UNIT 19 COMPUTER DATA ANALYSIS

Structure
19.1 Introduction
19.2. Objectives
19.3 What is SPSS?
19.4 Get Yourself Acquainted with SPSS

I
19.5 Menu Commands and Sub-commands
19.6 Basic Steps in Data Analysis
19.7 Defining, Editing and Entering Data
19.8 Data File Management Functions
19.8.1 Merging Data Files
19.82 Aggregate Data
19.8.3 Split File
19.8.4 Select Cases
19.9 Running a Preliminary Analysis
19.9.1 Six Characteristics of a Dataset
19.92 Data Transformation
19.9.3 Exploring Data
19.9.4 Graphical Presentation of Data
19.9.5 Scatterplots and Histograms
19.10 Understanding Relationship Between Variables
19.10.1 The Mean Procedure
19.10.2 Linear Regression
19.10.3 Curve Estimation
19.11 Non-parametric Tests
19.12 SPSS Production Facility
19.13 Satistical Analysis System (SAS)
19.14 NUDIST
19.15 Let Us Sum Up
19.16 Unit-end Activities
19.17 Suggested Readings
C 19.18 Answers to Check Your Progress
Appendix

19.1 INTRODUCTION
In earlier units, we provided you with a detailed understanding of how quantitative
and qualitative data are analysed manually. Although some of us still carry out
analysis of data manually, the advent of sophisticated computer software has made
data analysis more convenient and easier. Earlier, the software which could only
be run on large mainframe computers can now be run with considerable ease on
the PCs. SPSS is one such software which is used in educational research. You
can analyze large and computer data files with thousands of variables on your PC
without compromising the quality and the precision of analysis. 109
Data Analysis and In this unit, we will introduce you to the software for quantitative and qualitative
Interpretation data analysis. We will provide in this details of SPSS package which is comparatively
more popular among research students for quantitative data analysis. We will also
introduce in this unit the Statistical Analysis System (SAS), another software for
quantitative data analysis. We will introduce a software called NUDIST for
qualitative data analysis.

19.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
a explain describe the main features of the SPSS;
a write about as well as use the data management operations and techniques of
analysis using SPSS;
a acquire skills in the use of SPSS for basic statistical analysis with a special
focus on the measures of central tendency, dispersion, correlation and
regression; and
a present the data and the SPSS results graphically.

19.3 WHAT IS SPSS ?

SPSS* is one of the leading desktop statistical packages. It is an ideal companion
to the database and spreadsheet, combining many of their features as well as adding
its own specialized hnctions. SPSS for windows is available, as a base module and
a number of optional add-on enhancements are also available. Some versions present
SPSS as an integrated package including the base and some important add-on-
modules.
SPSS Professional Statistics provides techniques to examine similarities and
dissimilarities in data and to classify.data, identify underlying dimensions in a data
set. It includes procedures for cluster, k-cluster, discriminating factor, multi-
dimensional scaling, and proximity and reliability analysis.
SPSS Advanced Statistics includes procedures for logistic regression, log-linear
analysis, multivariate analysis and analysis of variance. This module also includes
procedures for constrained non-linear regression, probit, Cox and actuarial survival
analysis.
SPSS Tables creates a high quality presentation-quality tabular reports including
stub and banner tables and display. of multiple response data sets. The new features
include pivot tables, a valuable tool for presentation of selected analytical output
tables.
SPSS Trends performs comprehensive forecasting and time series analysis with
multiple curve fitting models, smoothing models and methods for estimation of
autoregressive functions.
SPSS categories performs conjoint analysis and optional scaling procedures, including
correspondence analisis.
SPSS Chaid provides simplified tabular analysis of categories data, develops
predictive models, screens out extraneous predictor variables, and produces easy to

110 SPSS is registered trademark o f the SPSS Corporation, USA.

read tree diagrams that segment a population into sub-groups that share similar Computer Data Analysis
characteristics.

Recently, the SPSS Corporation announced the release of SPSS version 8.0. Many
new add-on products have also been launched in the recent months. You can consult
the SPSS World Wide Web site for the latest developments and additions to the
computing power SPSS. Technical support is also available to the registered user at
the SPSS site. The SPSS Web site is http://www.spss.com. Select white papers on
SPSS applications in major disciplines are also available on this site.

SPSS version 7.5 for Windows is now available with most users across the globe.
The present unit discusses some of the commonly used data management techniques
and statistical procedures using SPSS 7.5. Since new features are added almost
daily, you are advised to check for these details on the currently installed version of
SPSS on your computer and also consult the user manuals before undertaking
complex type of data analysis. The on-line help is also available. There may be
some procedures and syntax related changes from one version to another. We will
attempt to provide you with procedures that are most commonly used with SPSS
Release 7.5. In case these are not available on your version of SPSS, please consult
the relevant SPSS authorized representative or the WWW site of the SPSS
corporation.

19.4 GET YOCTRSELFACQUAINTED WITH SPSS

The SPSS for Windows can be run from Windows 98 through Windows XP operating
systems. Unix, Mac and mainframe versions of the SPSS software are also available.
The illustrations in this Unit are based on SPSS version for Window 95/98/NT
operating systems.

Starting SPSS

The SPSS for Windows uses graphical environment, descriptive menus and simple
dialog boxes to do most of the work. It produces three type of files, namely data
files, chart files and text files.

To start SPSS, click the start button on your Compute$. On the start menu that
appears, click Program. Another menu appears on the right of the start menu. If
there is an entry marked SPSS, that's the one you want to click. If there isn't, click
the program group where SPSS was installed and an entry marked SPSS will appear.
Click the SPSS 7.5 entry. You will know when the SPSS has started and SPSS
Data Editor window appears. To begin with, the SPSS data editor window will be
empty and a number of menus will appear on the top of the window. You will start
the operations by loading a data set or by creating a new file for which data is to
be entered from the data editor window. The data can also be imported from other
programs like Dbase, ASCII, Excel and Lotus.

Existing SPSS

Make sure that all SPSS and other files are saved before quitting the program. You
should exit the software by shutting off the program by selecting Exit SPSS command
from the file menu of the SPSS Data Editor window. In case of unsaved files, the
SPSS will prompt you to save or discard the changes in the file.

