in a period of no more than six (6)
years counted from from the validity of this law.

In this aspect, it is necessary to evaluate the characteristics of

the facilities such as the electrical network, mechanical
ventilation systems, elevators, basements, sanitary hydraulic
network, transformers, power plants, stairs for common use,
parking areas and other services or special areas of the facility.
physical plant. This evaluation must be supported with plans or
diagrams that indicate and facilitate the location and technical
interpretation of the analyzed systems.

Of the existing evacuation routes, it is necessary to mention

the number of exits available, their size and location, the door
 Physical security 56

LEGISLATION /
YEAR DESCRIPTION
opening system, the place to which they lead, the lighting they
have and the signage they have. Likewise, in the analysis of
the characteristics of the building, the reaction variables and
the fire resistance of the materials with which the facility is built
and equipped must be taken into account, since aspects such
as the ease of initiation and propagation depend on it. of a fire,
the action of the hospital's emergency brigade or the fire
department to control the situation, the establishment of the
maximum evacuation time, among others.

Article 1. Fire prevention is the responsibility of all authorities

and inhabitants of Colombian territory. In compliance with this
responsibility, public and private organizations must consider
Law 322 of 1996. the contingency of this risk in real estate such as natural parks,
National Fire constructions, programs and projects aimed at reducing their
System. vulnerability.

THE EVACUATION PROCESS

1) DEFINITIONS

1.1) Evacuation

Evict the inhabitants of a place to avoid harm to them.

1.2) Evacuation Plan

An Evacuation Plan is defined as the organization, resources and procedures,

aimed at ensuring that people threatened by a danger (fire, flood, gas leak, bomb,
etc.) protect their life and physical integrity, by moving to and through lower risk
locations. A PLAN means being organized to respond. The uncertainty about the
possible occurrence of an emergency and the multiple cases presented in
buildings and areas with a large concentration of people have taught us that to
successfully face the situation the only valid formula, in addition to prevention, is
advance planning. the different alternatives and actions to follow. Because in the
normal emergency response scheme, the presence of specialized relief agencies
requires a minimum of time, and due to the dynamics of the development of an
emergency, it is necessary that the people involved in an event of this nature can
 Physical security 57

be saved in the shortest possible time. The above has given rise to evacuation
plans, the design of which we will deal with in this article.

1.3) Emergency

Event, accident that occurs. Danger or disaster situation that requires immediate
action.

1.4) Emergency Plan

An Emergency Plan is defined as the organization, resources and procedures, in

order to mitigate the effects of accidents of any type.

2) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMERGENCIES AND EVACUATION

There must be as many Emergency Plans as there are different situations that
could cause us harm, or threaten us, the Evacuation Plan is UNIQUE ; No matter
what emergency we are fleeing from, the evacuation process should always be the
same. Taking into account that an emergency is a situation, real or evolving, with
the capacity to cause damage to the facilities, and therefore, to the people in them;
There will be a certain moment in the evolution of this emergency that it will be
necessary to get people to safety. An Evacuation Plan is an integral part of a
system of emergency plans. Now, at what point in the evolution of an emergency
does it become necessary to evacuate personnel? In order to answer this simple
question, we must first know what an evacuation process consists of, and we are
going to talk about that in the next point.

3) THE EVACUATION PROCESS

Contrary to what most people think, evacuation is not limited to a simple movement
of people between two places, but is a complex process that begins with the very
appearance of the problem, thus beginning an inexorable race against time. ,
whose final result is salvation or death. The entire evacuation process takes place
in six stages, each of which requires more or less time for its execution, time that
ultimately limits the possibilities of success.
 Physical security 58

3.1) First Stage: Detection

Time elapsed from when the danger originates until someone recognizes it. The
time depends on:

 Danger Class.
 Detection means available.
 Use of the building.
 Day and time of the event.

3.2) Second Stage: Alarm

Time elapsed from when the danger is recognized until the person who must
make the decision to evacuate is informed. The time depends on:

 Alarm system.
 Staff training.

3.3) Third Stage: Decision

Time elapsed since the person in charge of deciding the evacuation becomes
aware of the problem, until he or she decides to evacuate. The time depends on:

 Responsibility and Authority assigned to the person in charge of deciding

the evacuation.
 Replacements in cases of absences.
 Information available about the problem.
 Ability to evaluate the problem.
 Staff training.
 Physical security 59

3.4) Fourth Stage: Information

Time elapsed from when the evacuation decision maker decides to evacuate until
this decision is communicated to the staff. The time depends on:

 Communication system.

3.5) Fifth Stage: Preparation

Time elapsed from when the evacuation decision is communicated until the first
person begins to leave. The time depends on:

 Staff training.
 Tasks assigned before departure.
 Some important aspects in the preparation phase are:
 Verify who and how many people there are.
 Reduce risks.
 Protect values.
 Remember final meeting place.

3.6) Sixth Stage: Exit

Time elapsed from when the first person begins to leave until the last person
leaves, to a safe place. Departure time depends on:

 Distance to travel.
 Number of people to evacuate.
 Capacity of escape routes.
 Risk limitations.
 During the first five stages, whose sum of time is recognized as reaction
time, there is no decrease in the number of people inhabiting the building.
The time necessary to evacuate is given by the sum of the individual times
necessary to execute each of the four phases.

4) EVACUATION TIMES

Knowing what an evacuation process consists of, let's return to the analysis we left
when trying to link emergencies and evacuation. As soon as a problem starts (for
example, a fire), a process begins that ends up producing critical conditions that
 Physical security 60

prevent evacuation. In the case of a fire, for example, we can talk about
temperatures above 150°C, oxygen concentrations less than 7%, carbon monoxide
above 1% and carbon dioxide in concentrations greater than 12% in the air. This
time is called Risk Limit Time (TLR), and is the time elapsed from the beginning of
the problem until the appearance of any of the critical conditions that prevent
evacuation. The Time in Critical Situation (TSC) corresponds to the maximum time
necessary to carry out complete evacuation, based on the above, evacuation will
be feasible in the case where the TSC is less than the TLR.

5) THE MOMENT OF DECISION

Perhaps the most critical moment of the entire process is the “moment of
decision”, a situation that in almost all cases falls on one person. There are no
magic formulas, there are no recipes, there are no teams that can decide for us;
The decision is complex, we are playing against time, and while we decide, time
passes. But we cannot fall into the facile approach of evacuating for any
circumstance, if we generate many false or unnecessary evacuations, we will end
up creating a climate where people end up disbelieving in the need to evacuate.
Furthermore, the evacuation process itself involves problems, people who panic,
people who get hurt or fall during the exit, heart attacks, problems with pregnant
women, problems with the elderly and sick, etc. The circumstances or parameters
that we use to decide the moment of evacuation are not always the same, each
emergency or problem that may arise will generate a range of variables, facts or
circumstances that should help us decide.
 Physical security 61

6) OPTIMIZATION OF THE EVACUATION PROCESS

The Risk Limit Time (TLR) is a time that is difficult to estimate and/or calculate, first
because it is different for each type of emergency and for each different
circumstance that may arise. Even worse, for the same type of emergency (let's
say a fire), the variables that come into play are so many and so difficult to assess,
that making a calculation becomes a complex task of dubious usefulness. The
Time in Critical Situation (TSC) or total evacuation time, is easier to calculate or
estimate, we can do it knowing the speed of movement of the people and the
maximum distance to travel, adding the estimated times of the other stages; time
that can be corroborated in practice through a simulation. As in reality it will happen
that we do not know the TLR, and therefore, we cannot compare ourselves and
know if our TSC is adequate or not, the conclusion arises that the best evacuation
time is the shortest possible compatible with the integrity of who are evacuating
and with the available technology. In order to work on a process to reduce the total
evacuation time, we must act on each of the components that determine said time
in the different stages of the evacuation process. As an example we will cite some
actions aimed at reducing time:

 Placement of detection systems.

 Change and optimization of alarm or detection systems.
 Placement of emergency buttons.
 Improve the communication process.
 Improve the decision-making process.
 Improve the staff notification process.
 Provision of energy to emergency lighting systems.
 Decrease in preparation actions.
 Modification of escape routes.
 Physical security 62

 The success of the evacuation plan consists of creating a systematized

pattern of behavior that allows us to react to a given situation in the shortest
possible time.
 I know how to achieve the above by largely limiting the need for analysis
and decision of the human group involved, by establishing clear and simple
procedures (decisions made in advance).

7) THE ESCAPE ROUTE

It is very likely that the people who are being evacuated do not know what they are
escaping from, or where the origin of the problem is located. The evacuation route
has to be as short as possible, to minimize time, but at the same time, it has to
offer sufficient guarantee that people will not encounter the problem on their way,
or that the path generates the problem. problem, in addition, it has to allow people
who plan to evacuate through it to circulate. We must try to avoid mixing people of
very different ages, for example, in a school the children of the lower years (EGB1
with the children of the polymodal), or similar cases. If it is the only escape route,
we can stagger the exit, first the smallest ones, and then the oldest ones. In a real
evacuation, the survival instinct can cause the larger ones to damage and pass
over the smaller, or more helpless, ones. When selecting the escape route, stairs
or floors with ascending slopes should be avoided as much as possible. Avoid
hallways that reduce their width abruptly along the way. The doors must open
outwards, and must have an anti-avalanche bar. If the doors open inwards, one
person per door must be provided to open them before starting the evacuation; in
addition, said doors must be able to be locked in the open position. The escape
routes and the doors that serve as an exit must be identified and illuminated so that
the path can be followed in case of lack of natural light. The lighting must be the
autonomous type.

BUSINESS SECURITY AND DEFENSE – BOMB THREAT

What to do if there is a bomb threat

The sequence of activities to be carried out in response to the warning of the
placement of an explosive

Upon notification of the placement of an explosive device, a series of activities and

behaviors previously established in a detailed plan must be put into motion that
contemplates both the different levels of responsibility and functions, such as the
telephone procedure, search groups, evacuations and readmissions, and the final
report of the operation.
 Physical security 63

Upon notification of the placement of an explosive device, a series of activities and

behaviors previously established in a detailed plan must be put into motion that
contemplates both the different levels of responsibility and functions, such as the
telephone procedure, search groups, evacuations and readmissions, and the final
report of the operation.

1. INTRODUCTION

We are going through difficult times, where terrorism has multiplied one hundred
percent in recent years. The threat of an attack, the planting of a bomb, was
previously almost unknown; Now, in large metropolitan areas, law enforcement
agencies receive almost an average of one call a day and every day the skill of
terrorists increases, both in the manufacture of devices and in hiding them,
multiplying the losses astronomically. labor losses, damages, injuries and deaths.

Both staff and facilities are vulnerable. The best defense is the careful
development of a plan tailored to the organization. It should be part of the general
planning for cases of fires, floods, earthquakes and other types of emergencies,
since among them there may be a bomb threat.

This plan will have to be consulted with experts in explosives deactivation (GNA
Explosive Deactivation Section, Explosives Brigades of Police or Security Forces)
who will be able to reinforce and refine what is proposed. In its essence, the plan
will be very simple, it will try to obtain as much data as possible from the threat, to
be able to transmit it to the aforementioned law enforcement agents, who will be
able to form a judgment about the threat, which will allow a search to be carried
out. in the facilities and on the surrounding land.

It will seem simple and it can be if you are prepared, but we remember that "...for
the plan to work there will have to be someone responsible."

2. THE EMERGENCY COORDINATOR

Bombs can kill and maim, but so can panic; then the emergency will have to be
under control or chaos may ensue. It must be headed by a director or coordinator,
who will put the plan into action and be trained to make decisions.

The coordinator will have to have designated substitutes, so that there is always
someone to direct the situation. Everyone in companies or organizations should
know who these people are and will try to contact them immediately. It will be
advisable to publish their names and internal telephone numbers in a clearly visible
place, so that the rest of the staff can contact them without hesitation or delay. The
coordinator will organize the search groups with assignment of sectors where they
 Physical security 64

will have direct responsibility.

3. THE CALL

There have been cases in which imperturbable telephone operators, accustomed

to dealing with suspicious calls, have completely lost control at the word bomb. It
must be taken into account that the telephone call will be the only contact with the
terrorist, the only possibility where essential data can be obtained. Anyone who
could receive a threat will have to know the telephone procedure.

Knowing that more information can be obtained than the simple warning, since
although it may seem strange, it will often answer questions, since the terrorist may
want his feat to be known.

We will try to find out the following:

When? – You will ask: When will it explode?
Where? – He will ask: Where is it? Where will we look?
That? – You will ask: What shape does it have?
Because? – You will ask: Why are you doing that?...what mobile phone do you
have?
Who are you?...Where are you?

All your statements will be written

Often, the expression of a feeling will also be effective; Phrases like: “…you don't
strike me as the kind of person who would do such a thing…” can prolong the
conversation and make identification easier. The list of questions must be
published and posted on posters for everyone to see and they must be appropriate
to the requirements of the organization or company.

Some companies often set up a hand signal to let other people know that a threat
is being received so that they can more quickly notify the emergency coordinator
and try to trace the call (mostly, those making the threat are nervous and it is very
strange to be able to do it).

You should try to continue talking, there are important data implicit in the call: sex,
age, accent, speech defects, environmental sounds, anxiety in the interlocutor and
other aspects. The person who receives the call must keep the message and all
his notes, since they may be made in the event of a judicial process. Some
organizations use note forms that are kept in all those offices where there are
telephones that fail calls from the public (Annex I).

4. CALL ESTIMATION
 Physical security 65

Upon receiving the emergency call, the coordinator will observe all the details:
- Call time
- When will the device explode
- Where is
- Which shape has
- Who called (man, woman, accent if they have one, etc.)
- Noises in the environment (traffic, radio sound, television, factory noises,
children's laughter, etc.)

There will be several measures that will be executed immediately:

- He will call the Security or Police forces (explosive brigades) and inform them of
the facts.
- You will coordinate the call with your own security department, if you have one.
- Provide the search group with data on the possible location of the bomb and the
time available. Having to start the search.
- Designate someone to receive the agents and transfer them to the coordinator's
office.

The aforementioned will make it possible to evaluate the threat with more time. If
the voice were that of a teenager and laughter was heard in the background, it
would probably be a joke, but it would be worth looking for. If it is an adult who
seems to know the property and indicates the time or place of the explosion, you
should consider vacating the premises.

As you can imagine, there are a wide variety of ways to receive a threat: from a
few whispered words to a broad and informative message. Some may be in writing;
In these cases, you will avoid putting your hands on it, and it will be kept as proof,
since it could contain fingerprints and all kinds of useful information for the
subsequent investigation.

Each threat will have to be judged on its own; The possible potential for damage
will be considered and it will be necessary to decide whether it is advisable to
evacuate, since the majority of threats are intended to interrupt the activities
carried out in the premises, since it usually happens that the perpetrators of the
incident could be observing from the opposite sidewalk. of the building. It must be
that if runs occur, the desired objective may have been achieved.

The motive for many threats will be: revenge, a former employee, a displeased
client, etc. who may be the most likely responsible; then the “pranksters” would
come, meaning that the possibility of placing a bomb in all the threats would be
remote; but it is about making a difficult decision, weighing on the one hand the
loss of time, the interruption of tasks, the possible panic and on the other hand, the
injuries, the deaths, the destruction of property and other havoc; The security
 Physical security 66

agents must help the coordinator, but ultimately the decision will be his and he will
have to be willing to make it without the possibility of carrying out a prolonged
study.