2 It is assumed that a proper licensed and valid version of SPSS is already installed on the computer
you are working with. 111
Data Analysis and Saving data and other files
Interpretation
Many types of file can be saved using 'save' or 'save as' command. Various types
of files used in SPSS are: Data, Syntax, Chart or Output. Files from spreadsheets
or other databases can also be imported by following the appropriate procedure.
Similarly, an SPSS file can be saved as a spreadsheet or in dbase format. Select
the appropriate save type command and save the file. The SPSS data files are
saved with .sav as the secondary name. Though SPSS files could be given any
name, the use of reserved words and symbols is to be avoided in all types of file
names.
Printing of data and output files
The contents of SPSS data files,. Output Navigator files and Syntax Files can be
printed using the standard 'Print' command. The SPSS uses the default printer for
printing. In the case of network printers, an appropriate printer should be selected
for printing the output. It is suggested that Ink jet or Laser jet printers should be
used for printing graphs and.charts. Tabular data can be easily printed using a Dot
matrix Printer.
Operating Windows in SPSS
There are seven types of Windows in SPSS which are frequently referred to during
the data management and analysis stages. These are:
Data Editor
As mentioned earlier, the data editor window opens automatically as soon the SPSS
gets loaded. To begin with, the data editor does not contain any data. The file
containing the data for analysis has to be loaded with the help of the 'file' menu
sub-commands by using various options available for this purpose. The contents of
the active data file are displayed in the data editor window. Only one data editor
window will be active at a time. No statistical operations can be performed until
some data is loaded into data editor.
Output Navigator
All SPSS messages, statistical results, tables and charts are displayed in the output
navigator. The output in the navigator Window can be edited and saved for future
reference. The Output Navigator opens automatically, the first time some output is
generated. The user can customize the presentation of reports and tables displayed
in the Output Navigator. The output can be directly imported into reports prepared
under word processing packages, and the output files are saved with an extension
xxxx.spo.
Pivot Tables
The output shown in the Output Navigator can be modified in many ways using the
Edit and Pivot Table Option, which can be used to edit text, swap rows and column,
add colour, prepare custom made reportsloutput, create and display selectively multi-
dimensional tables. The results can be selectively hidden and shown using features
available in Pivot Tables.
Graphics
The Chart Editor helps in switching between various types of charts, swapping of
X-Y axis, changing colour and providing facilities for presenting data and results
through various type of graphical presentations.
It is useful for customizing the charts to highlight specific features of the charts and
112 map.
Text Editor Computer Data Analysis

The text output not displayed in the Pivot Tables can be modified with the help of
Text Editor. It works like an ordinary Text Editor. The output can be saved for
future reference or sharing purposes
Syntax Editor
The Syntax Editor can be opened and closed like any other file using the File Oped
New command. The use of Syntax file is recommended when the same type of
analysis is to be performed a: frequent intervals of time or on a large number of
data files. Using Syntax File for such purposes automates complex analysis and
also avoids errors due to frequent typing of the same command. The commands
can be pasted on the Syntax files using a particular command and pastes buttons
from the menu. Experienced user can directly type the commands in the Syntax
window. To run the syntax, select the commands to be executed and click on the
run button at the top of the syntax window. All or some selected commands from
the Syntax File will be executed. The Syntax File is saved as xx.sps.
Script Editor
This facility is normally used by the advanced users. It ofTers fully featured
programming environment that uses the Sax BASIC language and includes a Script
Editor, Object Browser, Debugging features and context sensitive help. Scripting
allows you to automate tasks in SPSS including:
Automatically customizing output
Open and save data files
Display and manipulate SPSS dialog boxes
Run data transformation and statistical procedures using SPSS command Syntax.
Export charts as graphics files in a variety of formats.
The present module will not go into the details of the advanced features of SPSS
including scripting.

Check Your Progress

Notes : a) Space is given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Write any three features of SPSS package.

2. How many types of windows are there in SPSS and what are those
windows ?
Data Analysis and
Interpretation 19.5 MENU COMMANDS AND SUB-COMMANDS
Most of the commands can be executed by making appropriate selections from the
menu bar. Some additional commands and procedures are available only through
the Syntax Windows. The SPSS user manuals provide a comprehensive list of
commands, which are not available through menu driven options. If you want a
comprehensive overview of the basics of SPSS, there is an on-line tutorial, as
extensive help of SPSS is available by using the 'Help' menu command. The CD
version of the software contains an additional demo module.
Since SPSS is menu driven, each Window has its own menu bar. While some of the
menu bars are common, the others are specific to a particular type of Window. We
will present below the menu and sub-menus of the Data Editor window. You may
consult the SPSS manuals for other types of menu and sub-menu commands.

The following table shows the Data Editor Menus. Each commands in the main
menu has a number of sub-command.

Menu Functionlsub-commands
File : Open and save data file, to import data created in other formats
like Lotus, Excel, Dbf etc. Print control functions like page
setup, printer setup and associated functions. ASCII data can
also be read into SPSS. Data capture command is used to
import data from RDMS structures.
Edit : These functions are similar to those available in general
packages. These include undo, redo cut, copy, paste, paste
special, find, find and replace. Option setting for the SPSS
are controlled through Edit menu.

View : Customize tool bars, Fonts grid and display of data, displays
option for showing value labels.
Data : This is very important menu as far as management of data is
concerned. Variable definition, inserting new variables,
transposing templates, aggregating and merging of data files,
splitting data files for specific analysis are some important
commands in Data Menu.
 Computer Data Analysis
Transform : Compute new variables, recede, random number generation,
ranking, time series data transformation, count and missing value
analysis are undertaken using Transform Command.
Statistics : As the name implies, Statistics Menu incorporates statistical
procedures. Frequency distribution, cross-tabulations,
comparison of means, correlation. simple and multiple regression,
ANOVA, Log linear regression, discriminate analysis, canonical
analysis, factor analysis, non-parametric tests and time series
analysis are undertaken using Statistics menu.
Graphs : Includes options for generating various type of custom made

i
graphics like bar, pie, area, X-Y and high-low charts, pareto,
control charts, box-plots, histograms, P-P and Q-Q charts and
time series representation of data.
Utilities : Information about variables, information on working a data file,
run scripts and define sets are some of the important functions
carried out through Utilities command.
Window : Windows menu are used to switch between SPSS windows.