5. THE SEARCH GROUP

The task may be risky and will have to be carried out by volunteers; People who
know their sectors widely and in detail will be needed. The search group (or its
substitutes) must be ready to act immediately and know perfectly what to do; It will
be essential to have an action plan in place with the assignment of an area for
each member and a final report system. The sector will be divided into areas small
enough so that the search does not exceed more than 20 minutes maximum.

Search engines can be launched by:

1) A coded announcement over the public address system.

2) Cascade calls, that is, calls to one or two members, who will call the rest of the
group.

If telephone or radio communications are found to be defective, the search will be

carried out in pairs; two members will act together, each one will search
individually, but close enough to be able to hear each other.

If something is found, one will clear the area immediately and evacuate people,
while the other will go to the nearest telephone and give immediate notice, but...
Nothing should be touched or moved until the specialists arrive.

A caveat should be made regarding the use of communications: under certain

conditions, the energy from a radio transmitter may activate a bomb with an
electrical or radial detonation system; Therefore, if a suspicious artifact or object is
found, a radio broadcast from the place in question should not be attempted.

Where should you look first?

In spaces with public access, lobbies, bathrooms, stairwells, fire escapes, etc. The
exterior should not be forgotten: gardens, window sills, garbage cans, external
decorations, mailboxes, etc., could be easy places to place an artifact.

What should be looked for?

It could be anything, from the most visible bundle of dynamite with a clock to
artifacts well hidden in completely normal objects: waste bags, paper bags,
commercial-type cardboard boxes (pizza), sometimes even thermoses, wallets,
etc. women, briefcases, tool boxes, etc. There will be something that does not
belong to the environment, that does not fit with the place where it is.

The vital order for the searchers, and for everyone else, will be in the event that
 Physical security 67

they find something suspicious: they will not touch it, they will not move it; It's
almost incredible how perfect the explosives package could be today; There have
been cases of nipples (pipes) with the fuse burned to the naked eye, appearing to
be harmless because they have failed, but in reality they have a movement-
sensitive fuse that explodes at the slightest touch.

The searcher who finds a suspicious package must stay as far away as possible,
but in a position to prevent others from entering the danger zone by mistake; It
must be placed behind the wall or a piece of furniture that is sufficiently solid or
absorbent to counteract the effects of the detonation.

Once the specialists arrive and take charge of the situation, the search group will
be able to leave with the evacuees and will wait until the device is removed from
the building.

It could be the case that the searchers were the first to start the evacuation, since if
they found something they would have to make the others leave the area
immediately, remembering that the words “bomb” and “explosion” are impressive
and could even cause panic; They should not be expected to say something
moderate in crisis situations, and the coordinator should express some phrases,
such as: “... we have an emergency, everyone get out of here.” Or "... there are
problems in the building, we must evacuate it without loss of time...". This will take
your situation into account and prepare phrases that incite urgency but not
hysteria.

To shorten the search and minimize the danger, places and furniture that are
infrequently used and limited to service personnel should be kept locked,
especially access to critical places such as electrical panels, heating systems and
air conditioners.

If the establishment has more than one floor, a person in charge must be
designated for each of them, so that they can supervise the search and arrange
evacuation if it is considered necessary. The search groups, floor managers and
coordinators must meet regularly to refine the procedures, update the plan and
adapt it to new facts (Annex II shows a typical plan for more than one floor).

6. THE EVACUATIONS

This will also require a plan and the egress routes must be clearly marked; they
will actually be no different from a fire drill or other emergency evacuation. But staff
must carry all their personal belongings with them, since a wallet or briefcase that
is left behind and does not have identification could be a problem for search
engines or specialists.
Nowadays the general rule is that it is good for people to move about 300 m away
from a suspicious object and since there could also be bad weather, somewhere
under cover should be provided. Personnel will not be allowed to congregate on
 Physical security 68

the street, as they would be exposed to possible falling masonry or broken glass.
You should move it to a safe place at a safe distance (if it is more than 300 meters,
better).

The following rules will be kept in mind:

1. Loudspeaker announcement: Urgent but without hysteria. Everyone knows the

phrase: “Fire drill.” A warning will be provided, but it may have to be modified
suddenly as some exits cannot be used if they are close to the suspicious
discovery.

2. “Telephone cascade”: Several departments will be called and these in turn will
call several others and so on, until everyone is notified. Generally, the managers of
these departments will verbally notify their people and help evacuate the property.

Search groups will be able to assist in the evacuation process and will ensure that
no people are left isolated. Someone must remain in the evacuation zone to
explain the “mysterious” details of it, trying to ensure that all evacuees remain
together, not allowing any of them to re-enter the building. If the establishment has
multiple floors, at least three will be evacuated: the one where the object is located,
the one below it and the one above it.

The coordinator will consult with the explosives specialists who are present to
appreciate the complexity of the threat and whether the abandonment of the
building in its entirety is recommended. It may be decided to cut off the water, light
and electricity services and a person responsible will be appointed, in the event
that an explosion is feared; but lighting may be needed for the search, or if there
were computers that needed electricity constantly, its interruption could be as
disastrous as the explosion. The same would apply to other services, the possible
risk must be weighed against damage to equipment and machinery.

7. THE EXPLOSION

Sometimes an explosion will be the first sign of catastrophe. In these cases the
safety of people will be of paramount importance, the evacuation will be carried out
immediately and help will be requested. The police and firefighters will be notified
and the assistance of the health service will be requested if it is considered
necessary. The supply of those services that could be harmful (gas) will be cut off,
but an attempt will be made to maintain the electricity supply, if possible, because
police and health personnel will need lighting to see the injured and begin
treatment. immediate.

It could be the case that the search group would have to act as a first aid team
until professionals were present.
It is important to remember that bomb attacks may not be reduced to a single
 Physical security 69

device; For this reason, the evacuated personnel will be sheltered in a safe place,
since it will be very likely that the explosives technicians will want to continue the
search in the property.

8. RE-ENTRY INTO THE THREATENED AREA

In the case of an evacuation...When will you re-enter? Here's another

management decision. The police or other officers present may be able to help but
it is not their responsibility to decide. Re-entry should be resolved only after a
thorough search of the premises; “…no one can positively assure that there is no
possible bomb, the entire building would almost have to be dismantled to have
such a guarantee…”
The potential risk will have to be weighed against practical factors. The person in
charge will discuss the relative danger with the technicians and his management
personnel, guided by the prevailing situation, local conditions and his own
experience.

9. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

After each drill, whether real or fictitious, a report must be made, a record of the
circumstances and what was done; This will help the police in the event of an
investigation and will allow them to form an opinion of the operation.

The more you can learn from each incident, the better you will be able to
handle the next call. Refining the details of the operation could determine the
difference between a good evacuation and a panicked rout, an end also
sought by terrorism.

Protocol in case of bomb threat

Safety Tips: in case of bomb threat

Faced with a bomb threat

 Immediately alert the competent Security Force in the area, or in any case
112, and provide your personal information, as well as a contact telephone
number.
 Stay calm and communicate this to others, it is important to leave the place
promptly and in order.
 Avoid panic and excessive reactions. Do not encourage this situation.
 Physical security 70

 Avoid curiosity and move away from direct points of view of the artifact.
 Provide a meeting place to meet with the Service Patrol.

When discovering or suspecting explosive devices

 Observe any abnormal situation: "briefcase apparently abandoned in

gardens or public areas", "lunch box buried on the beach, similar objects
deposited or attached to vehicles", "unexpected strange postal items", etc.
 Do not be afraid of ridicule for taking precautions and immediately notify the
competent Security Force in the area.
 Do not handle any suspicious objects.
 Mark the location of the object.
 Without causing alarm, warn people near the scene.

In case of findings or suspicions of projectiles

 Do not tamper with the appliance and prevent others from doing so.
 Keep in mind that, despite possible rust or rust on the device, it can explode.
 Mark the place, but avoid hiding the device.
 Notify the competent Security Force in the area as soon as possible.
 Physical security 71

 Please remember these are not collectibles. Don't keep them as a curiosity
and if you know of someone who does, let them know.

In the face of a probable explosion

 Keep in mind that the best protection is distance and that it cannot be seen
from the place where the explosive is.
 If you cannot get far enough (more than 300 meters), take cover behind a
solid object to reduce the chance of being hit by fragments or debris.
 Take cover from flying or falling window glass.
 If cover is not possible, remain lying on the ground.

Faced with a threat of a nuclear, radiological, biological or chemical

nature.

 The presence of nuclear, radiological, biological or chemical material can

only be confirmed by specialists equipped with appropriate detection
equipment.
 Notify the competent Security Force in the area, or in any case to 112. This
has units specialized in the matter.
 If you observe a cloud or column of smoke or dust suspected of containing
radiological or chemical substances:
o Get away from the place.
o Expose yourself to the cloud for as little time as possible.
o Cover your nose and mouth to avoid breathing contaminated air.
o If you cannot avoid contact with the cloud, wear clothing that covers
your skin as much as possible.
o If the event occurred outside your building, close doors and windows
and gather in an orderly manner in the most sealed place while
waiting to receive recommendations from the authorities. Shut off air
conditioning, ventilation systems, chimney flue, etc.
o Keep the radio or television tuned for instructions.
 Do not eat liquids or foods that may be contaminated and try to avoid
contact with objects that you believe may have been exposed to any toxic
agent.
 Physical security 72

“Remember”: Your safety is our job, notify the Security Forces. You will be safe
with the distance and with the least possible temporary exposure.

BUSINESS SECURITY AND DEFENSE – IMMINENT FIRE

RISKS RELATED TO FIRE

CONCEPTS:

Fire is a chemical combustion reaction, based on strongly exothermic “oxidation-

reduction” phenomena that is manifested by a great release of light and heat.

The fire is an uncontrolled fire. Its effects are generally unwanted, producing
personal injuries from smoke, toxic gases and high temperatures, and material
damage to facilities, manufactured products and buildings.

Fire occurs when the following three factors exist simultaneously in time and
space:

 Fuel.
 Oxidant, usually oxygen from the air.
 Heat, which provides the energy necessary to activate the reaction.

Furthermore, it is considered necessary, for the production of the flame, the

existence of chain reactions caused by the self-ignition of the gases released by
the fuel, which in turn generate new gases that, when heated, re-ignite, repeating
the process. successively.

The latter, together with the three factors mentioned above, form what is called the
tetrahedron of fire.

ELEMENTS INVOLVED IN A FIRE

1. Fuels: Those materials that can be oxidized or that can burn. To do this, they
must emit vapors or gases even if we find them at room temperature, depending
on their physical state, in the form of:

 Solids
 Liquids
 carbonated

2. Oxidizers: That substance that when mixed with fuel causes the combustion of
the latter. The most common is oxygen, although there are others.
 Physical security 73

3. Activation energy: It is the heat necessary to place the “fuel-oxidant” mixture in

conditions of sufficient temperature for its combustion, and is provided by the so-
called “ignition sources”.

4. Chain Reaction: Phenomenon by which the same fire produces its own food.

WAYS OF SPREAD OF A FIRE

The heat produced in combustion spreads in three ways:

 Radiation: Continuous emission of heat through waves.

 Conduction: Heat exchange mechanism that occurs from a hot point to a

colder point, through a conductive medium.

 Convection: It is the process of heat transfer through a moving fluid.

fire classes

They can be classified according to the following scheme:

CLASS CLASSIFICATION
TO SOLIDS Wood, paper, charcoal, fabrics, plastics.
b LIQUIDS Gasoline, diesel, alcohol, petroleum, asphalt.
c GASES: Butane, propane, city gas, methane, acetylene.
d METALS: Aluminum, sodium, titanium, inorganic chemicals.
This classification is important to take into account when using extinguishing
systems, since not all of them are appropriate for all types of fires.
Combustion result
Smoke THE GASES THE HEAT THE FLAMES
It is the dispersionIn all combustions,Combustions areThe flame is a
of solid and liquida large part of theexothermic luminous product of
particles in the air.elements that makereactions. It iscombustion. The
Incomplete up the fuel formproduced by theflame is an
combustion alwaysgaseous friction caused byincandescent gas
produces smoke.compounds whenthe movement of thewhose temperature is
Its density, colorthey burn. Thesemolecules of a body.variable depending
and content variesgases can be toxic. The heat causeson factors such as the
with the supply of burns on the bodytype of fuel and the
oxygen, with the and objects. oxygen index.
amount and type of
material in ignition.
 Physical security 74

PROTECTION SYSTEMS

1. Passive Protection:

 Structural Protection: Intended to prevent the horizontal and vertical spread

of fire. By constructing structures that make it difficult to pass, such as
dividers, slabs or expansion joints in the walls.
 Fire Resistance of materials: Depending on the time during which the
sealing and thermal insulation conditions are maintained. For example,
concrete and plaster are used, which conduct heat worse than other
materials.

They are determined in the Basic Building Standards, to be applied according to

the legislation in force when the building was built or when any improvement is
made to it.

2. Signage:

 So that they are clearly visible, the symbols used being uniform and easy to
interpret.
 You must provide, at all times, information that provides data on behaviors
and prohibits or prevents dangerous actions.

3. Emergency lighting:

 Its purpose is to guarantee a minimum level of lighting.

 They must be provided with emergency lighting:

o All evacuation routes.
o All exits from the sector and the building.
o All special risk premises and general floor toilets in buildings with
public access.
o Premises that house general equipment for protection facilities.

 All lighting system:

o Electrically powered with two supply sources.
o With operating autonomy at full load, of at least one hour.
o Automatic start-up with network supply failure.
o It will provide an illuminance of 3 lux in evacuation routes and 5 lux
where it is necessary to maneuver facilities.

4. Detection and alarm:

 Physical security 75

Human detection:

 By activating the alarm buttons.

 Security service, mainly at night.

Automatic detection:

It increases the speed of detection, allowing areas inaccessible to human detection

to be monitored.

Signal reception can be supervised by a guard at a checkpoint or programmed to

act automatically.

Automatic detectors are fixed installation devices that automatically record,

compare and measure phenomena and/or environmental variations that give rise
to a fire.

Alarm:

 Automatic.
 Manual.

5. Extinguishing systems:

A fire can be extinguished by removing one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron:

 Cooling; by lowering the fire activation temperature.

 Suffocation; by eliminating the oxidizer, mainly oxygen, which facilitates
oxidation.
 Fuel disposal; or matter susceptible to burning.
 Inhibition of the reaction.

The main extinguishing systems are:

 Water: when it goes from liquid to vapor, it cools the environment and
reduces the concentration of oxygen.
 CO2 and Foams: they act by reducing the oxygen concentration to a limit
lower than the minimum necessary for combustion.
 Halogenated extinguishing agents: they act by reducing the concentration of
oxygen in the flame and attacking its chain reaction.
 Chemical Powder: it is based on the interruption of the flame chain reaction,
due to the effect of energy absorption and the elimination of OH radicals.

6. Extinguishing media:
 Physical security 76

Fixed installation: It is one that consists of a system equipped with different outlets
for the distribution and launch of the extinguishing agent.

 Equipped fire hydrant (BIE's): composed of a water supply source, a

network of pipes to supply water to the system and a hose or BIE station
itself.