Help : Context specific help through dialog boxes, demo of the

I
I software, and information about the software are some of the
I important options under Help command. It provides a
connection for the SPSS home page. The statistical coach
I included in the help module is very useful in understanding
various stages of executing a procedure.
I
Setting the Options

I
The SPSS provides a facility for setting up of the user-defined options. Use the
!:
- Edit menu and then select Options. The following types of optional setting are
I allowed in SPSS. Make !te appropriate changes to set the options according to
I your choice.
 Data Analysis and
lntcrpretation 19.6 BASIC STEPS IN DATA ANALYSIS
There are four basic steps involved in data analysis using SPSS. These are shown
in the following figure.
I

BASIC STEPS FOR DATA ANALYSIS

I
Step 1
BMgyoudatato
SPSS
Step 2

fr#nmcwrw
Step 3
.
+ ~~
wUrrPlyllk
.
. Step 4
I

4 Examinethe
mwb

Bring your data into SPSS: You can bring your data into SPSS in the following
ways:
- Enter data directly into SPSS Data Editor.
- Open previously saved SPSS data file
- Read a,spreadsheet data into SPSS data editor.
- Import data from DBF files
- Import data from RDBMS packages like Access, Oracle, Power,
Builder, etc.
Select a Procedure from Menu: Before embarking on a statistical analysis, it is
advised that you are clear as to what analysis is to be performed. Select the
corresponding procedure to work on the data or create.charts or tables using the
selected procedure.
The command could either be directly executed or pasted on a Syntax Window. As
mentioned earlier, pasting the command on the Syntax Window will be useful for
undertaking batch processing or for subsequent use, especially where the same
type of repetitive analysis required. Pasting the command will not lead to its
execution. The command has to be selected and executed using the run command.
Select the variables: All the variables in the active file are listed each time a
dialog box is opened. Select the appropriate variables for the selected pmedure.
Selection of at least one variable is necessary to run a statistical procedure. The
I variables may be numeric, string, date or logical. You should be aware that string
variables cannot be manipulated to the same extent as the numeric variables.
Computer Data Analysis

Run the Procedure and Examine the Output: After completing the selection
process for the procedure and the variables, execute the SPSS command. Most of
the commands are executed by clicking OK on the dialog box. The processor will
execute the procedures and produce a report in the Output Navigator.

19.7 DEFINING, EDITING AND ENTERING DATA

As mention earlier, there are many options for creating SPSS data files. The data
can either be directly entered through Data Editor or imported from spreadsheets,
ASCII file and other RDBMS packages like Oracle and Access. The data is
arranged in the form of rows and column in the Editor Window. The rows refer to
the observations or cases and the columns to the variables. Each cell is defined as
the intersection of a row and a column and refers to the value of a particular
variable for a specific casetobservation. While defining data, it is important to identitjr
a primary key which is unique for each observation/case.

Irn
Variable Definition
Before entering the data into SPSS, it is advised that you define your variables.
Such a definition will bc very helpful for data entry and analysis stages. The following
information about each variable is provided to define it:
- A name for the variable (upto 8 characters only)

I
- A description (label)
- A series of labels which explain the value entered (value labels)
- A declaration as to which values are non-valid and should be excluded from
the statistical analysis and other operations (missing values). The information
is important to understand the response pattern and also to specify the
observations which should be excluded from the analysis.
117
-- -

Data Analysis and The following table provides an example of the above description.
Interpretation

Variable Variable labels Value labels Missing Variable type

name value
STID Student None None Number 6
number Digit no
decimal place
Name None None None String, 24
character long
-
Gender Sex of M male X String, 1
respondent character long
F female
X Unknown

MTL Marital Status 1. Married 9 Number, 1

2. Widowed character
3. Divorced
4. Separated
5. Never
Married
9. Missing
..
DOB Date of Birth Nonr None Date, ddlmmlyy

Defining variables is easy in SPSS. The variable names can be changed and altered
with eabe even during analysis. Any change made to the working files will be
permanently changed only when the data file is saved using 'save 'or 'save as'
command. To start the procedure for defining variables, place the cursor in a
118
particular column and from the menu click:
 The following dialog box will appear. Computer Data Analysis

I Define variable (provide relevant information asked in the dialog box).

Data can be entered directly using SPSS Data Editor window. However, if the data
is large, you are advised to use a data entry package. The data can also be edited/
changed in the data editor window. To change the value in any cell, bring the
cursor to the particular cell, enter the new value and press enter. New variables
can also be added and the existing variables can be deleted in the Data Editor
Window.

19.8 DATA FILE MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS

SPSS is very flexible as far as management of data files is concerned. While only
one file can be opened for analysis at a time, the SPSS provides flexibility in merging
multiple data files with the same structure into one single data file, merging files to
add new variables, partially select the cases for analysis, make group of data based
on certain characteristics and use different weights for different variables. Some
of these functions are discussed below. Groups of data can also be defined to
facilitate the analysis of the most commonly referred variables (see utilities and
data commands).

19.8.1 Merging Data Files

Researchers are often faced with a situation where data from different files are to
be merged or a limited number of variables from large complex data files are

1 required. The following types of facility are available for merging files using SPSS.
Adding variables: Adding variables is useful when two data files contain the
information about the same case but on different variables. For example, the teachers
I database may contain two files, one having the educational qualifications and the
other having the names of the courses taught. Both the files could be combined to
analyze the variables available in them. The data on a key and unique variable
from both the files can be combined easily. The key variables must have the same
name in both the data files. Both the data files should be sorted on the common key
variable.

I Adding cases: This option is used when the data from two files having the same
variables are to be combined. For example, you may record the same information
for students in different study centers in lndia abroad. The data can be merged to
create a centralized database by using Add cases command. 119
Data Analysis and
Interpretation

19.8.2 Aggregate Data

Aggregate Data command combines groups of cases into a single summary case
and creates a new aggregate data file. Cases are aggregated, based on the value
of one or more grouping variables. The new (aggregated) file contains one record
for each group. The aggregate file could be saved with a specific name to be
provided by you. Otherwise, the default name is aggregatesav. For example, the
data on learners, achievement could be aggregated by sex, state and region.
A number of aggregate functions are available in the SPSS. These include sum,
mean, number of cases, maximum value, minimum value, standard deviation and
first and the last value. Other summary functions include percentage and fractions
below and above a particular cut-off user-defined value.

19.8.3 Split File

The researcher is often interested in the comparison of a summary and other
statistics based on certain group behaviour. For example, in a study of learning
achievement, the researcher may be interested in comparing the mean scores for
students belonging to different sex groups. The sex is taken as a grouping variable.
Multiple grouping variables can also be selected. A maximum of eight grouping
variables can be defined. Cases need to be sorted out by grouping variables. Two
options are available for comparative anaiysis. These are: compare groups and
-organize output by groups. The split file is available under Data menu for making
such comparisons.
 19.8.4 Select Cases Computer Data Analysis

Select case command can be used for selecting a random sub-sample or sub-group
of cases based on a specified criteria that includes variables and complex expression.
The following criteria are used for Select Case command.
Select if (condition is satisfied)
Variable values and their range
Date and time range

I Arithmetic expressions
Logical expressions

I Functions
Row numbers
Following the Select Case command, the unselected cases can either be deleted or
temporarily filtered. Deleted cases are removed from the active file and cannot be
recovered. You should be careful while selecting Delete option. Filtered option will
be deleted temporarily. When the Select Case option is on, it is indicated in the
I Data Editor window.
!

Check Your Progress

Notes :a) Space is given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
3. What are the basic steps in data analysis?
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4. What is a split file?
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19.9 RUNNING A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS

Before running advanced statistical analysis it is important that you understand.the
salient features of your data. Use of statistical applications on a data set, the
behaviour of which is not known, can give misleading conclusions. The following
section explains the six characteristics which must be examined for a given data
set before attempting an advanced analysis. 121
Data Analysis and 19.9.1 Six Characteristics of a Dataset
Interpretation
One strong argument for using computers and graphical presentation of the data is
the advantage of viewing the data in a variety of ways. Preliminary exploration of
data and its graphical presentation helps attain these objectives. The following
characteristics will help you in deciding on the best plan for data management,
analysis and presentation. SPSS includes commands for analyzing of data along the
following lines.
Shape: The shape of the data will be the main factor in determining what set of
summary statistics best explains the data. Shape is commonly categorised as
symmetric, left-skewed or right-skewed, and an uni-modal, bi-modal or multi-modal.
Frequency distribution, plots and graphical presentation of data histogram, P-P, Q-
Q, scatter, Box-Plot are illustrative of the techniques that can be used for determining
the shape of a data set. It is important that the user should have enough knowledge
of the properties of various statistical distributions, their graphical presentations,
characteristics and limitations.
Location: Location is simpler and more descriptive than measures of central
tendency. Common measures of location are the mean and the median. Measures
of central tendency also can be calculated for various sub-groups of a data set.
Spread: This measure describes the amount of variation in the data. Again
approximate value is sufficient initially, with the measure of spread being informed
by the shape of the data, and its intended use. Common measures of spread are
variance, standard deviation and inner-quartile range. Percentile range is another
measure which is used for measurement of dispersion.

Outliers: Outliers are data values that lie away from the general cluster of values.
Each outlier needs to be examined to determine if it represents a possible value
from the population being studied, in which case it should be retained, or if it is non
representative (or an error) in which case it should be excluded. You should properly
weigh and carefully examine the behaviour of outliers before accepting or rejecting
of an observation/case. The best choice to display when looking for outlier is Box-
plot. Range, i.e., maximum and minimum values can also be used to examine the
behaviour of outliers.
f
Clustering: Clustering implies that data tend to bunch around certain values.
Clustering shows most clearly on a dot-plot. Histogram, stem and leaf analysis are
also important procedures to examine the clustering pattern of a data set.

Association and relationship: Researchers often look for associative characteristics

or similarities and dissimilarities in the behaviour of some variables. For example,
achievement scores and hours of study may be positively correlated whereas the
teacher motivation and drop-out rate may be negatively associated with each other.
Correlation coefficient is the most commonly used measure for understanding the
nature and magnitude of association between two variables.

You should be clear that association does not imply relationship. A relationship is
defined by the cause and effect type of link. Normally, there is one dependent
variable and one or more than one independent variable in the cause and effect
relationship. Cause and effect relationship is captured through regression analysis.
The analysis of data along the above lines provides considerable insight into the
nature of data and also helps researchers in understanding key relationships between
variables. It is assumed that the relationships are of linear type. Non-linear
relationships can also be examined using non-linear techniques of analysis and also
using data transformation techniques.
19.9.2 Data Transformation
Data transformation is a very useful aspect of SPSS. Using data transformation,
Computer Data Analysis
1
you can collapse categories, record the data and create new variables based on
complex equations and conditional statements. Some of the functions are detailed
below:
Compute variable
a Compute value for numeric and string variables
a Create new variables or replace the value of existing variables. For the new
variable, you can specify the variable type and label.
a Compute value selectively for sub-sets of data based on logical conditions.
a Use built-in functions, statistical functions, distribution functions and string
functions.
Recode variables
Recoding of variables is an important characteristic of data management using SPSS.
Many continuous and discrete variables need to be recoded for meaningful analysis.
Recoding can be done either within the same variable or a new variable can be
generated. Recoding in the same variable will replace and original values for this
purpose. Recoding in a new variable will replace the old values with new values.
The following example illustrates the need and use of recoding variables.
A survey of the primary school was conducted in Delhi. Along with other variables,
information on the type of management was also collected. The management code
was designed as follows:
1. Government
2. Local bodies
3. Private aided
4. Private unaided
5. Others
Lets us assume that a comparative analysis of the government and the private
management schools is to be undertaken. This will be done by combining categories
1 and 2 and also 3 and 4. This can be achieved by recoding the management code
as 1 (for 1 and 2 categories) and 2 for 3 and 4 categories into a new variable.
Assuming that a database on primary schools in Delhi is available, the enrolment
analysis could be attempted by making suitable categories, i.e. schools with less
than 50 students, 5 1-1 50,15-250 and more than 250 students. This could be achieved
by recoding the enrolment variable into a new variable 'category'. If at a later
stage in the analysis, it is found that a new category is to be introduced, it can again
be achieved by recoding the enrolment data.
Count
Count is an important command available in SPSS and is used for counting
occurrences of the same value(s) in a list if variables within the same case. For
example, a survey might contain a list of books purchased (yesfno) by the students.
You could count the number of 'yes' response, or a new variable can be generated
which gives the value of count indicating the number of books bought.
Data Analysis and Procedure to run count command
Interpretation
Choose Transform from the main menu
Chose count
Enter the name of a target variable (variable where the count value will be
stored).
Select two or more variables of the same type (numeric or string)
Click define variable and specify which value(s) to be counted.
Click OK after the selection has been made.
In survey on learners' achievement, the answer code to each question in language
and mathematics could be recorded for each student. The codes could be ' 1 ' for
the correct answer '2' for the wrong answer and '3' for no reply. Count command
can then be used to count the number of correct answers.
Rank Cases
Rank Cases command can be used to rank observation in an ascending or a
descending order. Other options available for ranking cases are shown in the right
hand panel of the following figure.

19.9.3 Exploring Data

The Frequencies procedure provides statistics and graphic displays that are useful
for describing many type of variables. Frequency counts, simple and cumulative
percentages, mean, median and mode, sum, standard deviation, range minimum and
maximum values, standard error of the mean, skewness and kurtosis, bar charts
and pie charts, and histograms are some of the methods used to explore the data
before a sophisticated and advanced analysis is undertaken.
If you want to compare summary statistics for each of the several groups of cases,
use split file on the 'Data' menu. Use of Explore, Summarize or means procedure
is recommended for initial exploration of data. Use the following commands to
obtain frequencies:
From the menu choose: Computer Data Analysis

Statistics
Summarize
Frequencies

Use the Statistics and Charts sub-commands (as shown in the above figure) to
select the desired features. More than one variable could be selected for frequency
distribution. You must remember, that before attempting frequency distribution,
recoding of continuous type of variables will be necessary.