 Hydrants: They are sources of water, normally derived from public networks,
for the use of public firefighting services or for use by the services of an
industry. They will be located outside the building, preferably next to its
entrances, in such numbers as to protect its facades.

 Dry Column: It is a waterless installation, incorporated into the building as a

means of support for firefighting brigades. Firefighters can supply water from
their equipment to these pipes.

 Fixed automatic extinguishing systems: These are installations whose

mission is to extinguish a fire in a specific area, through the automatic
discharge of an extinguishing agent. These facilities will be located in areas
of high fire risk or whose content is of high value. The extinguishing agent
will be appropriate to the type of fire that may occur and the content or
functions that take place in the area to be protected.

The systems are basically of three types:

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 Automatic water sprinklers. (Fig. 1)

 Extinguishing by powder or foam. (Fig. 2)
 Extinction by gaseous agents. (Fig. 3)

 Mobile installation: It is one that we can move to the scene of the fire. These
are fire extinguishers (they can be: water, foam, dry chemical powder, CO2,
halogenated hydrocarbons).

APPLICABLE LEGISLATION

The regulations relating to the safety of buildings and workers against fire risks are
very extensive, complicated and subject to periodic variation, as they are
continually being reviewed.

Regulation of Fire Protection Facilities

This Regulation is of a general nature, its purpose and scope of application is to

establish and define the conditions that fire protection devices, equipment and
systems must meet, as well as their installation and maintenance. RD 1942/1993,
of November 5, which approves the Regulation of Fire Protection Installations.

Basic Building Standards - Fire Protection Conditions

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There are three Basic Building Standards: the 1982 (NBE-CPI/82); that of 1992
(NBE-CPI/92) and that of 1996. This standard has recently been repealed by Royal
Decree 314/2006 , of March 17, which approves the Technical Building Code.

The fact of adhering to one or another standard is determined by the year of

construction of the building.

Municipal Fire Prevention Ordinances

Some Municipalities have issued their own regulations regarding fire safety
conditions in buildings. These are the so-called Fire Prevention Ordinances,
applicable to all new construction, renovation or restructuring projects within the
municipality.

When Basic Building Standards are also available on the same topic, the most
restrictive criteria will be applied.

Fire safety regulations in industrial establishments

Royal Decree 2267/2004 , of December 3, which approves the Fire Safety

Regulations in industrial establishments, aims to establish and define the
requirements that must be met and the conditions that establishments for industrial
use must meet. for your safety in case of fire.

ACTION IN CASE OF FIRE

WHAT TO DO WHEN YOU DISCOVER A FIRE?

 Raise the alarm.

 Notify the appropriate person of the existence of the fire.
 Notify your location.
 Don't take personal risks.
 Ask for help.
 Do not extinguish the fire without being accompanied.
 Try extinction when it is small.
 If the fire is large, leave the building through the nearest evacuation route.
 Walking crouched, the smoke tends to rise.
 Do not use the elevators.
 Go to the emergency meeting point.

The following document explains in detail how to act in an emergency (pdf).

 Physical security 79

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF AN EVACUATION

 When detecting fire, smoke or other incident, remain calm and quickly report
the alarm to the fire service.
 When you receive the order or the fire signal sounds. If the emergency is
not in your sector, stay at your post. But be fin.
 If you must evacuate the building, do so in an orderly manner and direct
anyone you encounter along the way to the nearest exit.
 Follow the instructions of the evacuation guide and the distress signs.
 Do not use elevators or freight elevators.
 Leave the building through the emergency stairs closest to your floor.
 Do not return to the building, for any reason, until the person(s) responsible
for the evacuation notify you.

FIRE PREVENTION

A fire is a large fire that develops without control, which can occur instantly or
gradually, and can cause material damage, interruption of production processes,
loss of human life and impact on the environment.

Population growth, the development processes in the industry, the increasingly

frequent use of dangerous flammable substances and the lack of precautions in
their handling, transportation and storage are the main factors that have led to a
significant increase in the magnitude and frequency of fires, particularly in cities
where large industrial, commercial and service complexes are located.

Because of the place where they develop, there are urban and forest fires. Urban
losses are mainly due to short circuits in defective installations, overloads or lack of
maintenance in electrical systems, failures or improper operation of household
appliances; lack of caution in the use of candles, nightstands and stoves; improper
handling of hazardous substances and other human errors. Due to where they
occur, urban fires can be domestic, commercial and industrial.

In turn, “forest fires are mainly produced by burning clearing for land use in
agriculture, burning grass to obtain 'hair' that serves as forage, in order to combat
pests and other harmful animals; bonfires in the woods; throwing lit objects onto
herbaceous vegetation; electrical storms, detachment of high voltage lines and
intentional incendiary actions.”

Causes of fires:

-Ignition Sources: flames, electrical wiring, smoking, heat sources and hot
surfaces, welding and cutting materials, friction, sparks, chemical reactions and
gas compression.
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-Flammable Materials: wood, fabric, plastics, fuels, paints, solvents, cleaning fluids,
hydraulic fluids.

-Constructive Risks: doors and/or portals, hallways, false ceilings, sub-floors, ducts
for pipes, and electrical wiring, stairs, cells and/or vertical columns for elevators
and/or ducts for pipes, pulleys and other elements.

-Risks to Personnel / Ease of escape: distance from an exit, lighting of the

evacuation route, number and location of exits, lighting of the evacuation route,
number and location of emergency exits, signage of exits, exit routes, doors and
escape routes.

Before

How to prepare:

In his house

• Periodically check the electrical installation of your home to ensure that the
caliber and connections of cables and/or wires are adequate. Consult expert
electricians or engineers.

• Remember that every electrical contact or switch must have a properly insulated
cover.

• Do not overload outlets with too many prongs, spread the loads, or require
additional circuits to be installed.

• Be especially careful with electric grills and appliances with higher energy
consumption, such as irons, washing machines, radiators, refrigerators, ovens and
heating appliances, as the installation can overheat.

• Avoid improvising splices in the connections and ensure that the cables of
electrical devices are in good condition.

• Have a technician carry out inspections and repairs of electrical installations and
devices if you do not have the necessary knowledge to carry them out.

• Before any repair to the electrical installation, turn off the main switch and check
for absence of power.

• Do not replace fuses with wires or coins.

• Do not connect devices that have become damp and take care that the plugs and
electrical installations do not get wet.
 Physical security 81

• Try not to use or touch electrical appliances if you are barefoot, even when the
floor is dry.

• Periodically check that gas tanks, pipes, hoses and accessories are in good
condition. Place soapy water on the joints to check for leaks; If you find any, report
it to your gas supplier.

• In case of gas leak, do not turn on or off lights and ventilate all rooms as much as
possible.

• Keep candles, candles, matches, lighters and all kinds of flammable materials out
of reach of children.

• Do not let children play next to the stove, or ask them to take care of food that is
on the stove.

• Store flammable liquids in unbreakable containers with a label indicating their

contents; Please place them in ventilated areas and out of reach of children. Never
smoke in these places.

• Use flammable liquids and aerosols only in ventilated places, away from sources
of heat and electrical energy.

• Extinguish matches and cigarette butts perfectly.

• Don't smoke in bed.

• Place ashtrays in visible places.

• Make sure you have one or more fire extinguishers in an accessible place; Make
sure you know how to handle them and make sure they are in serviceable
condition.

• Before leaving your house, check that electrical appliances are turned off and
preferably unplug them. Also, make sure that the stove taps are closed and the
pilot lights are on. If you go on a trip, close the gas taps and disconnect the
electrical power.

• Always have the telephone numbers of the fire brigade, Red Cross,

Civil Protection and relief brigades.

In your workplace

• Remember that a fire can generally occur due to carelessness.

• Comply with established security measures.

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• Request that the electrical installation be checked periodically.

• Don't overload outlets with too many appliances; spread the loads or request the
installation of additional circuits.

• Do not smoke in restricted areas or inside elevators.

• Completely extinguish matches and cigarette butts; Do not throw them in the
trash can.

• Avoid the accumulation of garbage.

• Know the location of fire extinguishers, fire equipment and alarms and learn how
to use them.

• Clearly identify evacuation routes, emergency exits and checkpoints.

• Do not obstruct emergency exits or places where fire fighting equipment is

located.

• Entrust electrical checks and repairs to the responsible technician; don't make
them yourself.

• Suggest evacuation drills and exercises and participate responsibly in them.

• Request that smoke detectors be installed.

• Ask the Civil Protection unit at your workplace for information about the
emergency plan in case of fire.

• If you want to collaborate in fighting a fire, join the Civil Protection unit at your
work in advance, where you will be trained.

• Before leaving your workplace, make sure there are no cigarette butts burning
and that coffee makers, grills, fans and other electrical appliances are unplugged.

During urban fires

• Stay calm: try to reassure your family or co-workers.

• If you detect abnormal fire, heat or smoke, raise the alarm immediately.

• If the fire is of electrical origin, do not try to put it out with water.

• Small fires caused by oil or grease generally occur in the kitchen; In this case,
smother them with salt, baking powder or baking soda. If it's a frying pan that
catches fire, put a lid on it.
 Physical security 83

• If the fire tends to spread, call the fire department or rescue brigades and follow
their instructions.

• Cut off electricity and gas supplies.

• Do not open doors or windows, because the fire spreads with the air.

• In case of evacuation, do not run, do not shout, do not push.

• Don't waste time looking for personal items.

• Go to the exit door furthest from the fire.

• If there are gases and smoke, crawl and if possible cover your nose and mouth
with a damp cloth.

• Help children, the elderly and people with disabilities get out.

• Before opening a door, touch the knob or handle, or the surface of the door; If it is
hot, do not open it, the fire must be behind it.

• Do not use elevators.

• If your clothes catch fire, don't run; Get on the floor and roll slowly, if necessary
cover yourself with a blanket to put out the fire.

• If the fire obstructs the exits, do not despair and get as far away from the flames
as possible, try to completely block the entrance of the smoke, covering the cracks
with damp cloths and draw attention to its presence to receive help as soon as
possible. .

• Keep in mind that panic is your worst enemy.

• When firefighters or rescue teams arrive, inform them if there are people trapped.

• Once outside the property, move as far away as possible so as not to obstruct the
work of the relief brigades.

After

• Do not go to the accident area until the authorities determine it.

• Have a technician check the electrical and gas installations before turning the
power back on and using the stove and heater.

• Throw away food, drinks, or medicines that have been exposed to heat, smoke,
or soot from fire.
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• Do not refreeze food that has been thawed.

REMEMBER:

A fire is a chemical reaction that requires heat, oxygen and combustible material.
Fire extinguishers are designed according to this principle and are differentiated to
put out fires of different categories such as:

Class A fire extinguishers:

They are used to put out fires of ordinary combustible material such as wood,
paper, rubber, various types of plastic. Class A extinguishers may contain water,
foam, or dry chemicals;

Class B fire extinguishers:

They apply to fires involving liquids, gases, grease or other material that requires a
lack of oxygen to control the fire. The content of said extinguisher can be “foam”,
Halon and CO2, multi-use dry chemicals;

Class C fire extinguishers:

They are used to extinguish fires involving electrical equipment and electrical
wiring where the conductivity of the extinguishing agent is relevant. For example,
content extinguishers with water-based solutions cannot be used to put out
electrical fires because water serves as a conductor for electricity and the user
could receive an electric shock from the water.

Class D fire extinguishers:

They are specialized to respond to fires that involve combustible metals such as
magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium and potassium.

LOCATION OF THE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Portable fire extinguishers should be spaced so that the distance is no more than
75 feet for Class A and Class D fires, and no more than 50 feet for Class B fires;

Fire extinguishers must be placed in the corresponding risk area but not so close
that it could be affected by the fire or be out of reach when you need it most. If
possible, they should be installed in exit corridors. Where there are tanks of
combustible materials, the extinguisher should be just outside the door of each
tank but never inside it;

There should be no obstructions – boxes, equipment, etc. – to reach the

extinguishers. They must be installed at a height that prevents them from being
 Physical security 85

damaged by trucks, cranes, chemical processes, among other activities. They

should also not be located in narrow exits or hallways, where they could make
evacuation difficult or injure someone;

It is necessary to mark the location of the fire extinguishers and keep the area
around them clear to avoid confusion.

USE OF EXTINGUISHERS

When a fire is discovered and it is still small, you can try using the fire extinguisher
(if you have received the appropriate training):

 First, activate the fire alarm;

 Second, try to put out or control the fire, making sure to always have an
escape route. The first objective is to prevent injuries to personnel;

 Crouch down to avoid heat and smoke; and

 Aim and discharge the extinguisher toward the base of the fire.

AREA EVACUATION

1. Any person who does not have a task to execute in the emergency plan must
leave for the designated areas.

2. Before leaving, these are the tasks that staff must perform:

 Stop all activity that is being carried out at that moment.

 Turn off the power, turn off the lights, etc. (it is crucial to turn off the gas tank
and control any hazardous substances).

 Calmly, leave towards the meeting point outside the building, turning off
lights and disconnecting electronic devices when leaving.

 Empty the physical plant in two minutes, via the previously established
route. Employees, officials and visitors must stay together at the meeting
point to verify that no one is missing.

RECOVERY
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1. Once the emergency is over, the administration will be notified of the occurrence
of the incident.

2. Verify operational capacity and resume assistance to the company, making use
of the communication system to inform staff and officials.

3. Resume intercommunication.

4. Form cleaning brigades and assign specific tasks or areas to each group
(involve employees if necessary).

5. In the event of property damage, manage the insurance claim.

6. Evaluate material damage, equipment and facilities and prepare a report of the
causes and corrective measures to be taken.

7. replace used fire fighting equipment that has been worn out or damaged.

Emergency Drills: What are they and what are they for?

What is an earthquake?
They are movements of the Earth's crust that are perceived with different intensity,
sometimes causing serious damage and loss of human life.

Why are you shaking?

It turns out that the Earth's crust is not uniform, but is divided into twelve large
zones, which are called tectonic plates. When tectonic plates collide and break or
slide relative to each other, an enormous amount of energy is released, which
propagates in waves and generates an earthquake.

What is a drill?

It is an essay about how to act in the event of an emergency, following a previously

established plan based on safety and protection procedures. A drill tests the
 Physical security 87

population's response capacity and its exercise allows the plans to be evaluated
and given feedback.

What are drills for?

Drills serve to accustom the population to adopt more convenient action routines to
react in the event of an emergency.
Steps to follow in an earthquake drill

withdrawal movement
If you are at work:
• Move quickly and without running, to the internal security area next to load-
bearing walls, columns and girders, among others.
• Protect yourself under a desk or work table
• Stand under the door frames or those places indicated by the Security and Civil
Protection personnel in your work area.
• Do not go near the windows to avoid the risk of breaking the glass and getting
hurt.
If you are at home:
• Protect yourself under a table
• Go along the Evacuation Route that you have defined together with your family.
• Stand under door frames
• Stay away from windows.

Evacuation movement
The evacuation drill is NOT a game, it is a rehearsal that allows us to prepare in a
practical way to know how to act and what we should do in an emergency situation.
It is called evacuation because it involves leaving the place where you are. It is
advisable to do it immediately once the earthquake has passed.
The evacuation will be carried out in the following way:

 Previously Identify Evacuation Routes

 Go to the emergency exits:
 Without running, without shouting and without pushing
 If possible, disconnect the Water, Electricity and Gas supplies.
 Don't try to take your belongings
 Physical security 88

 Do not carry any objects in your hands

 Help people with disabilities
 Do not run down stairs or use an elevator.
 Arrive at the agreed meeting point
 Focus on the safety zone
 Follow the instructions of the Internal Civil Protection Unit

BUSINESS SECURITY AND DEFENSE – EARTHQUAKE DANGER

THE EARTHQUAKES

Map of regions of seismic and volcanic activity throughout the world. The blue lines
represent the location of the edges of the tectonic plates, the yellow dots represent
earthquakes, and the red triangles represent volcanic eruptions.

Earthquakes are natural phenomena that occur suddenly, without warning. Unlike
hurricanes, earthquakes are not predictable. An earthquake is a violent movement
of the ground caused by the release of energy arising from the interior of the Earth.
This energy can arise from a natural source such as the breaking of rocks in the
Earth's crust, from a volcanic eruption, or from non-natural sources such as
explosions.
 Physical security 89

Large earthquakes cause serious damage to property, infrastructure, and can

cause death (USGS photo-1994 Northridge, California earthquake).
When the rocks of the Earth's crust crack, divide or break, a release of
accumulated energy occurs, and these earthquakes are known as tectonic in
origin. Generally these breaks occur along fractures in the Earth's crust or
geological faults, which in turn are associated with the movement of tectonic
plates. Earthquakes of volcanic origin release the energy produced by the breaking
of rocks due to the movement of magma under the surface. While earthquakes
caused by explosions can generate weak seismic waves. These processes can
cause seismic “noise.” This noise is the vibration of seismic waves towards the
surface.

On October 23, 2009 at 12:23 am The Puerto Rico Seismic Network recorded the
explosion of the Caribbean Petroleum refinery in Bayamón, Puerto Rico. This
explosion generated an earthquake with a magnitude of 2.9 Md, a depth of 0.0 km
and with an epicenter in the municipality of Bayamón.
Click to access the report
The science of seismology studies earthquakes. The words earthquake, tremor or
earthquake refer to the same phenomenon. All three terms are correct and mean
 Physical security 90

the same thing. A natural earthquake in Puerto Rico, whether its epicenter is on
land or at sea, will have a tectonic origin. In Puerto Rico there are no volcanoes;
despite the fact that its origin is volcanic.

The physical components of an earthquake include the hypocenter, epicenter, the

geological fault, and seismic waves.

The point inside the Earth where the earthquake occurs is called the hypocenter,
and the point on the surface that is directly vertical to the hypocenter, and
therefore, is the first affected by the shaking, is the epicenter.
Hypocenter or focus
It is the point within the Earth's crust where the breaking of stone begins. This point
is determined by its latitude, longitude and depth. The earthquake is called
superficial if it occurs on the Earth's surface up to about 70 km (0-45 miles) deep. If
it occurs between 70-300 km (45-185 miles) it is called intermediate; and if it is
deeper than 300 km (185 miles), then it is known as deep.

Epicenter
It is the projection on the earth's surface of the hypocenter (focus).

Geologic fault
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Photo that illustrates a geological fault on the same surface, where a mass of stone
has slid to the opposite side of the other. Note the discontinuity of the rock,
specifically the white stripe (USGS photo).
A geological fault is a fracture in the Earth's crust that separates two masses of
rock, and where one of the rock masses has shifted relative to the other. The
greatest concentration of faults is located at the edges of tectonic plates. Although
not common, there are also some active faults in the middle of tectonic plates.

There are different types of failures:

NORMAL FAILURE
Rocks on one side of the fault sink or sink relative to rocks on the other side of the
fault.

See Animation

REVERSE FAILURE
The rock on one side of the fault rises relative to the rock on the other side of the
fault.

See Animation
 Physical security 92

TEAR FAILURE
Rocks on one side of the fault slide laterally or horizontally against rocks on the
opposite side of the fault.

See Animation

Seismic waves
During an earthquake, energy is released in the form of waves, which travel from
the point of origin of the earthquake, that is, the hypocenter, and expand through
the interior of the Earth or are projected towards the Earth's surface. These energy
waves arise from the sudden breaking or splitting of rocks from geological faults, or
from non-natural sources such as an explosion. This energy is recorded by
instruments such as seismographs. The vibrations of a tremor from these waves
can be felt for about 30 seconds-2 minutes, although . Not all seismic waves are
the same. There are several types, and each type of seismic wave has a unique
movement. The two main types of seismic waves are: body waves (P and S
waves), and surface waves (R and L waves).
 Physical security 93

Seismic waves propagate and radiate the earthquake energy in all directions
starting from the hypocenter. However, not all types of waves are the same since
there are important differences between them (image from the University of Costa
Rica).
See Images and Animation with the response of buildings to seismic waves

Si
mulation of movement of body and surface waves (image from Purdue University).
Body waves (P and S)
 Physical security 94

Body waves travel through the inner layers of the earth.

P waves: These are the waves that arrive the fastest and are the first to be
recorded on seismic instruments. This wave moves through solid rock and fluids.
The movement of the land is vertical, up and down.

S waves: These seismic waves arrive later than P waves because they travel
more slowly. Therefore, they are the second to be felt when an earthquake occurs,
and the movement of the ground is to the sides. This wave is softer and only
moves through a solid medium, not a liquid.
Surface waves (R and L)
Surface waves only travel through the crust. These arrive after the body waves.
However, these waves are the ones associated with the damage and destruction
caused by earthquakes. The deeper the earthquake, the lower the strength of
these waves.
 Physical security 95

R waves: R waves (also known as Rayleigh waves) have the roller effect beneath
the ground, moving the soil surface up and down. These cause most of the ground
surface vibrations during an earthquake. The effect is similar to when a boat
receives the passage of a wave propagating in the ocean from underneath. As is
the effect of a roller, the terrain moves up and down and from side to side. This is
the most dangerous and strongest wave.

L waves: S waves (also known as Love waves) generate horizontal or lateral

movements causing, for example, water in ponds to spill to the sides. This wave is
particularly dangerous to building foundations.
 Physical security 96

Seismic
recording of body waves (P and S) and surface waves.

Click to listen to the audio

CLfor more information
Seismic swarms or sequences (that is, the occurrence of a set of tremors in a
specific area during a relatively short period of time) occur frequently in the region
of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Sophisticated instruments established in
recent years make it possible to detect this lower intensity seismic activity in the
area. Generally, a larger main tremor can initiate a seismic swarm in some area,
 Physical security 97

and the tremors that follow are no greater in magnitude than the initial one.
Scientists do not know the causes of these swarms and whether they are
precursors to other, stronger events.
Aftershocks are smaller magnitude earthquakes that occur after a large
earthquake occurs in the vicinity of the rupture zone associated with the main
earthquake. On some occasions aftershocks can be similar in magnitude to the
original earthquake and cause additional damage. Some series of aftershocks last
a long time, even exceeding a year, as occurred in Puerto Rico after the
earthquakes of 1867 and 1918.

Seismic swarms are very common in the area of Puerto Rico and the Virgin
Islands, and in this case, during the October 2008 swarm north of the British Virgin
Islands the earthquakes had depths between 0-120 km (0-75 miles). (PR Seismic
Network).

Myths and Facts about Earthquakes:

1. When it is hot, shaking will occur. FAKE. Air temperatures do not affect
seismic activity.
2. The earth will crack and swallow people and buildings. FAKE. 1-6" cracks in
the ground or collapses may occur due to ground acceleration or liquefaction
processes, but neither people nor buildings fall into the depths.
 Physical security 98

3. Everything that is happening is an announcement of the end of the world.

FAKE. Earthquakes are natural processes that occur constantly because the
earth is alive, and they do not announce the end of the world.
4. Astrologers predict an earthquake. FAKE. No one can forecast or predict an
earthquake. That's pure pseudoscience.
5. Many small earthquakes will prevent a strong earthquake. FAKE. The amounts
of energy that accumulate at the edges of tectonic plates for years are so high
that minor tremors are not able to release them.
6. All buildings will collapse in an earthquake. FAKE. Buildings built under
building codes will be resistant to collapse, and may suffer minor structural
damage.
7. The entire island will be destroyed in an earthquake. FAKE. Only the areas
closest to the epicenter will suffer the most damage.
8. Puerto Rico is going to sink towards the trench of northern Puerto Rico. FAKE.
Puerto Rico is solidly on a mountain range in which the entire arc of the
Antilles is located.
9. We will fall into the volcano that is below PR and there the aliens that live in
that volcano are waiting for us. FAKE. There are no volcanoes below Puerto
Rico, and there are no aliens either below or above Puerto Rico.
10. A tsunami will cover the entire island. FAKE. A tsunami will affect coastal
municipalities, between 1-3 miles from the coast.
11. We can't do something. We are going to die. FAKE. We are all going to die
someday, that is the law of life, but we do not have to die as a result of an
earthquake. We can survive it if we are quick to protect ourselves, if we are
aware of safety measures, we do drills and we have a safe residence.
12. My dog tells me when there is an earthquake. FAKE. Although animals can
perceive seismic waves, dogs bark and become active for multiple reasons,
and not necessarily due to tremors. Therefore, the best warning is given by
Nature and we have to be ready to respond quickly.

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
The effects produced by earthquakes are a consequence of the passage of
seismic waves through the earth's rocks and their arrival at the surface. These
effects could put the life, health and safety of our families at risk.

The most vulnerable areas in Puerto Rico to the effects of an earthquake are the
mountains and the coasts.

There are 4 possible effects: Liquefaction, Landslides, Amplification and Tsunami.

 Physical security 99

Liquefaction or liquefaction
Process in which the ground during an earthquake behaves as a dense fluid (as if
it were quicksand), rather than as a solid, reducing its bearing capacity. When soils
are saturated with water, they lose their resistance, and when they are subjected to
the shaking of an earthquake, they lose stability. Buildings and houses float on
mud saturated with water. The sediment falls and the water that saturates the soil
tends to come out like a gushing fountain, like sand bubbles. Liquefaction can
occur in poorly consolidated terrain or clay soils. This situation occurs in river beds,
beaches, dunes, and areas where sand and sediments carried by wind or water
have accumulated. Physical damage can be severe to bridges, buildings, roads,
tunnels, entire cities, among others.

This photo shows the liquefaction consequences of the Niigata earthquake in

Japan (1964). These residential buildings fell like they were toy pieces
(planetacurioso.com).
Liquefaction Example
Liquefaction Example
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Liquefaction effects where sands rise to the surface as bubbles, volcanoes or

simply expelled. There are cracks in roads, streets and structures, and sometimes
they can shift or sink (images from PEER-Berkeley, and linkecu.com).

In Puerto Rico, the entire coastal perimeter is overcrowded, with thousands of

buildings that are prone to sand liquefaction. Beach houses will move as if on
quicksand when an earthquake hits. Structures in Ocean Park, Levittown, Loíza,
Condado, and other coastal locations could suffer these effects. The Luis Muñoz
Marín international airport in Carolina is at risk because if an earthquake occurs,
the liquefaction effect of the sand is unleashed, which in fact is the foundation for
the runway, then operations could succumb and the transit of external aid could be
affected. that could arrive to assist the Island in the emergency.

Landslides
 Physical security 101

Landslide occurred in the Niigata earthquake, Japan (magnitude 6.8) (photo by

delared.com engineering).
In the case of an earthquake, landslides occur because ground vibrations cause
the land mass to collapse or collapse. The accelerations produced by seismic
waves have a gravity effect on slopes, increasing and decreasing the weight of the
earth. These processes are complex but can induce the slope to give way. In the
mountains these processes are worse because the magnitude of the acceleration
increases. In these areas the landslides are multiple and sudden. The rocks fall
precipitously, and if there is liquefaction, which causes fissures and subsidence of
the soil, the effects of the landslides are more devastating.

In the Haiti earthquake (magnitude 7.0), which occurred on January 12, 2010,
there were more than 1,000 landslides, especially in the mountainous area. Many
landslides formed natural dams on rivers and hid lakes. The landslides occurred
about 60 km (37 miles) from the epicenter, which was near Port-au-Prince (USGS).
Amplification
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Process in which the intensity and duration of earthquake vibrations increase in

soft soils. As the vibration of seismic waves propagates toward the surface, it can
be amplified, depending on the nature of the rock, especially the type of soil, and
the depth of its stratum. A layer of soft soil, depending on its depth, can generate
an amplification of the seismic wave 1.5-6 times more than what happens in rock.
Therefore, earthquake damage tends to be greater in sites with soft soils and the
intensity of the earthquake will be greater. In alluvial valleys or plains near rivers
such as in Manatí, Vega Baja, Arecibo and Loíza, they will suffer amplification of
the telluric movement.

As a safety measure, for soft soils, architectural and engineering professionals are
required to design the structure for much higher forces and also require the use of
special foundations, such as piles. Another point that significantly affects
attenuating or amplifying waves is topography. Theoretical studies have been
carried out in which it is shown that certain topographic forms, especially
mountains and valleys, have amplification effects on the intensity of movement.

Material Amplification Seismic Wave Damage

degree Frequency

Material little Elderly Damage to small or

low structures

Material Moderate Intermediate Intermediate

Material Strong Low Damage to large and

tall structures

The consequences of an earthquake are not always the same in the affected area.
The type of soil plays an important role in the damage caused by a seismic
 Physical security 103

movement. A rigid soil is not the same as a soft one, nor are the structures that
rest on these soils: the more rigid they are, the more they suffer if the soil is hard;
and vice versa, if they are very deformable they are more affected by soft soils
(Seismic Network)
tsunami

The spread of the tsunami across the Pacific Ocean as a result of the Tohoku,
Japan earthquake in 2011 with a magnitude of 9.0 (NOAA).

A tidal wave or tsunami (Japanese word meaning harbor wave or hidden wave)
consists of a series of waves that are generated by disturbances in the water
column, whether due to an earthquake, volcanic eruption, landslide, or asteroid
impact. More information go here (tsunami page address).

Animation of the Tsunami originated in Indonesia by the 2004 earthquake with

magnitude
Effects of Earthquakes on People
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Duck and take cover under your desk. Don't forget to hold on to the legs of the
desk or table so that you hold on, and the furniture doesn't move away from you
during the tremor (photo by Ada Monzón-school drill).
Human beings are not used to the unexpected, and earthquakes have that
peculiarity, they occur when we least expect it. We are used to having everything
under control. When there is a tremor, in the first seconds, there is a partial
disbelief of the event, am I a tremor or not?, and unless this tremor does not
become stronger, many do not react or seek protection. Worse yet, they run away
in terror!

The first reaction of some is to run away, fearing that the structure where we are or
what surrounds us will collapse. Fear dominates us, and levels of anxiety, fear and
helplessness are activated. This leads us to make incorrect decisions, but we must
train our mind that when an earthquake occurs, we must protect ourselves UNDER
A FIRM FURNITURE quickly, without hesitation, until the earthquake passes.

Until now, many are running because the tremors that have occurred in Puerto
Rico have been mild to moderate, and the terrain has not become a semi-fluid that
prevents anyone from taking three steps. The reality is that when the big
earthquake that is expected at any time on the island occurs, if you are not agile in
your reaction and seek refuge close to where you are, the chances of getting hurt
will be high. Therefore, understand this well....