19.9.4 Graphical Presentation of Data

SPSS offers extensive facilities for viewing the data and its key features in high-
resolution charts and plots. From the main menu, select Graphs and the following
screen appears. Various types of Graph that can be drawn using SPSS are indicated
in the sub-commands.
Data Analysis and Select a chart type from the Graph menu. This opens a chart dialog box as shown
Interpretation below:

After the appropriate selections have been made, the output is displayed in Output
Navigator window. The chart can be modified by a double click on any part of the
chart. Some typical modifications include the following:
a Edit axis titles and labels and footnotes
a Change Scale (X-Y)
a Edit the legend
a Add or modify a title
a Add annotation
a Add an outer frame
Another important category of charts is High -Low which are often used to represent
variables like maximum and minimum temperature in a day, stock market behaviour
or other similar variables.
Box-plot and Error Bar charts helps you to visualize distribution and dispersion.
Box-plot displays the median and quartiles and special symbols are used to identify
outliers, if any. Error Bar charts displays the mean and confidence intervals or
standard errors. To obtain a box-plot, choose Box-plot from the Graphs menu. The
simple box-plot for mean scores obtained in English and Hindi is shown in the
following diagram:

TEST
 The above figure shows that there were a large number of outliers in the case of Computer Data Analysis
Hindi scores as compared to English. The outliers were along the higher side. This
shows that many students were scoring very high marks. The size (numbers) of
cases are shown along the X-axis. The boxes show the median and the quartile
values for both the tests.
19.9.5 Scatterplots and Histograms
Scatterplots highlight the relationship between two quantitative variables by plotting
the actual values along X-Y axis. The scatterplots are useful to examine the actual
nature of relationship between these variables. This could be either linear or non-
linear in form. To help visualize the relationship, you can add a simple linear or a
quadratic regression line. A 3-D scatter plot adds a third variable in the relationship.
You can rotate the two dimensional projection of the three dimensions to delineate
the underlying patterns. In order to obtain a scatter plot, select Scatter from the
Graphs option.
A histogram will be obtained by selecting histogram option from the Graphs menu.
The variable for which a histogram is to be obtained should be selected from the
dialog box. The normal curve can also be displayed along with the histogram to
visually see the extent of similarity between the actual distribution of values and the
normal curve.
Pareto and control charts are used to analyze and improve the quality of an ongoing
process. You may refer to the SPSS manuals for use of these techniques.

19.10 UNDERSTANDING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

VARIABLES
The foregoing details focused on the techniques of analysis describing the behaviour
of individual variables. However, most of the research studies require relationship
between two or more variables to be examined. For example, one may be interested
in questions like, "do the achievement scores of boys and girls in the same class
1 differ?"
Cross-tabulation is the simplest procedure to describe a relationship between two

j
bi
or more categories of variables. Cross-tabulation is useful for any type of categorical
variable, especially, when the categories are small and mutually exclusive. Some
variables could be aggregated into convenient categories by using the Recode
command.
Data Analysis and The cells in the standard two-way frequency table display the counts or the number
Interpretation of cases falling into the categories distinguished by the row and column variables.
There is no category showing the missing data in a two-way classification.
The SPSS also provides for a number of options while displaying the results of
cross-tabulations. These relate to percentage distribution of frequencieslcases in
terms of row total, column total and grand total. Any or all of these options can be
selected. Each of the options can be selected depending upon the objective of
analysis. The following table shows the distribution of students by their sex in a
simple study.
The simple output of the cross-tabulation procedure is shown below.
Cast * Sex Cross Tabulation
Count Sex
Male Female Total
Caste SCIST 204 322 528
OBC 86 136 222
General 1256 1274 2530
Total 1546 1732 3278

19.10.1 The Mean Procedure

i
The Mean procedure is very useful tool when the average value of a variable is to
be computed based on sub-division of the data into groups based on the value of
some other variable. For example, you may be required to compute average
achievement score of children based on their age. Or you may be required to
compute average monthly income of the respondents by their occupations and
experience. While the mean procedure has immense use in understanding the sub-
4
group behaviour, it also suffers from certain limitations. It cannot be used in the
case of categorical variables. Moreover, the sub-groups should have a reasonably
;
4
large number of value for the mean value to be representative. The specifications
for a subgroup average are: I

Place the continuous variables in the 'Dependent list'

Place the categorical variables in the 'Independent list'. i

The mean scores in Mathematics by caste groups as obtained using the Mean
procedure are given below:
Report
Score Math
Mean SCIST 17.76
OBC 17.51
General 20.09
Total 19.54
N SCIST 526
OBC 222
General 2530
Total 3278
Std. Deviation SCIST 6.40
OBC 6.20
General 5.11
128 Total 5.50
 19.10.2 Linear Regression Computer Data Analysis

How do you predict the sales of ice cream in the coming summer season? What
are the important determinants of achievement in government schools? Is there
any relationship between educational attainment and per capita income of a
household? These are the types of question which are often asked by development
planners and policy analysts. Regression analysis is a technique to address some of
these questions.
Linear regression is the most commonly used procedure for the analysis of a cause
and effect relationship between one dependent variable and a number of independent
variables. The dependent and independent variables should be quantitative. Categorial
variables like sex and religion should be recorded to dummy (binary) variables and
other types of contrast variables. An important assumption of the regression analysis
is that the distribution of the dependent variable is normal. Moreover, the relationship
between the dependent and all the independent variables should be linear and all
observations should be independent of each other.
SPSS provides extensive scope for regression analysis using various types of selection
processes.
The method of selecting of independent variables for linear regression analysis is
an important choice which the researcher should consider before running the analysis.
You can construct a variety of regression models from the same set of variables by
using different methods.

You can enter all the variables in a single step or enter the independent variables
selectively.

r Variable selection method:

It allows you to specify how independent variable; are entered into tt .egression
analysis. The foMowing options are available:
I

Enter: To enter all the variables in a single step, select Enter option.

,a Remove: To remove the variables in a block in a single step.

Forward: It enters one variable at a time based on the selected criterion.
129
Data Analysis and Backward: All variables are entered in the first instance and then one variable
Interpretation is removed at a time on the selected criterion.
Stepwise: Stepwise variable entry and removal examines the variables in the
block at each step for entry and removal. This is a forward step procedure.
All the variables must pass the tolerance criterion to be entered in the equation,
regardless of the entry method specified. The default tolerance limit is 0.0001. A
new variable will not be entered if it is causes the tolerance of another variable
already entered to be dropped below the tolerance limit.
Li~iearRegression Statistics
The following statistics are available on linear regression models. Estimates and
Model Fit are the G o options which are selected by default.