WE ONLY HAVE 10 SECONDS OR LESS to react correctly.

Practice and participate in earthquake drills at home, school, and work to avoid
unfortunate situations, which you can survive if you keep your mind clear about
protecting your head and chest from what may fall on top of or next to you.
Earthquake Effects on Structures
In Puerto Rico there is great concern about the resistance of buildings to
earthquakes. Houses and buildings built on coasts and mountains are the most
susceptible to the effects of earthquakes. In particular, we highlight houses built on
columns on mountain slopes, and schools that were built before 1987.

Homes and buildings must be designed and built according to Puerto Rico building
codes. The ground where the structure has been located, and the shape of the
house or building must resist an earthquake, if they have been formally designed
by design and construction experts, such as architects and engineers. Puerto
Rico's construction industry is governed by building codes that mitigate the
damage that can occur from a hurricane or earthquake. In 2011, the UBC (Uniform
Building Code) of 1997 was replaced by the International Building Code (IBC) of
2009 and other codes published by the International Code Council (ICC) by which
government agencies are guided to regulate construction. construction on the
island, under the umbrella of the Permit Management Office (OGPE).

Building movement in Japan earthquake

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The structure supports the building through columns, beams, walls, and
foundations (bases of the building). This system must be flexible to absorb the
lateral and vertical forces it receives during earth movement. The building will
move elastically, returning to its original position as soon as the shaking ends,
allowing it to remain standing, even if it suffers non-structural damage. That is why
it is recommended that during an earthquake we stay inside the buildings, since if
we go outside we run a greater risk of being hit by poles, cables or objects that fall
from the buildings. The only exception to this rule is if we are inside a house built
on columns, on the edge of a slope, since the risk of collapse is too high, and in
that case it is recommended that, if possible, you go outside with caution. . We
reiterate that this is the only exception, since the safety rule is to stay inside a
building and under solid furniture during an earthquake.

Houses built on columns-on the slopes of the mountains

Houses built on columns on the edge of cliffs in mountain villages will not withstand
the shock of a major earthquake. All houses built on stilts or columns are at risk of
collapsing down the cliff during an earthquake. Some cliffs are 500 feet deep.
These structures, for the most part, are built informally (without the advice of an
architect, engineer or soil expert). These residences are the most at risk, and have
a high probability of collapse due to shear failure of the column system that
supports the residence or due to the instability of the slopes due to seismic
accelerations. Again, although the earthquake safety rule is to stay inside a
building and under sturdy furniture during an earthquake, in the case of houses
built on columns on mountain slopes, at the edge of a slope, it is recommended, if
possible, go out onto the street with caution.

You can learn how to rehabilitate this type of residence, click here

Typical house built on stilts in Puerto Rico (UPR Mayagüez).

Schools
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There are over 1,200 schools in Puerto Rico, and more than half of them were built
before the 1987 Building Regulations were adopted. This means that more than
300 thousand people (including students, teachers and staff) are at significant risk
if a major earthquake occurs on the island.

These schools have a deficiency in earthquake forces: short columns that can
fracture in an earthquake and lack of structural concrete walls.

Some of these schools have already been corrected and others are under a
mitigation and improvement plan. Although each school must have an earthquake
emergency plan, if your school was built before 1987, you must be more rigorous
in reviewing and practicing or drilling that earthquake plan. You should consult the
Department of Education, the College of Engineers and Surveyors of PR and the
State Agency for Emergency Management to guide them on the particular situation
of the school and together they can look for short and long-term solutions.

Partial collapse and damage to schools due to short columns in Moquegua, Peru
(photos from Escuela Politécnica Ejercito Quito).
Houses of improvised or informal construction
Informal constructions are those that are built without the advice of architects,
engineers or soil experts, and therefore are the most vulnerable to suffering the
effects of an earthquake. According to the Association of Home Builders in Puerto
Rico, 45% of homes in Puerto Rico are built formally (under building codes), but
55% informally (without being under building codes. The high property costs in
formal developments force families to build their homes without necessarily having
consulted an engineer or soil expert. In other times, this could be the only way that
the poorest households had to satisfy their need for shelter; However, currently it is
an unjustified practice that reflects a lack of control over planning and
development. Just remember that the biggest investment you make in your life is
the purchase of a house or apartment. Make sure the money is well spent and that
 Physical security 107

your property is safe from an earthquake or any natural hazard. Never skimp on
that.

House built informally on the mountain slopes (photo by UPR Mayagüez) versus a
typical urbanization house built to code (photo by Proyecto Hogar).
Bridges

Car overturned due to the bridge breaking during the 2010 Chile earthquake
(Photo by Mario Vilches-AFP)
In Puerto Rico there are 2,200 bridges of which 1,153 were built before 1975.
According to the Seismic Plan for Puerto Rico prepared by the College of
Engineers and Surveyors, bridges designed prior to that year can collapse, since at
that time the standards of the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) were not in force. . Although the bridges are
inspected every two years, there are multiple situations to attend to. Being on or
under a bridge during an earthquake is one of the most dangerous places due to
the possibility of partial or total collapse.
 Physical security 108

Serious damage to bridges as a result of earthquakes (collapse in Honduras -

photo by La Tribuna, and during the Northridge, California earthquake - photo by
San Jose Mercury News)
Hospitals

Medical facilities were improvised to meet the demand for services after the Haiti
earthquake (2010). Due to falling objects and building collapses, there were many
injuries to the extremities, requiring quick attention from specialists to avoid further
complications (PAHO photo).
The resistance of the hospitals in Puerto Rico built before 1987 is unknown, and it
is worrying that in the event of an earthquake, the hospitals will not be able to care
for people injured due to the damage that has occurred to the hospital structure.
The damage can be significant in the structures but also in their interiors, due to
the fall of non-structural elements such as ceiling panels and elements of air
conditioning or the electrical system, cabinets with medicines, preventing the flow
of stretchers or medical care in general.

Effects of Earthquakes on the Planet

 Physical security 109

There was an effect of the Indonesian earthquake (magnitude 9.0) on December

26, 2004. NASA scientists who studied the earthquake calculated that it slightly
changed the shape of our planet (more spherical), reduced the length of the day by
almost 3 microseconds, and shifted the North Pole by several centimeters.

The Tohoku, Japan earthquake (magnitude 9.0) moved Honshu (the main island of
Japan) 2.4 m (8 ft) to the east and shifted the Earth's axis by 10 cm (4 in)-25 cm
(10 in). The earthquake produced a powerful tsunami with waves reaching heights
of up to 40.5 meters (133 feet) in Miyako, and in the Sendai area, it traveled up to
10.
MACNITUDE, INTENSITY AND ACCELERATION.
 Physical security 110

Within the topic of seismology there is always confusion between the terms
magnitude and intensity. This confusion arises because of the relationship between
how much energy was released during an earthquake and how strong the effects
were on the Earth's surface.

M
ap illustrating the location of all earthquakes of magnitude 8 or greater between
1900-2013 (USGS).
More details here
Magnitude is a single measure of the size of an earthquake. This indicates how
much energy was released during the earthquake, and is independent of the
location and its depth. On the contrary, intensity is a measure of the effects that the
earthquake produces on people, objects, buildings and terrain. Intensity is a
different measurement in each location since it varies with the distance from the
hypocenter of the earthquake. The closer to the epicenter of the earthquake and
the flatter the hypocenter or focus is, the stronger its effects would be on the
Earth's surface. Another factor that could affect the intensity is the ground through
which the seismic wave passes. If the ground is composed of igneous rocks, the
waves tend to be damped and the intensity would be lower. If the soil is composed
of sedimentary rocks, the waves would be amplified and the intensity would be
greater. Despite all these factors it must be noted that the intensities have changed
due to these various factors but the magnitude of the earthquake is always the
same. In summary, an earthquake has a single magnitude but the intensities are
different in each location.
 Physical security 111

Intensities typically observed with earthquakes of these magnitudes near the

epicenter (USGS).
Magnitude
The magnitude of an earthquake refers to the amount of energy released during it.
Originally the Richter magnitude scale was used. This scale was designed in 1935
by Charles F. Richter at the California Institute of Technology to measure and
compare the size of earthquakes specifically in the San Francisco Bay in
California. This is a logarithmic measurement based on 10. This means that the
vibration of a magnitude 6 earthquake is 10 times greater than one of magnitude 5.
Furthermore, the energy released increases by a factor of 32 with increasing
magnitude: an earthquake of magnitude 6 releases 32 times more energy than one
of magnitude 5.

Today, new magnitude analyzes are made based on seismic waves, and the
original formulas of the Richter scale as such are no longer used. However, the
magnitude scale currently used is very similar to Richter's original. Seismologists
no longer refer to the Richter scale. For this reason, when referring to the
magnitude of an earthquake, do not say "the earthquake was 6.3 on the Richter
scale," but simply use "the earthquake was magnitude 6.3."
 Physical security 112

Magnitude Report from the Puerto Rico Seismic Network of the December 24,
2010 earthquake.
There are several types of magnitude analyzes based on the available seismic
data:

Magnitude Applicable to Distance Description

type magnitudes range
in this range

Duration >4 0-400km Based on the duration

(Md) of the vibration
measured by the
amplitude decay of the
seismogram.

Local (ML) 2 to 6 0-400km Based on the

maximum amplitude of
the seismogram on a
Wood-Anderson strain
seismograph. Original
magnitude by Richter
and Gutenberg in
1935.

Surface 5 to 8 20-180 This magnitude is for

wave (Ms) degrees distant earthquakes
based on the Rayleigh
surface wave
measured over a
period of 20 seconds.

Moment >3.5 all Based on the time of

(Mw) the earthquake, which
 Physical security 113

is equal to the stiffness

of the earth multiplied
by the average slip of
the fault times the
slipped area of the
fault.

Energy (Me) >3.5 all Based on the amount

of seismic energy
radiated from the
earthquake.

Moment (My) 5 to 8 all Based on the integral

of the first seconds of
the P wave in
broadband
instruments.

Body (Mb) 4 a7 16 - 100 Based on the

degrees amplitude of the P
(only for wave. Mostly
deep appropriate for events
earthquakes) with deep focus.

Surface 5 to 8 all Magnitude of distant

waves (MLg) earthquakes based on
the amplitude of Love
waves.

Earthquakes cannot reach a magnitude greater than 9.5 because rocks have a
limited amount of energy stored before they break. For this reason, the size of the
earthquake depends on the length of the geological fault, and how much rock
breaks along that fault. The Chile Trench is the longest and straightest fault in the
world, and was the one that generated the strongest earthquake in the world in
1960. Now if there were an asteroid impact, the resulting earthquake could be
greater than 9.5. Certainly the magnitude scale has no upper limit.
 Physical security 114

U
SGS National Earthquake Information Center
List of the largest earthquakes in the world (USGS).

Relationship of Magnitude with the amount of high voltage explosives required to

produce the energy generated by an earthquake (IRIS).
Intensity
The intensity of an earthquake refers to the effects that the seismic waves had on
the Earth's surface. It is measured using the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale,
 Physical security 115

which consists of a series of key responses for each intensity. Roman numerals
from I to XII are used to classify it. Starting with intensity I, which means that it was
not felt or that it was felt by a minimum of people, and ending with XII, which
means total destruction. Typically, lower intensities refer to how strongly people felt
the earthquake, and higher intensities refer to structural damage.

Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

Yo Not meaning.

II Felt only by some people in a resting position, especially on high

floors. Suspended objects swing a little.

III Sense inside. Many people do not recognize it as a tremor.

Stationary cars sway. Vibrations like the passage of a small truck.
Appreciable duration.

IV Felt internally by many, externally by few. Windows, plates, doors

vibrate. The walls creak. Vibrations such as the passage of a
large truck; shaking sensation like a heavy ball. Stationary cars
sway quite a bit.

V Felt by almost everyone; many wake up and protect themselves.

Some plates, windows, etc. they break; some masonry houses
crack. Overturned unstable objects. The pendulums of the clocks
stop. The doors swing, close, open. Trees, bushes shake visibly.

SA Felt by all; many are scared and protect themselves. It is difficult

W to walk or stand. Windows, plates and glass objects break. Some
heavy furniture moves; some masonry houses fall; damaged
chimneys. Minor damage.

VII Very minor damage to buildings of good design and construction;

light to moderate damage to well-constructed structures;
considerable damage to poorly constructed structures; some
chimneys break. It is felt by drivers.

VIII Minor damage to structures specially designed for earthquakes;

considerable damage up to partial collapse in buildings; major
damage to poorly constructed structures. Wall panels come out of
frames. Chimneys, monuments, columns and walls fall. Heavy
furniture is moved. Small sand and mud slides. Changes in the
flow of sources and wells. Difficult to drive.

IX Considerable damage to structures of good design and

construction, well-designed structures, displaced from their
foundations; major damage in buildings with partial and total
 Physical security 116

collapse. Wide cracks in the ground. Expulsion of sand and mud

in alluvial areas. Broken underground pipes.

x Some well-built wooden structures and bridges destroyed, most

buildings and frame structures destroyed with their foundations.
Large cracks in the ground. Landslides, water overflows the
banks of canals, rivers, lakes, etc. Sand and mud displaced
laterally.

XI Collapse of most cement and concrete structures. Bridges and

other transportation routes seriously affected.

XII Total loss in infrastructure. Large masses of displaced rocks.

Heavy objects thrown into the air with ease.

Intensity Map for the December 24, 2010 earthquake in Puerto Rico
(image from the Seismic Network).
Acceleration

The response of a building to an earthquake depends on the movement of the

ground (image by St. Louis University).
 Physical security 117

When one is driving a car on the road, we change from one speed to another, that
is, we accelerate or decelerate. Changes in speed are known as acceleration.
During an earthquake, the earth is shaking but it is accelerating because the
seismic waves arrive at different speeds. The size of an earthquake is also
expressed in terms of ground acceleration.

The design of buildings in seismic areas by engineers must take into account the
maximum possible ground acceleration. Many structural failures in buildings arise
from ground accelerations on the buildings. Seismic waves move buildings in all
directions and the rate of change in their movements is known as acceleration.
These accelerations vary while the earthquake lasts.

EARTHQUAKE PREVENTION
An earthquake is the sudden movement of the Earth in different directions, caused
by the release of energy accumulated over a long time.

The movement of the earth's surface that causes an earthquake represents a high
level of risk for buildings that are not built in an earthquake-resistant manner,
causing disasters such as: damage and collapse of buildings, loss of life,
thousands of injuries, burning of cities, dam breaks, avalanches, tsunamis and
others.

How can one prepare for something like this?

Surviving is not luck. You can survive an earthquake and minimize its damage
simply by identifying potential hazards and taking some basic preparedness
measures against them. Earth movement is rarely the cause of death and damage.
Most occur due to partial collapse of buildings and falling objects, such as
bookcases, stucco, and ceiling lamps. Most injuries are from non-structural objects.

Since earthquakes occur without warning it is important to act now. The longer you
wait, the greater the risk. Experts know that a large earthquake is about to occur,
but they don't know when. The time to prepare is now. You will be calmer if you
know that you are prepared, knowing what to do and what not to do before, during
and after the earthquake.

These are your basic rules of survival. There is a high risk of an earthquake
occurring in the Dominican Republic, but by following these safety measures you
will be able to avoid it. live to this.