Regression coefficient: The Estimates option displays regression coefficient, B,

standard error, standard coefficient beta, t-value, and two tailed significance level
of t. Covariance matrix displays a variance-covariance matrix of regression
coefficients with covariance off the diagonal and variance off the diagonal. A
correlation matrix will also be displayed.
Model fit: The variables entered and removed from the model are displayed.
Goodness of fit statistics, R-square, multiple R, and adjusted R square, standard
error of the estimate and an analysis of variance table is displayed.
If other options are ticked, the statistics corresponding to each of the options are
also displayed in the output Navigator.
If the data does not show linear relationship and the transformation procedure does
not help, try using Curve Estimation procedure
19.10.3 Curve Estimation
There are many situations when the researcher is not sure about the nature of the
curve that fits in a given data set. In such cases, Curve Estimation command is
used to fit various types of curve on a given data. After examining the results can
decide on the best fit equation. The SPSS includes I lcurve estimation regression
models. A separate &ode1 is produced for each dependent variable. It is
recommended that before running the curve estimation procedure, you should
examine the graphical output to ascertain how the independent and dependent
variables appear to be related to each other. The linear relationship assumes that
130 the dependent variable will be normally distributed.
 Computer Data Analysis

A scatter plot of learning achievement may reveal that the relationship between the
mean score and the time spent on a task is linearly related. You might like to fit a
linear model to the data and check the validity of the assumption of the model. It is
quite possible that a non-linear model may give the best fit.

19.11 NON-PAIRAMETERIC TESTS

The non-parametric test procedure provides several tests that do not require
assumptions about the shape of the underlying distribution. These include the
following most commonly used test:

8 Chi-square test
I
8 Binomial test

8 Run test

8 One sample kolmogorov Seminov test

8 Two independent Sample tests

8 Tests for several independent samples

8 Two related sample tests

8 Tests for several related samples.

Here, we shall discuss the procedure for Chi-square test only. You are advised to
consult the SPSS users' manual and other statistical books for detailed discussion
on the other tests.

Chi-Square
Chi-square test is the most commonly used test in educational research. This test
compares the observed and the expected frequencies in each cell/category to test
either that all categories contain the same proportion of values or that each category
contains a user specified proportion of values.
Data Analysis and
Interpretation

Consider that a bag contains red, white and yellow balls. You want to test the
hypothesis that the bag contains all types of balls in equal proportion. To obtain Chi-
square test, choose Chi-square from Non-parametric tests in the Statistics command.
Select one or more variables. Each variable produces a separate output.
By default, all categories have equal expected values as shown in the above figure.
Categories can have user specified proportion also. In order to provide user specific
expected values, select the values option and add the user expected values. The
sequence in which the values are entered is very important in this case. It corresponds
to the ascending order of the category values of the test variable.

19.12 SPSS PRODUCTION FACILITY

The SPSS Production facility provides the ability to run SPSS in an automated
mode. SPSS runs unattended and uninterrupted and terminates after executing the
last command. Production mode is useful if you run the same set of time-consuming
analysis periodically.
The SPSS Production facility uses command syntax file to tell SPSS about the
comnlands to be executed. We have already discussed the important features of
the command syntax. The command syntax file can be edited in a standard text
editor.
To run the SPSS Production facility, quit the SPSS if it is already running. SPSS
Production facility cannot be run when SPSS is running. Start SPSS Production
program from the start window of window 2000lXP. SpecifL the syntax file that
you want to use in the production job. Click Browse to select the Syntax File. Save
the production file job. Run the production file job at any time.

19.13 STATISTICALANALYSIS SYSTEM (SASI

Like the SPSS, the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) package calculate descriptive
statistic of your choice e.g., Mean, Standard Deviation etc. SAS is available for
both mainframe and personal computers. It is strong in its treatment of data, in
clarity of its graphics and in certain business applications. The various statistical
procedures carried out by SAS are always preceded by the word PROC which
stand for procedure. The most commonly used SAS statistical procedures are as Computer Data Analysis
follows: (Sprinthall et.al, 1991).
PROC MEANS: Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, maximum
and minimum values and so on).
PROC CORR: Pearson correlation between two or more variables.
PROC t-TEST: t-test for significant difference between the means of two
PUPS.
PROC ANOVA: Analysis of variance for all types of designs (one way, two-
way and other).
PROC FREQ: Frequency distribution for one or more variables.
As pointed out by Klieger (1984) SAS package is comparatively more difficult to
use due to its procedural complexities. For greater details on SAS package you are
advised to consult the books by Klieger and Sprinthall.

19.14 NUDIST
Computer programs help in the analysis of qualitative data, especially in understanding
a large (say 500 or more pages) text database, Studies using large databases such
as ethnographies with extensive interviews, computer programs provide an invaluable
aid in research.
NUDIST won-numerical unstructured data indexing, searching and theorizing)
program was developed in Australia in1 991. This package is used for qualitative
analysis of data. Here we present briefly the main features of this package. This
software requires, 4 megabytes of RAM and atleast 2 megabytes space for data
files in your'PC or MAC. In your PC it operates under windows (Creswell 1998).
As a researcher this software will help you to provide the following.
1. Storing and organizing files: First establish document files and store information
with the NUDIST programme. Document files consist of transcript from an
interview, notes of observation or any article scanned from a newspaper.
Searching for themes: Tag segments of text from all the documents that relate
to a single idea or theme. For example, distance learners, in a study on
effectiveness of distance education talk about the role of academic counsellors.
The researcher can create a node in NUDIST as 'Role of Academic
Counsellors'. Researcher will select text in the transcript where learners have
talked about this role and merge it into role of Academic Counsellors.
Information can be retained in this node and researcher can take print in different
ways in which learners talk about the role of Academic Counsellors.
3. Crossing themes: Taking the same example of roll of counsellors, the researcher
can relate this node to other nodes. Suppose the other node is qualifications of
counsellor. There are two categories like Graduate and Post Graduate. The
researcher will ask NUDIST to cross the two categories, role of counsellors
and qualification of counsellors to see for example whether there is any relation
between graduate counsellor and their roll than the post graduate counsellor
and their roll. NUDIST software generates information for a matrix with
information in the cells reflecting different perspectives.
4. Diagramming: In this package, once the information is categorized, categories
are identified. These categories are developed into nine visual picture of the 133
Data Analysis and categories that display their inter connectedness. This is called a tree diagram
Interpretation in NUDIST software. Tree diagram is a hierarchical tree of categories where
root node is the top and parents and siblings in the tree. This tree diagram is a
useful device for discussing the data analysis of quantitative research in
conference.
5. Creating a template: In a qualitative research, at the beginning of data analysis,
the researcher will create a template which is apriori code book for organizing
information.
For further details on NUDIST software you may like to consult the following.
Kelle, E.(ed.), Computer-aided Qualitative Data Analysis, Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage, 1995.
Tesch, R., Qualitative Research: Analysis Types and Sofmare Tools, Bristol,
PA: Falmer, 1990.