BEFORE THE EARTHQUAKE:

Since earthquakes occur without warning it is important to act now. The longer you
wait, the greater the risk.
 Physical security 118

1. Ask an expert to inspect the physical structure of your residence or

premises and make the indicated repairs.
2. Secure tall furniture and any objects that could fall to the wall.
3. Prepare a list of emergency telephone numbers.
4. Make sure you know the safe and dangerous places in your home and mark
the evacuation route.
5. Train and practice first aid and drills with your family and/or at work with the
help of a professional.
6. Stock up on emergency supplies.
7. Choose a person far from home whom your family members can call to
report your condition.
8. Locate the equipment and tools necessary for fire and first aid in the
appropriate places.

DURING THE EARTHQUAKE

1. Stay calm, control your nerves and fears. Thinking clearly is the most
important thing at that moment.
2. Evaluate your situation. If you are inside a building, stay there, don't go out,
don't run and protect yourself.
3. Protect yourself in a safe place, do not run towards the exit.
4. Crouch in the fetal position and protect yourself next to a sturdy piece of
furniture, holding onto it until the movement stops.
5. Tell people around you to protect themselves.
6. Avoid getting close to walls, windows, shelves, stairs and the center of large
rooms.
7. If you are outside, stay away from electrical poles, windows, buildings or
objects that could fall.
8. If you are in your car, park it as soon as possible in a safe place and cover
yourself.

AFTER AN EARTHQUAKE

Generally, a large earthquake is accompanied by a series of secondary tremors.

These aftershocks will be smaller in magnitude but can cause additional damage.
Therefore, after a large earthquake, what you should do is:

1. Meet with your family or at work at the agreed upon location and count in
case anyone is missing.
2. Check for injuries and administer first aid.
3. Do not light a fire.
4. Check your gas cylinder to see if it is open.
5. Only use the phone in an emergency.
 Physical security 119

6. Walk in closed-toed shoes.

7. Inspect the damage around you.
8. Stay informed through the radio or relevant authorities.
9. Collaborate with authorities in locating victims.

PROVISION LIST:

1- Milk (Evaporated or skimmed powder).

2- Packaged meat, poultry or fish. Fish: tuna, sardines, shrimp, salmon, cod; Meat-
chicken, turkey, ham, jamoncillo, sausages, chorizos, corned beef.

3- Fruits, vegetables and grains. (Regular or diet). Canned fruits-raisins, plums,

pears, peaches. Canned fruit juices. Dry fruits. Canned vegetables. Cooked and
canned grains

4- Fats and oils. Vegetable oil. Solid hydrogenated fats (butter).

5- Sugar and Sweets. (Regular or diet). White and brown sugar. Hard candy,
lollipops. Chocolate bars and chewing gum. Honey, jam, guava pods, papaya
candy. Flan mix kept in its original packages.

6- Cereals. (Regular or diet). Cereals ready to eat. Uncooked cereal (quick cooked
or instant). Pancake flour.

7- Various. Coffee, tea, instant chocolate. Bouillon cubes. Flavored powder for soft
drinks. White or yellow rice in pre-cooked packages. Egg powder. Peanut butter.
Sweet or soda cookies. Baking powder. Napkins, spoons, forks, sanitary plates.
Manual can opener. Trash bags. Sanitary paper and personal effects. Water
(enough for drinking and cooking).

BUSINESS SECURITY AND DEFENSE – TERRORISM AND KIDNAPPING

PROTECTION

Terrorism
 Physical security 120

Attack on the World Trade Center building complex , New York, United States, on
September 11, 2001.
Terrorism is the systematic use of terror , used by a wide range of organizations,
groups or individuals in the furtherance of their objectives, both by nationalist and
non-nationalist political parties , right and left , as well as by corporations , religious
groups , racists , colonialists , independentists , revolutionaries , conservatives and
governments in power . 1
Terrorism, as a tactic , is a form of violence that is distinguished from State
terrorism by the fact that in the latter case its authors belong to government entities
. It is also distinguished from acts of war and war crimes in that it occurs in the
absence of war. 2 The presence of non-state actors in armed conflicts has created
controversy regarding the application of the laws of war .
The word "terrorism" has strong political connotations and has a high emotional
charge, making it difficult to agree on a precise definition. 3
The use of the word by governments to accuse their opponents is common. 4 5 It is
also common for organizations and individuals that practice it to reject the term as
unfair or imprecise. 6 Both the ones and the others usually mix the concept with the
legitimacy or illegitimacy of their own motives or that of their antagonist. At an
academic level, we choose to focus exclusively on the nature of the incidents
without speculating on the motives or judging the perpetrators.
Some media outlets such as the British BBC , which wish to emphasize their
impartiality, suggest in their style guides to avoid the term terrorist and terrorism. 7 8

Definitions
Defining the concept of terrorism has been a complex issue for social sciences for
a reason: it is very difficult to differentiate the legitimate acts of freedom fighters
and terrorism. 9 The Dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy , in the progress of
its twenty-third edition, modifies the previous one by including a third meaning,
defines the term "terrorism" as:
 Physical security 121

Terrorism
1. m. Domination by terror.
2. m. A succession of acts of violence carried out to instill terror.
3. m. Criminal action by organized gangs, which, repeatedly and usually
indiscriminately, seek to create social alarm for political purposes. 10
The Dictionary of the Spanish Language also includes two meanings for the word
"terrorist", 11 namely:
Terrorist
1. adj. Who practices acts of terrorism. Appl. to pers., u. t. cs
2. adj. Belonging or relating to terrorism.

Evolution of the term terrorism

September 13, 2001 : A New York firefighter observes what remains of the South
Tower , 2 days after 9/11
To gain a greater understanding of the nature of terrorism, a more detailed analysis
of the evolution in the use of the term is advisable. The word "terror" comes from
the Latin language " terror " or " terroris ", synonymous with "Deimos". In Ancient
Greece , Ares , God of War, had two sons: Phobos and Deimos (Fear and Terror).
16

Machiavelli recommended in his classic book The Prince (1532) that " it is safer to
be feared than loved ." 17 These political recommendations of Machiavelli are
related to the modern concept of " State terrorism ", applied to public authorities
when they seek to terrorize the population. The phrase "the tree of liberty must be
watered with the blood of patriots and tyrants", attributed to Thomas Jefferson , is
taken as an apology for tyrannicide and is one of the topics of the Independence of
the United States (1776) .
Terrorism, as an act carried out by citizens or subjects , finds its antecedents in the
doctrines of tyrannicide and the right to resistance , of ancient origins (p. e.g. sic
semper tyrannis ), but which were consolidated as such in the Modern Age , as a
response by individuals to abuses of State power.
 Physical security 122

The right to tyrannicide, that is, the right of any person to kill a tyrannical ruler,
comes from Ancient Greece , although its development as a theory begins in
medieval European scholasticism with the contributions of Thomas Aquinas (1225-
1274) in a certain context but only in those cases that occurred in the Middle Ages,
and in certain cases in the Modern Age with the reflections of Juan de Mariana
(1536-1623) stating that the king must also comply with moral and state law. and
not be a tyrant. The "right to tyrannicide" is also considered one of the intellectual
precedents of bourgeois revolutions , morally justifying disobedience against an
oppressive power and even promoting the assassination of the king.
The right to resistance or right of rebellion , closely related to the justification of
tyrannicide, also finds its first theoretical formulations in European scholasticism,
taking up the reflections of Saint Isidore of Seville (560-636) and Saint Thomas
Aquinas .
The word "terrorism" (as well as "terrorist" and "terrorize") first appeared in France
during the French Revolution (between 1789-1799), when the Jacobin government
headed by Robespierre executed or imprisoned opponents, without respecting the
guarantees of due process . The term began to be used by monarchists, as
negative propaganda applied to the revolutionary government. Like Machiavelli's
advice in The Prince , the Reign of Terror (1793-1794) is a manifestation of State
terrorism , rather than citizen terrorism.
Terror, as a political weapon of citizens, appeared in Russia in the second half of
the 19th century, among some groups opposed to the tsarist regime, taking as
inspiration the State terrorism of the French Revolution. In 1862 , Pyotr
Zaichnevsky wrote the manifesto entitled Young Russia proclaiming:
We have studied the history of the West and drawn its lessons: we will be more
consistent than the pitiful French revolutionaries of 1848; but we will know how to
go further than the great champions of terror of 1792. We will not retreat, even if to
overthrow the established order we need to shed three times more blood than the
French Jacobins. 18
The first theoretical criticisms developed against terrorism, and the distinction of
the concept with those of "right to resistance" and "tyrannicide", come from the field
of Russian anti-Tsarist revolutionaries, such as Georgi Plekhanov in his book
Anarchism and Socialism (1894). , 19 Lenin in the chapter “What is common
between economism and terrorism?” included in his book What to do? (1902), 20
and especially León Trotsky , who published Terrorism and Communism in 1905.
In its current sense, the term was coined extensively by Nazi propaganda to refer
to the resistance movements of the countries occupied by the German army and
consolidated by the Latin American dictatorships of the 1970s and 1980s and the
United States , in the framework of the National Security Doctrine developed from
the School of the Americas . In both cases it became clear that there are close
relationships between terrorism carried out by citizens and State terrorism , the
latter often being the justification for the latter. 21
 Physical security 123

A 2003 study by the US military 22 states that there are more than 100 definitions of
terrorism. Due to all these factors, many specialists consider the word terrorism a
term that in its use has become a merely propaganda concept to disqualify the
enemy rather than define a situation objectively.
United Nations
Despite the recognition and its convenience, it has never been possible to reach a
consensus on the definition of terrorism, basically due to the impossibility of
achieving a rigorous definition that does not include the terrorist actions of states.
The first attempt at a definition occurred in 1937, still at the time of the League of
Nations :
Any criminal act directed against a state and aimed at or calculated to create a
state of terror in the minds of particular persons, a group of persons or the public at
large. 23
Resolution 51/210, "Measures to eliminate international terrorism", adopted at the
88th Plenary Assembly of December 17, 1996, proclaims in point I.2 24 that the
United Nations General Assembly:
«Reiterates that criminal acts aimed or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the
general public, a group of people or particular persons for political purposes are
unjustifiable in any circumstance, whatever the political, philosophical, ideological,
racial, ethnic considerations. , religious or of any other nature that can be invoked
to justify them.
In a report to the UN, specialist A. Q. Schmid 23 proposed taking the concept of war
crime as a starting point, considering that, if its definition is extended to peacetime,
a very functional definition of acts of terrorism is reached as the "peacetime
equivalents of war crimes.
Within the set of definitions explored, one of the most recent has been the one
formulated on December 1, 2004 , included in the final report of the High-Level
Group of Experts on Threats, Challenges and Changes, appointed by the
Secretary General of the United Nations. United:
Any act, in addition to those already specified in the current conventions on certain
aspects of terrorism, the Geneva conventions and United Nations Security Council
Resolution 1566 (2004), intended to cause death or serious bodily injury to a
civilian or a non-combatant when the purpose of said act, by its nature or context,
is to intimidate a population or force a government or an international organization
to carry out an action or to refrain from doing so. 25
There is also what has been described as an academic consensus, an agreement
among specialists, which according to Schmid's formulation (1988) can be
expressed as follows: 23
Terrorism is an anxiety-producing method based on repeated violent action by a
(semi-)clandestine individual or group or by agents of the state, for idiosyncratic,
criminal or political reasons, in which—unlike murder—the targets Direct victims of
violence are not the main targets. The immediate human victims of violence are
 Physical security 124

generally chosen at random (targets of opportunity) from a target population, and

are used as generators of a message. Communication processes based on threat
—and violence—between the terrorist (the terrorist organization), the victims in
danger, and the primary targets are used to manipulate target audiences, turning
them into targets of terror, targets of demands. or target of attention, depending on
whether intimidation, coercion or propaganda are sought primarily.

Instruments of terrorism
The instruments used to implement said mechanism, or terrorist acts, include
various forms of physical violence against people, such as kidnapping , torture or
extrajudicial execution; various forms of moral violence, such as the threat of the
above or social pressure; various forms of violence against private and public
property, such as their destruction with explosive or incendiary materials. Finally,
one of the instruments most used by terrorist groups is the attack with explosives
against military or civilian targets to cause indiscriminate or non-discriminate
deaths. [ citation needed ]
For James Piazza, terrorism is a result of the democratic order and the weakness
in the political system. For his part, the specialist adheres to the idea that a
democracy with weak institutions shows a greater propensity to relegate certain
groups who become "terrorists." 26
In the case of state terrorism , aerial bombings of cities can be cited as an
example. The Hague Air Code of 1923 established that "aerial bombing with the
aim of terrorizing the civilian population is prohibited...". 27 However, this rule and
other similar ones were never ratified by the countries with greater military power.
In this framework, some authors have cited the bombing of Guernica in 1936 as
terrorist attacks, 28 or the one carried out by the United States with atomic bombs in
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, 29
UN Resolution 1566
«Remember that criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the
intention of causing death or serious bodily injury or taking hostages with the
purpose of provoking a state of terror in the general population, in a group of
people or in a certain person, intimidate a population or force a government or an
international organization to carry out an act, or to refrain from carrying it out, which
constitute crimes defined in the international conventions and protocols relating to
terrorism and included in their scope, do not admit justified under any
circumstances by considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial,
ethnic, religious or other similar nature, and urges all States to prevent them and, if
they occur, to ensure that they are punished with penalties compatible with their
serious nature.
.

Analysis of the term terrorism

Terrorism is a term that has suffered language abuse by states that intentionally
seek to discredit their enemies. Thus the Nazis called the Jews who rebelled in
 Physical security 125

Warsaw terrorists; 30 in apartheid South Africa it was said that many blacks carried
out terrorist activities; the French said the same about Algerians who opposed
French domination (and who in some cases used terrorist methods). During the
20th century, multiple South American guerrillas were indiscriminately accused of
being terrorists; Even non-violent associations, such as the Argentine Mothers of
Plaza de Mayo and Grandmothers of Plaza de Mayo , were also considered - and
still are by some sectors - as terrorist organizations. 4
The same thing happened in South Africa , during the apartheid regime, where the
racist government used the accusation of "terrorism" to imprison and execute
opponents who resorted to armed struggle against the dictatorship. Nelson
Mandela , convicted as a terrorist by the South African government, rejected in
2008 the application of the term "terrorism" to his actions, saying that "terrorism is
any individual, organization or State that attacks innocent individuals and we never
attack innocent individuals." 31
In the situation of occupation of Iraq , initiated by the United States in 2003, it is
difficult to draw the line between terrorism and resistance .
Currently, the so-called war on terrorism or the fight against terrorism constitutes a
fundamental point on the agenda of the governments and main political parties of
Western countries, so much so that an important part of politics revolves around
this issue. Some points of view maintain that excessive centrality is being given to
the issue of terrorism, greater than the impact that this phenomenon has on
society. [ citation needed ]
There is strong controversy over whether certain interventions by some armies
outside their borders could be classified as terrorist, considering that they could
instill fear in the civilian population as a means to achieve political ends. As an
example, the actions of the Syrian army in Lebanon , the Serbian in Bosnia , the
Israeli in the Palestinian Territories , the Russian in Chechnya and the American in
places like Iraq or Afghanistan are often used. When these acts are carried out by
forces supported by governments, within their own borders, they can constitute
state terrorism , which is carried out with a favorable relationship of forces. The
terrorism referred to is usually much more difficult to determine, since it is
exercised with an unfavorable relationship of forces. It is difficult to separate
"terrorism" from "resistance." One criterion would be to analyze the groups or
organizations under two aspects:
Methods of terrorist groups
From a methodological point of view, a group that systematically perpetrates
kidnappings, bomb attacks, murders, threats and coercion can be considered
terrorist. Technically, these acts are intended to produce terror in the enemy
population and are undoubtedly defined as terrorist. In a neutral sense, the term is
often used by the press to designate the groups that implement this methodology.

Terrorist weapons
Although virtually anything can be considered a weapon (from a match and a
broomstick to an atomic bomb), terrorists have commonly used handguns [ citation
 Physical security 126

needed ]
or semi-automatic weapons [ citation needed ] . Some fundamentalist groups such
as Hezbollah have even had anti-aircraft missiles . The use of homemade bombs
of variable power is also very common, in some cases even using the terrorists'
own body as an approach vector for the bomb [ citation needed ] . When what has been
intended is an assassination at a safe distance from the security device, rifles with
telescopic sights are usually used. [ citation needed ]
In general, terrorist groups tend to use any element that allows them to achieve
their objectives with the greatest possible media resonance [ citation needed ] , whether
these elements are weapons from regular armies or acquired on the international
arms trafficking market or are try improvised means. Of special relevance is the
attack on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001 , in which hijacked
passenger planes were used.
The most common types of pump are usually [ citation needed ] :

 Molotov cocktails
 Pumps with timer or remote activation
 sticky bombs
 Trap bombs
 hand grenades
Weapons of mass destruction that have been used by terrorists:

 Biological weapons
 Chemical weapons
 Nuclear weapons
There are several precedents for attacks with weapons of mass destruction. One in
which chemical agents ( sarin gas ) were used was that of the sectarian group
Supreme Truth , which placed a small device in the Tokyo subway on a couple of
occasions (in 1994 and 1995 ). An attack carried out with biological agents (
salmonella ) occurred in Wasco County, in which far-right extremists tried to use
the attack for political purposes, although they finally achieved the opposite result
when they were discovered.

Psychological aspects of terrorism

The complexity of the terrorist phenomenon prevents its apprehension from a
single psychological conception. Furthermore, the specialized bibliography
presents an excess of theories compared to the number of empirical studies
carried out, partly due to the difficulty of accessing the psyche of terrorists to
analyze it.
There are, however, several reference studies on the subject; Among them, the
following stand out:

 Between 1979 and 1981, an investigation was carried out commissioned by the
German Ministry of the Interior that sought to delve into the biographies of
people suspected of terrorism (most of them from the extreme left, and a few
 Physical security 127

from the extreme right). In addition to the consultation of files, multiple

interviews were conducted with imprisoned terrorists. From the research, the
profile of a terrorism professional was deduced based on a specific
psychological evolution: initial situation of oppression (social and/or family); life
in hiding where a counter model of his previous life was developed;
development of a friend-enemy dichotomy that led to a loss of sense of reality.
 Martha Crenshaw (based on autobiographical testimonies of former members
and members of the IRA , PLO , etc.), Marc Sageman (on the so-called
"Jihad"), Khapta Akhmedova and Ariel Merari (on the social and family
environment of the terrorists), Eyad El-Sarraj (on suicide terrorism), Brian
Barber (on young people from the Gaza Strip), Anne Speckhard (through the
testimony of terrorist hostages); Jerrold Post, Nichole Argo and Yoram
Schweizer (based on testimonies collected in Israeli and Palestinian prisons);
and Nasra Hassam (from interviews with members of Hamas and Jihad) [ citation
needed ]
.
Michael Ignatieff considers that terrorism administers psychological terror to
undermine democratic institutions from within, cutting the rights of citizens, giving
more powers to the coercive powers of the State and suspending constitutional
guarantees. Even when defeated, terrorism has many chances of nullifying
democratic life. For this, it is of capital importance that the state regulates itself,
controlling the functioning of its own institutions independently of the executive. 32
Separatist groups appeal to create confusion within public opinion, which makes
them dependent on the media. The selection of victims is carried out following two
criteria, their vulnerability and their importance for the state. Due to the lack of
knowledge of the terrain, travelers, tourists, and foreigners are potential sources of
attacks throughout history. Terrorism and imperialism seem to be linked
phenomena in a sense. 33

Suppression of terrorism

The ways and tools to combat people and organizations that a State classifies as
terrorists or potentially terrorists have been and are the subject of discussion. In
some cases it has been argued that the repression of terrorism must be carried out
following legal procedures, respecting the human rights of people and preserving
the democratic system, but in other cases the State has resorted to illegal
procedures, parapolice and paramilitary forces, authorization of torture ,
suspension of human rights and even installation of dictatorships . Among the
 Physical security 128

procedures to repress terrorism, the need to kidnap and suppress the identity of
the children of people whom the State accuses of being terrorists has also been
maintained. 34 In this last sense, the Argentine judge Delia Pons expressed in 1978
to the Grandmothers of Plaza de Mayo Association, the legal doctrine she
maintained regarding children of people classified as terrorists by the State:
I am convinced that his children were terrorists, and terrorist is synonymous with
murderer. I do not intend to return the children of the murderers because it would
not be fair to do so. They have no right to raise them. Nor am I going to speak out
for the return of the children to you. It is illogical to disturb these creatures who are
in the hands of decent families who will know how to educate them as you did not
know how to do with your children. Only over my corpse are they going to obtain
custody of those children.
Delia Pons, Juvenile Judge. 34
Among the most notable international experiences to repress actions classified as
terrorist are those carried out by the Argentine and Chilean military dictatorships in
the 1970s, the Italian government against the Red Brigades , the Spanish
government against the ETA between 1983 and 1987 ( GAL case) and the United
States government in the so-called War on Terrorism . The practices, tactics, and
strategies of governments, armies, and other specialized groups against terrorism
are called counterterrorism .

Examples of state terrorism

Main article: State Terrorism
For the repression of terrorism, it is common for the debate to focus on the need to
choose between respect for human rights and national security. Many times
repressive measures include the suspension of constitutional rights.
In Argentina , during the military dictatorship that ruled between 1976-1983,
General Tomás Armando Sánchez de Bustamante explained the following:
Terrorism is an exceptional event and of such seriousness that it demands
proportional rights. There are rules and guidelines that do not apply in this case.
For example, the right to “ habeas corpus ”. In this type of fight, the secrecy that
must surround special operations means that it should not be disclosed to who has
been captured and who should be captured. “There must be a cloud of silence
surrounding everything… and this is not compatible with freedom of the press.” 35
In some extreme cases, the need for the State to abduct the children of people
considered terrorists, to take away their identity, has been maintained. In
Argentina, Judge Delia Pons, head of the Lomas de Zamora Juvenile Court,
explained the reasons for this measure to the Grandmothers of Plaza de Mayo with
these words:
I am convinced that his children were terrorists, and terrorist is synonymous with
murderer. I do not intend to return the children of the murderers because it would
not be fair to do so. Only over my corpse are they going to obtain custody of those
children. 5
 Physical security 129

Inter - American Convention against Terrorism

On June 3, 2002, the Organization of American States (OAS) approved the Inter-
American Convention against Terrorism . Its objective is to force all American
states to enact anti-terrorist laws and establish a continental system of repression
of terrorism, which does not find limitations to act derived from certain legal
guarantees, such as banking secrecy, transfer of detained persons between
countries, the invocation of "political crime" or refugee status, the right to asylum .
36
After the ratification process, it came into force on October 7, 2003 . 37
The convention especially points out that the repression of terrorism cannot in any
way affect the human rights of individuals:
Nothing in this Convention shall be construed as impairing other rights and
obligations of States and individuals under international law, in particular the
Charter of the United Nations, the Charter of the Organization of American States ,
international humanitarian law, international human rights law and international
refugee law.
Any person who is detained or in respect of whom any measure is taken or
prosecuted under this Convention shall be guaranteed fair treatment, including the
enjoyment of all rights and guarantees in accordance with the law of the State in
which he or she is detained. territory is located and the relevant provisions of
international law. (subsections 2 and 3 of article 15) 36
Among the notable elements of the sanction of the convention, the final
impossibility of classifying the crime of terrorism stands out, as well as the lack of
consensus to classify it as a crime against humanity . 37 The impact of the right to
asylum established by the convention has also been questioned, to the point that
Chile , Costa Rica and Mexico made reservations not to abide by it in this regard.

KIDNAPPING AND PREVENTION MEASURES

KIDNAPPING
A kidnapping , also known as a crime against liberty , 1 is a crime that consists
of unlawfully depriving a person or group of people of their liberty , normally for a
certain time, with the aim of obtaining a ransom or compliance of other demands to
the detriment of the kidnapped person(s) or third parties. People who carry out a
kidnapping are known as kidnappers or kidnappers (sometimes also called
racketeers). 2
Many times freedom is "sold" in exchange for other situations. Kidnapping leads to
the commission of other crimes, such as child trafficking and human trafficking . In
this context, the fight against kidnapping starts from the exchange of information
that is established between the different police agencies, in relation to the
structures, communication networks and forms of operation of existing criminal
organizations, as well as those that emerge, Coordinating with respect to these the
investigation carried out by different institutions to determine whether the accused
 Physical security 130

or those detained belong to organized crime . Kidnapping also occurs out of envy,
in most cases taking children as hostages, this is generally done out of revenge .

modus operandi
The kidnappers, generally, and prior to the kidnapping of their victim, follow their
daily movements for days prior to the event, in order to know their transit routes
and usual schedules in order to achieve their criminal enterprise with greater
success. The moment in which the victim is abducted is 95.3% of the time when
the victim is traveling on board his vehicle through some unpopulated place or
place with little confluence of people, [ citation needed ] as well as at the moment leaving
their homes or upon arriving there. When it comes to gangs organized to commit
this type of crime, they are organized into cells , that is, there are individuals who
are in charge of carrying out telephone negotiations with the victim's relatives to
demand payment of the ransom, others are in charge of providing food and monitor
the kidnapped person during the time he remains in captivity, as well as that others
intervene at the time of subduing the victim at the time of intercepting him and
transferring him to the place where he will be kept in captivity, a place that is
sometimes changed in order to to distract the attention of the authorities in case
the incident has been reported.

Kidnapping modalities
simple kidnapping
Simple kidnapping is the case of snatching, removing, retaining or hiding a person,
but for purposes or purposes other than the demand for a ransom. This in turn is
classified into:

1. Rapture. It is the crime in which a person is removed or retained by means

of force, intimidation or fraud, with the intention of undermining their sexual
integrity.
2. Simple kidnapping itself. When it comes to hiding a person for purposes
other than extortion. An example is that of the girls who come from the
towns looking for job opportunities and who are employed as domestic
workers, and who, not knowing anyone in the cities, end up falling into the
hands of people without conscience who not only exploit them during work
hours. work, but sometimes they do not give them “permission” to leave and
keep them locked up, leaving them locked, “for fear that they will steal
something from them,” denying them the right to use their freedom as they
wish.
Express kidnapping
Express kidnapping can be defined as the retention of one or more people for a
short period of time (hours or days), during which criminals demand money from
the victims' relatives for their release. Another type of extortion that is frequently
confused with express kidnapping is that in which criminals hold the victim and
force them to withdraw their money from electronic ATMs. They also steal her
 Physical security 131

vehicle and her valuable belongings such as jewelry and cell phone and then leave
her abandoned somewhere.
Frequently the perpetrators of express kidnapping are individuals with criminal
records during adolescence. They probably stole vehicles or committed petty
crimes. Drug-dependent criminals are also observed committing this crime. In
some cases the perpetrators are people known to the victims, such as waiters at a
frequently visited restaurant or the doorman of the building where they live. It is a
crime that is executed without prior strategies. Two or three individuals go out into
the street in search of a distracted victim who is wearing clothing and valuable
items (jewelry, cell phone) or who is in a luxurious car. They look for their victims at
gas stations, shopping center parking lots, or people leaving a store, office, or
residence, where they point short-range weapons at them and pressure them with
strong threats. Subsequently, they transfer the victim to the vehicle and begin to
circulate through the city while making phone calls to the family members
demanding payment of the ransom. These criminals try to carry out the crime,
collecting the money, in the shortest time possible, since they are not prepared to
keep the victim in captivity for a long time. After committing the crime, the victim
presents somatized psychological characteristics such as anxiety, irritability, bad
mood, insomnia.
Self - abduction
In the latter cases, extortion appears from the parents through self-kidnapping,
organized by one of the children, friends, and those who demand amounts from the
parents for their own satisfaction of immediate needs (money to spend on trips,
drugs, parties, etc.). It speaks of true social and individual decomposition, with a
lack of the minimum values. This criminal act ranges from those who steal from
themselves, transporters, businessmen, men and women, merchants, students,
couples in conflict and young people who request amounts of money from their
parents to seek revenge or cover extra expenses.
Sequestration of assets
This falls entirely on material goods and must be differentiated from theft, since its
owner is required to pay a certain amount of money for its return. Aircraft hijacking,
this criminal form of aerial terrorism exposes a greater number of people to danger.
His execution has always been under the responsibility of extremist groups

Penalty for kidnapping [ edit ]

As a general rule, the legislation of all countries dictates very high penalties for this
type of crime, sometimes reaching the death penalty . Several kidnappers have
been executed in the United States throughout its history.
On many occasions, the penalties for kidnappings are associated with the fact that
they ended in the murder of the victims. In any case, a kidnapping always causes
serious psychological consequences for the victims, which is why it is considered a
serious crime.
 Physical security 132

For example, in the state of Chihuahua , Mexico , kidnapping is punishable by life

imprisonment, and so far around 30 people have been convicted of that crime.

Post-kidnapping trauma
One of the psychological disorders that can arise from a kidnapping is the so-called
Stockholm syndrome . It is a psychic reaction in which the victim of a kidnapping,
or person held against their own will, develops a relationship of complicity with the
person who has kidnapped them. Sometimes, such kidnapped people may end up
helping their captors achieve their goals or evade the police.
It owes its name to an event that occurred in the city of Stockholm (Sweden). In
1973, a robbery occurred at the Kreditbanken bank in the aforementioned Swedish
city. The criminals had to keep the occupants of the institution hostage for 6 days.
Four people—three women and one man—were taken hostage, but one of the
prisoners resisted rescue and testified against her captors. Other versions indicate
that this woman was captured by a photographer at the moment she was kissing
one of the criminals. And they refused to collaborate in the subsequent legal
process. 3

KIDNAPPING PREVENTION

TYPES OF KIDNAPPING

PLANNED OR FOCUSED

The Criminal Organization has an Intelligence Group that selects the victim, carries
out a prior study of their personal movements and that of their family; activities;
schedules; tentative place and time for the blow and risks.

Requires prior planning to carry out the operation.

OPTIONAL WHITE OR EXPRESS (Also called Rapid or broadcast)

They randomly choose the victim based on appearance, attitude while traveling,
area through which he or she travels, and conditions to carry out the crime.
(CASES: “You”)

TYPES OF KIDNAPPING
 Physical security 133

PLANNED OR FOCUSED

The Criminal Organization has an Intelligence Group that selects the victim, carries
out a prior study of their personal movements and that of their family; activities;
schedules; tentative place and time for the blow and risks.