Check Your Progress

Notes :a) Space is given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
5. Name the six characteristics of data sheet.

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
6. What is NUDIST?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

19.15 LETUSSUMUP
The foregoing details examined the various types of statistical application of the
SPSS in data management, presentation and analysis. The discussion was based on
the assumption that you have a basic understanding of the statistical methods. It
was highlighted that the researchers must try to explore the data using various
simple but powerful statistical techniques. It this connection, six characteristics of
the data were examined for exploring it filly. The procedures involved in the use of
various statistics were also discussed in detail. Procedures for running regression
analysis to understand the relationship between variables were also discussed. Those
of you who are comfortable with the basic statistical procedures in SPSS can explore
the advanced features, including those aimed at automating the statistical analysis
using the SPSS Production facility and also the use of scripting in data analyzing.
134
 Computer Data Analysis
19.16 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES
1. Obtain quantitative data for any kinds of research work with the help of research
tools and analyse the data using SPSS package.
2. Analyse the data collected for your disseration work using SPSS package.

19.17 SUGGESTED READINGS

SPSS Base 7.5 for Windows, User's Guide, SPSS Inc.
SPSS Base 7.5 Application Guide, SPSS Inc.
SPSS Advanced Statistics 7.5, SPSS Inc.
A number of white papers dealing with various applications are available on the
SPSS website: www.spss.com. This site is updated regularly with new materials.
Advanced user may like to obtain/download the relevant materials for their use.
Creswell, John, W. (1998): Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing
Among Five Traditions. Sage Publications, Inc., International Educational and
Professional Publisher, USA.
Klieger, D.M .(I 984): Computer Usagefor Social Scientists. Newton, Mass: Allyn
and Bacon.
Sprinthall, Richard C., (et.al.) (1991): Understanding Educational Research. New
Jersey: Prentice Hal I.

19.18 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. a) SPSS table creates a high quality presentation in tabular form.
b) SPSS Trends performs comprehensive forecasting and time series analysis.
c) SPSS categories performs conjoint analysis and optional scaling p d u r e s .
2. There are seven types of windows in SPSS. These are data editor, output
navigator, pivot tables, graphics, text editor, syntax editor and script editor.
3. i) Bring your data into SPSS
i Select a procedure from Menu
iiii Select the variables
. iv) Run the procedure and examine the output
4. Split file is meant for comparing a summary and other statistics based on certain
group behaviour.
5. i) shape, ii) Location, iii) Spread, iv) Outliers, v) Clustering vi) Association
and relationship.
6. NUDIST (Non-numerical Unstructured Data Indexing, Searching and
Theorizing) is a s o h a r e package for qualitative data analysis.
 APPENDIX
Table A : Fractional parts of the total area (taken as 10,000) under the normal
probability curve, corresponding to distances on the base line between the mean and
successive points laid off from the mean in units of standard deviation.
'hble B : Ordinates of the normal probability curve expressed as
fractional pads of the mean ordinate, Y.
 Degrees of Freedom Level of Signrficance

0.10 0.05 0.02 0.0 1

1 634 12.71 31.82 63.66
2 2.92 430 6 .% 9.62
3 235 3.18 4.54 5.84
4 2.13 2.78 3.75 4.60
5 2.02 257 336 4.03
6 1.94 2.45 3.14 3.71
7 1.90 236 3.00 3.50
8 1.86 23 1 2.90 336
9 1.83 226 2.82 325
10 1.81 223 2.76 3.17
I1 1.80 220 2.n 3.11
12 1.78 2.18 2.68 3.06
13 1.77 2.16 2.65 3.01
14 1.76 2.14 2.62 2.98
15 1.75 2.1 3 2.60 2.95
16 1.75 2.12 258 2.92
17 1.74 2.1 1 257 2.90
18 1.73 2.10 255 2.88
19 1.73 2.09 2.54 2.86
20 I .?2 2.09 2.53 2.84
21 1.72 2.08 2.52 2.83
22 I .n 2.07 2.5I 2.82
23 1.71 2.07 250 2.8 1
24 1.71 2.06 2.49 2.80
25 1.71 2.06 2.48 2.79
26 1.71 2.06 2.48 2.78
n 1.70 2.05 2.47 2.77
28 1.70 2.05 2.47 2.76
29 1.70 2.04 2.46 2.76
30 1.70 2.04 2.46 2.75
35 1.69 2.03 2.44 2.72
40 1.68 2.02 2.42 2.7 1
45 1.68 2.02 2.4 1 2.69
50 1.68 2.01 2.40 2.68
60 1.67 2.00 239 2.66
70 1.67 2.00 238 2.65
80 1.66 1.99 238 2.64
90 1.66 1.99 237 2.63
100 1.66 1.98 236 2.63
125 1.66 1.98 236 2.62
150 1.66 1.98 235 2.61
2m 1.65 1.97 235 2.60
300 1.65 1.97 234 2.59
400 1.65 1.97 234 259
500 1.65 1.% 233 259
loo0 1.65 1.% 233 258
1.65 1.% 233 258
138
-R

80 3.96 3.1 1 2.72 2.49 2.33 2.2 1 2.06 1.88 1.65 1.3 1
6.96 4.88 4.04 3.56 3.26 3.04 2.74 2.42 2.03 1.47
90 3.95 3.10 2.71 2.47 2.32 2.20 2.04 1.86 1.64 1.28
6.92 4.85 4.01 3.53 3.23 3.01 2.72 2.39 2.00 1.43
100 3.94 3.09 2.70 2.46 2.30 2.19 2.03 1.85 1.63 1.26
6.90 4.82 3.98 3.51 3.2 1 2.99 2.69 2.37 1.98 1.39
125 3.92 3.07 2.68 2.44 2.29 2.17 2.01 1.83 1.60 1.21
6.84 4.78 3.94 3.47 3.17 2.95 2.66 2.33' 1.94 1.32
150 3.90 3.06 2.66 2.43 2.27 2.16 2.00 1.82 1.59 1.18
6.81 4.75 3.91 3.45 3.14 2.92 2.63 2.31 1.92 1.27
200 3.89 3.04 2.65 2.42 2.26 2.14 1.98 1.80 1.57 1.14
6.76 4.71 3.88 3.41 3.11 2.89 2.60 2.28 1.88 1.21
300 3.87 3.03 2.64 2.4 1 2.25 2.13 1.97 1.79 1.55 1.10
6.72 4.68 3.85 3.38 3.08 2.86 2.57 2.24 1.85 1.14
400 3.86 3.02 2.63 2.40 2.24 2.12 1.96 1.78 1.54 1.07
6.70 4.66 3.83 3.37 3.06 2.85 2.56 2.23 1.84 1.11
500 3.86 3.01 2.62 2.39 2.23 2.11 1.96 1.77 1.54 1.06
. 6.69 4.65 3.82 3.36 3.05 2.84 2.55 2.22 1.83 1.08
1000 3.85 3.00 2.6 1 2.38 2.22 2.10 1.95 2.76 1.53 1.03
6.66 4.63 3.80 3.34 3.04 2.82 2.53 2.20 1.81 1.04
3.84 2.99 2.60 2.37 2.2 1 2.09 1.94 1.75 1.52
6.64 4.60 3.78 3.32 3.02 2.80 2.51 2.18 1.79