Requires prior planning to carry out the operation.

OPTIONAL WHITE OR EXPRESS (Also called Rapid or broadcast)

They randomly choose the victim based on appearance, attitude while traveling,
area through which he or she travels, and conditions to carry out the crime.
(CASES: “You”)

COMPONENTS OF THE “EXPRESS” KIDNAPPING

VICTIM: person who appears financially solvent by their clothing,

jewelry, vehicle.

CIRCUMSTANCES: traveling on roads with little traffic, taking advantage of the

lack of attention to the environment and lack of sense of self-protection.

You may be surprised just before entering the garage of your home.

LOOT: Sum of money between 5,000 to 20,000 pesos to be requested for ransom.

In many cases they have even negotiated for lower sums or for teams

electronics.

OBTAINING THE RESCUE: within two hours.

OPERATION: they coordinate a place for delivery, without showing their face,
 Physical security 134

restoring the victim after collecting the ransom.

SITUATION TABLE

This modality is originally from Colombia and Mexico, with Brazil being the country
today that has formed a kidnapping industry.

It is quickly imposed due to the weakness of the Justice Department, the lack of
cash and the use of plastic money and the restrictions on withdrawals through
ATMs.

In the last 18 months, 29 planned kidnappings were recorded throughout the

Federal District and nearly 60 in the entire Republic of the so-called “Express”.
Many more occur that are not reported.

Victims usually remain unharmed.

The kidnappers do not manage time and the art of negotiation, settling for less loot
than requested.

Most kidnappers are converted thieves looking for bigger loot.

CURRENT OPERATION IN THE EXPRESS KIDNAPPINGS

Most of them occur when the driver is alone, returning home between 7:00 p.m.
and 11:00 p.m., along dark, dead-end streets with little traffic.

They block the path of the vehicle in front and at gunpoint, commonly two subjects
force the driver to move to the back of their car.

On rare occasions, victims were caught walking on public roads.

They subject them to beatings and psychological torture in order to obtain

information about their environment and way of life.
 Physical security 135

Occasionally, they can settle for withdrawing cash from an ATM, carrying the
effects at that time and even to the vehicle.

If they consider her suitable to request a ransom, they continue the action by
contacting her home.

PREVENTIONS

“DRIVING THE VEHICLE”

“CIRCULATING ON FOOT”

“PERSONAL”

“MINORS AND ADOLESCENTS”

"IN FAMILY"

PREVENTION IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE METHOD TO REDUCE EXPOSURE

TO RISK

PREVENTIONS “DRIVING THE VEHICLE”

Have a conscious attitude regarding your personal safety

Constantly analyze the road (possible obstacles and vehicles in the environment)

Avoid risk areas and areas that do not dominate

Keep windows closed and doors locked

If it is necessary to talk to a passerby, lower it no more than 5 cm.

Drive as close to the center dividing line as possible, so that it is impossible to

fence it or force it to the side
 Physical security 136

Maintain distance from the vehicle in front, stopped or moving, to be able to

perform evasive maneuvers

Use vehicles that do not attract attention.

Do not stop at night in remote areas or at a traffic light, only reduce speed to
violate it.

On routes and highways, stop at service or toll stations.

At night, stop to wait for another person with the lights off and the vehicle in motion,
looking at the surroundings.

To remove the vehicle from the home's garage, first observe both sides of the
access.

To enter the private garage, coordinate this action, previously observing the
surroundings, with a member of your family.

PREVENTIONS “CIRCULATING ON FOOT”

Analyze the environment.

Walk in the opposite direction to vehicular traffic.

While walking, abruptly change your path if you think you are being followed.

It is preferable to change sidewalks if the person coming in front of you seems

suspicious.

Avoid traveling through unknown places.

Identical temperament for places with little security and light, even if they are
known.

“PERSONAL” PREVENTIONS
 Physical security 137

Wear inconspicuous clothing, trying to make it common to the place where you will
go.

Do not carry personal cards that establish profession and place where you work.

Do not carry photos and information of family members.

Do not wear high value jewelry and watches.

Bring a small amount of money and any credit card that may be required at that
time.

Keep in mind how to request police assistance in the capital and province (you
must dial 101).

PREVENTIONS “MINORS AND ADOLESCENTS”

Track your activities.

Maintain frequent telephone contacts to establish your location.

Instruct them not to provide information regarding their home, family, and activities.

Prevent them from moving alone.

It is preferable to mobilize them in groups or accompanied by older people.

PREVENTIONS “IN THE FAMILY”.

Without falling into psychosis, discuss these topics frequently.

Establish keywords that mean danger (Ex. If you usually use your first name,
determine that announcing the second name is a risky situation.)

Practice and simulate the different possibilities that could occur and the different
ways you would collectively cope with the circumstance.
 Physical security 138

According to a DEFENSIVE SCHEME, program what to say, what to do, how to

proceed.

ONCE THE KIDNAPPING HAS BEEN CONSUMED, WHAT TO DO ABOUT THE

KIDNAPPED ATTITUDES
Try to control emotions.

Don't be an easy informant. Listen, analyze and respond.

Do not indicate where you live, resist until the last moment.

Minimize your social situation and level.

Offer what you have at that moment.

Do not comment on the possibilities of getting money that your family may have.

If they pressure you to the point of obtaining your address, try not to give it away, only
indicate a telephone number.

ATTITUDES OF THE FAMILY MEMBER ATTENDING THE KIDNAPPING DEMAND

Keep calm and remain quiet – listen carefully.

Talk when they allow it.

Do not contradict, nor give in.

Face a negotiating attitude.

Offer a small figure.

Highlight the impossibility of getting the cash so easily.

SAFE AND SOUND !!!!

 Physical security 139

IT IS THE GOAL WE MUST REACH

WHEN WE FINISH EXPERIMENTING

AND BE PROTAGONISTS IN THIS

NAMED NIGHTMARE

"EXPRESS KIDNAPPING"

LET US BE AWARE OF OUR PERSONAL SAFETY AND CONTAGATE OUR LOVED

ONES

INDIVIDUAL PREVENTION

When entering or leaving your home, check that there are no suspicious strangers
in the vicinity.

* If you notice that a car or motorcycle is following you, try to drive on busy streets
and locate police personnel to report the incident.

* Do not carry a wallet that makes you an attractive target for criminals. A purse
hanging loosely from your shoulder can easily be ripped off from behind.

* Carry your bag in such a way as to allow for quick release if you are forced to do
so. It will prevent injuries.

* Be aware of those around you, and carry your purse close to your body, held by
the elbow.
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* Travel with the least amount of money and credit cards. Divide your money
between pockets and wallet; the least valuable thing in the portfolio.

* If you are the victim of a snatcher, do not fight to retain your purse, especially if
the offender is armed.

* Avoid driving on streets that are not very busy or poorly lit.

* Get to know “shelters” (safe businesses, candy stores) that are open late at night.
If you suspect you are being followed, stay away from low-traffic areas and go to
the “shelter” that you know is open.

* When walking to your car or home, carry the keys in your hand for quick entry.

* If someone takes you to your home by car, ask the driver to wait until you enter
your home.

* If a driver bothers you while you are walking, turn around and head in the
opposite direction of the vehicle.

* If you travel by train, do not carry your purse or handbag on the side of the train
convoy while moving along the platform and do not carry cross-body items on your
“shoulder bag” (they may be dragged when the train starts moving).

At your home.

*Have your keys in your hand before you reach the front door.

* Keep the entrance well lit.

* If you live in a building, do not allow a stranger who is waiting to enter.

*Do not allow entry to any stranger.

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*If a stranger requests use of your phone (whatever the reason) keep it outside;
you make the call. If in doubt call the police.

* If you arrive home and find the door open, do not enter. Call the police and ask
for help.

Burglary at home (measures to take into account)

Before entering your home, check the state of your home (doors forced, broken or
open, blinds lowered, etc.)

If you find something abnormal, do not enter, contact the Police in your area
(number of your section or, failing that, 101 Radio Command).

* If you notice that water or smoke is seeping under the door, do not open it, look
through the panoramic peephole or call a neighbor on the phone, confirm the
situation.

* Install an armored door in the home. If you cannot do so, make sure it has at
least 2 locks and that there is no physical space between the door and the floor.

* Reinforce hinges and install steel angles that prevent leverage.

* Place a panoramic peephole on the door.

* Place bars on windows that face the outside, do not leave a space greater than
12 cm between bars.

* Balconies, eaves and wall projections can be climbed with relative ease.

* Install security devices (alarms)

* Pay special attention to the access doors to the terrace and garage.

* Do not display jewelry, money, jewelry or belongings, this attracts thieves.

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* Make use of all the security measures available to you, even a simple lock.

* Statistically, one of the periods with the highest rate of home robberies is
recorded during weekends, holidays and Easter; Criminals don't take vacations.

* Do not disclose your travel or vacation plan to unknown people, do so only with
those you trust, who will take the necessary measures to not make your absence
noticeable.

*Instruct service personnel with these directives.

* Deposit your valuables in safe deposit boxes or in the custody of trusted people,
who do not have to be away.

* Close doors, windows and balconies tightly.

* When you return home, before stopping, walk around the block to make sure
there are no strangers nearby.

Type of home robbery (attempts to enter in the presence of residents)

A person (usually it is a woman, since it gives more confidence) shows up at the

door of your house stating that she is a friend of your son/daughter, husband/wife,
has knowledge of the details of the person you are asking about and knows to
perfection the activities it carries out. She is almost always accompanied by a man
who waits inside a vehicle. You can give several reasons for trying to enter the
home, the most common of which are:

* I'm here to return to... some money you lent me, if it's not there, no problem, I'll
leave it to you. Can I have a pen to leave you a note?

* A person, wearing a postal uniform (state or private), knocks on your door with
the excuse of delivering a package or document (letter document / telegram). Upon
passing through the door, he enters and behind him, his accomplices.
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“We come from your son's school, don't be scared, but (they call him by name) he
has had an accident.” Upon hearing this, you are shocked and do not reason. This
situation is taken advantage of by individuals to get what they are looking for.

“I am a colleague at work, study, etc. No this ? It's a shame, he must have

forgotten that we agreed to meet at his house. May I have the phone, please?

Minors are increasingly used to commit crimes. The elders (almost always they are
direct relatives) dress them in torn clothes and dirty their hands and faces, they
teach them to ask for alms or food and when you open the door, you get a
surprise.

Remember that these criminals usually have, in almost all cases, the data and
movements of the family that lives in the house that they intend to steal. (Prior
intelligence)

Our only defense against this modality is not to let ourselves be surprised,
to distrust all those we do not know, and without giving them entry, to try to
corroborate the data.

TRANSFER. HOME / WORK / HOME

* Alter departure times, a few minutes difference is enough.

* Share the trip with coworkers.

* Refuel at well-known service stations.

* Drive, preferably, on highways or fast routes.

* Have 1 or 2 route options.

* If you have a cell phone, dialing * 911 will immediately communicate with the
nearest police command.
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Prevention measures in general (to take into account with children)

* Pay close attention to any story your child tells you, for example about a person
who has tried to pet him, give him something, etc. . Tell him that he should never
keep these relationships a secret, even if these people ask him to.

* Do not allow them to leave your sight in recreational areas; Various groups of
people carry out selection tasks on these sites.

* When you are in a public place that has games (slides, hammocks, etc.), always
check these games, since they may have intentionally placed elements that can
harm the child.

* Teach your children to know your first and last name, address and telephone
number.

* Your children should always know that, if they get lost, it is best to stay still; Your
parents, family or friends, upon noticing your absence instinctively, will retrace your
steps.

* Explain to them who to contact in case of danger, whether they are on the street
or at home.

* Get to know your children's friends and company.

* If you have to hire a babysitter, do not rely on the background information given
by it or the agency, go to someone who can check this information.

* Children should not open the door of the house, neither alone nor accompanied.

* Explain to them that they always reject the invitation of strangers to get into a
vehicle, or to accompany them under any pretext.

OUTINGS WITH FAMILY MEMBERS.

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Do not enter banks or ATMs with your family.

* Do not go to private or state institutions that, due to their political or social

characteristics, may become targets of extremist attacks (embassies, community
centers, etc.).

* Always carry important medical data (blood group, ongoing treatments, etc.)
among your documents.

* Verify that the door locks of your vehicle are in place.

* Do not leave your vehicle parked far from the place of attendance.

* Don't lose sight of your children.

* Avoid direct confrontation with any group of people who are demonstrating.
Behave as if you share their concerns.

* If you enter any recreational area (shopping, shopping mall, etc.), identify the
emergency exits.

General prevention measures

* Avoid staying at night in a vehicle parked in a field, park, etc.

* Before parking your vehicle, look around you in case you notice the presence of
suspicious people. Do the same when you are about to use your car, before
entering, look inside it: there could be an intruder crouching in the back.

*Do not put your first name on the mailbox, only your initials.

* If you are alone, draw the curtains when it gets dark, keep the lights on in 2 or
more rooms to make it appear that there are several people inside your home.
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* If you live in an apartment building and have to take the elevator, avoid doing so
when strangers are inside.

Prevention Consortia

* Keep the building door permanently closed and locked from 9:00 p.m. to 8:00
a.m. Always keep the doors to the terrace locked.

* Keep the internal and external access doors to the garages permanently closed.

* Keep vehicles parked in locked garages. Avoid leaving valuables inside.

* Keep entrances to garages, basements and terraces illuminated.

* Reliably identify people before opening the door of your home.

* Avoid the entry of street vendors, promoters and unknown people into the
building.

* Avoid traveling in the elevators with people who are strangers to the building and
who seem suspicious to you. Try not to let children ride alone in elevators.

* Prevent strangers from entering, staying or circulating through the building

without being controlled.

* Take special caution with locksmiths. Try by all means to have repairs or services
carried out at the same locksmith, avoid giving your home address.

Automobile Prevention

* Do not leave vehicle documentation inside.

* Drive with the windows closed (except for a small ventilation) and the doors
locked.
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* If someone tries to run you off the road, sound your horn continuously. If you are
forced to stop, back out quickly, sounding the horn and moving the car as much as
possible.

* If you suspect someone is following you, walk around busy streets. If the chase
continues, go to the nearest police station, or place that provides similar security.
Do not take it to your home or remote or lonely places.

* Park your vehicle in a well-lit place and look around before getting out of the
vehicle. This will reduce personal and vehicle risks.

* Before getting into your car, make sure that no one is hiding in the back seat.

Theft from drivers (general measures)

* If you stop on the street, try to leave your vehicle in a secure parking lot in a well-
lit place.

* When driving your car, lock the doors, you will avoid more than one scare.

* Install a security or anti-theft device.

* If you want to improve the security of your car, install special locks.

* Install a safety mechanism that interrupts the power supply.

* Do not pick up strangers on the route.

* Every time you get out of the car, take the key out of the ignition, leave the
steering wheel locked and close the doors and windows properly.

* Try not to leave valuables visible.

* Maintain a safe distance from the vehicle in front.

* It is important that the fuel tank be protected by a lockable cap.

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* At night, avoid being stopped by solitary traffic lights, slow down, check that you
have a clear path and move forward.

List of places where the crimes that are committed are repetitive and have similar
characteristics.