Degree of freedom for smaller mean square

Table E: X2Table. P gives the probability of exceeding the tabulated value of x2 for the specified number of degrees of freedom (df). The values of
x2 are printed in the body of the table.

df. 0.95 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.50 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.02 0.01
1 0.00393 0.0 158 0.0642 0.148 0.455 1.074 1.642 2.706 3.841 5.412 6.635
2 0.103 0.21 1 0.446 0.713 1.386 2.408 3.219 4.605 5.991 7.824 9.2 10
3 0.352 0.584 1.005 1.424 2.3 66 3.665 4.642 6.25 1 7.815 9.837 11.345
4 0.71 1 1.064 1.649 2.195 3.357 4.878 5.989 7.779 9.488 11.668 13.277
5 1.145 1.610 2.343 3.OOO 4.3 51 0.064 7.289 9.236 11.070 13.388 15.086
6 1.635 2.204 3.070 3.828 5.348 7.23 1 8.558 10.645 12.592 15.083 16.812
7 2.167 2.833 3.822 4.671 6.346 8.383 9.803 12.017 14.067 16.622 18.475
8 2.733 3.490 4.594 5.527 7.344 9.524 11.030 13.362 15.507 18.168 20.090
9 3.325 4.168 5.380 6.393 8.343 10.656 12.242 14.684 16.919 19.679 2 1.666
10 3.940 4.865 6.179 7.267 9.342 11.781 13.442 15.987 18.307 21.161 23 .209
11 4.575 5.578 6.989 8.148 10.341 12.899 14.631 17.275 19.675 22.618 24.725
12 5.226 6.304 7.807 9.034 11.340 14.011 15.812 18.549 2 1.026 24.054 26.2 17
13 5.892 7.042 8.634 9.926 12.340 15.119 16.985 19.812 22.362 25.472 27.688
14 6.571 7.790 9.467 10.821 13.339 16.222 18.151 2 1.064 23.685 26.873 29.141
15 7.261 8.547 10.307 11.721 14.339 17.322 19.311 22.307 24.996 28.259 30.578

-
P
W
 Table F: Conversion of a Pearson r into a corresponding
Fisher's z coefficient*

*rYsunder 25 may be taken as equivalent to z' s.

Table G: Table of Critical Values of K,in the Kolmogorov-Smirnov

-0-Sample Test.
(Small Samples)
One-tailed test Two-tailed test

N a = .05 a = .01 a = .05 a = -01

3 3 - - -
4 4 - 4 -
5 4 5 5 5
6 5 6 5 6
7 5 6 6 6
8 5 6 6 7
9 6 7 6 7
10 6 7 7. 8
11 6 8 7 8
12 6 8 7 8
13 7 8 7 9
14 7 8 8 9
15 7 9 8 9
16 7 9 8 10
17 8 9 8 10
18 8 I0 9 10
Data Analysis rod One- tailed test Two-tailed test
Interpretation
N a = .05 a = .O1 a = .05 a = .01
19 8 10 9 10
20 8 10 9 11
21 8 10 9 11
22 9 11 9 11
23 9 11 10 11
24 9 11 10 12
25 9 11 10 12
26 9 11 10 12
27 9 12 10 12
28 10 12 11 13
29 10 12 11 13
30 10 12 11 13
35 10 12 11 13
40 11 14 13

Table H: Table of Critical Values of D in the Kolmogorov-Smirn'ov

Two-Sample Test.
Large samples: two-tailed test
Level of signzjicance Value of D so large as to call for reflection of null
hypothesis at the indicated level of signijicance
where D - maximum S,, (X) - S,,
I 2
(a
10

.05

.025

.o1

.005

.oo1
 Table I : Table of Probabilities Associated witb Values as Small as
Observed Values of x in tbe Binomial Test.
Given in tbe body of tbis table are one-tailed probabilities under null
bypotbesis for tbe binomial test when P = Q = 11%.

1.0 or approximately 1.O.

 of Critical Values of'Tinthe Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks Test

N Level of Signzj?cance for one-tailed test

.025 I .01 .005
Level of Si.gn@cmce for two-tailed test
.05 .02 .O1
6 0 - -
7 2 0 -
8 4 2 0
9 6 3 2
10 8 5 3
11 11 7 5
12 14 10 7
13 17 13 10
14 21 16 13
15 25 20 16
16 30 24 20
17 35 28 23
18 40 33 28
19 46 38 32
20 52 43 38
21 59 49 43
22 66 56 49
23 73 62 55
24 81 69 61
25 89 77 68

'hble K: 'hble of Critiil Values of Pearson Product Correlation at tbe

.05 and .O1 Levels of Significance

Degrees of .05 .01 Degrees of .05 .01

fiedom (N-2) Fmedom (N-2)
1 .997 1.000 24 .388 .496
2 .950 -990 25 -381 .487
3 .878 -959 26 -374 .478
4 .811 -917 27 -367 .470
5 .754 .874 28 .361 .463
6 .707 -834 29 -355 .456
7 .666 .798 30 .349 .449
8 .632 .765 35 .325 ,418
9 ,602 .735 40 .304 .393
10 .576 .708 45 .288 .372
11 .553 .684 50 .273 .354
12 .532 .661 60 .250 .325
13 .514 -64I 70 .233 .302
14 .497 .623 80 .217 .283
15 .482 .606 90 .205 .267
16 .468 .590 100 .195 .254
17 .456 .575 125 .I74 .228
18 .444 .561 150 ,159 .208
19 .433 .549 200 ,138 .I81
20 .423 .537 300 .I13 .I48
21 -413 -526 400 .098 .I28
22 .404 .515 500 ,088 .I15
148 23 -3% .SO5 lo00 .062 .081
Table L: 'Igble of Critical Values of Spearman Rank Order Correlation at
.05 and .O1 Levels of Significance (One-tailed test).

Table M: Values of r, taken as the Cosine of an Angle.

 Table N: A few .05 Level of Significance Values from the
F,,, Distribution Table

2 3 4

9 4.03 5.34 6.3 1

Degrees of Freedom
10 3.72 4.85 5.67
for Largest Group
O‘J-1) 12 3.28 4.16 4.79

15 2.86 3.54 4.0 1