Faculty of Engineering, UNAM Department of Energy Systems

PROPEDEUTICAL OF THERMODYNAMICS
Program

1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND ZERO LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1.1. Systems of units and dimensional analysis
1.2. Thermodynamic systems
1.3. Microscopic and macroscopic properties of the substance
1.4. The zero law
1.5. thermodynamic equilibrium
1.6. State Postulate
1.7. Heat concept
1.8. Sign convention
1.9. Work concept
1.10. Mechanical equivalent of heat

2. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

2.1. The enthalpy
2.2. The first law in cycles, thermal efficiency
2.3. The energy equation

3. PROPIETIES OF THE PURE SUBSTANCES

3.1. The heating curve
3.2. Mollier diagram
3.3. The equation of state
3.4. The perfect gas
3.5. Partial pressures and volumes
3.6. real gases
3.7. Corresponding states

4. MASS AND ENERGY BALANCES

4.1. Problem solving methodology
4.2. Quasi-static processes
4.3. Application in open systems

5. SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

5.1. The Clausius postulate (refrigerators) and Kelvin and Planck (thermal engines)
5.2. The reversible process: causes of irreversibility
5.3. Carnot's theorem: the thermodynamic scale of absolute temperature
5.4. Entropy generation

EXERCISES YES
ISSUES

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Thermodynamics; Kenneth Worll; McGraw Hill, (2003)

2. Thermodynamics, Cengel, Mc Graw Hill, (2004)
3. Thermodynamics; K.C. Rolle; Ibero-American
4. Eng. thermodynamics; Francis F. Huang
5. Thermodynamics; Faires; Uteha
6. Energy through steam, air and gas; Severds; Reverse
7. Heat and thermodynamics; Mark W. Zemansky; McGraw Hill
8. Basic principles of chemical processes; Richard M. Felder, Ronald W. Rousseau; The modern manual
 Thermodynamics Notes

AIM:

Analyze the fundamental concepts and principles of classical thermodynamics. Train the student in solving
physical problems, through observation, modeling and handling of instruments and experimental equipment.

DEFINITION:

Thermodynamics is the branch of physical sciences that studies the various phenomena of energy and
properties related to matter. Especially those related to the laws of transformation of heat into other forms of
energy and vice versa.

1 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND ZERO LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1.1 SYSTEMS OF UNITS AND DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

A dimension is the name given to any magnitude that can be measured. For example, the space occupied by
an object is qualified by the dimension called volume. The distance between two points is qualified by the
dimension called length. Common dimensions used in a heat transfer course are length, time, mass, heat, and
temperature.

In order to perform numerical calculations, each dimension must be quantified using a defined and
reproducible unit . The units are the arbitrary names that specify the magnitude of each dimension. For
example, the meter is a unit for the dimension of length. Other units of length used to quantify this dimension
are the foot, the yard, the mile, the millimeter, the centimeter, and the kilometer.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

Currently there are several different unit systems around the world. In industry, research and development, the
SI system (International System) is rapidly gaining ground over other unit systems.

The SI system has been adopted by the International Organization for Standardization and recommended by
a large number of national metrology organizations. For these reasons we will use SI units throughout this
study. The units used in the SI system are described in Appendix F, along with a list of conversion factors
between the SI system and the British system still frequently used in the United States. The units assigned to
the SI system and other commonly used systems are summarized in the following table:

Table 1.1 Basic and derived units in various systems

Dimension YEAH MKS CGS SPF
Length m m cm foot
Time yes yes yes yes
Mass kg Kgm g lbm
Temperature ºK ºC ºC ºF
Heat Joule kcal lime Btu

In the formulation of equations, physical magnitudes that are derived from the primary dimensions are usually
involved, so that the arithmetic operations of the physical magnitudes of the elements must be compatible with
the physical magnitude of the result. To avoid errors, it must be verified that the mathematical operations of its
magnitudes, expressed in the primary dimensions, are coherent. Below is a table of some physical quantities
used with their associated symbols and dimensions.

Table 1.2 Some physical quantities with their associated symbols and dimensions
Magnitude Symbol Prim dimension Dimension Unit
Length L,x l YES
m meter
Time t t yes second
Mass M M kg kilogram
Temperature T T ºK º Kelvin
Speed v L/t m/s m/s
Acceleration to L/t 2 m/s 2 m/s 2
Force F ML/t 2 Kg m/s 2 Newton
2 2
Work, energy, Heat E,q ML /t Kg m 2 /s 2 July

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 Thermodynamics Notes

Power W ML 2 /t 3 Kg m 2 /s 3 Watt
Heat flux Q M/t 3 Kg/s 3 Watt/m 2
Pressure Q M/t 2L Kg/s 2 m N/m 2
Density d M/L 3 kg/m 3 kg/m 3
Specific heat EC L 2 /t 2 T m 2 /s 2 · ºK J/Kg ºK
Thermal conductivity c ML/t 3 T Kg· m/s 3· ºK W/m ºK
Thermal Conductance k M/t 3T kg/s 3· ºK W/m 2 ºK
Thermal resistance R Tt 3 /ML s 3· ºK/kg m 2 ºK/W

Table 1.3 Prefixes

Peta 1015 Centi 10-2
Tera 1012 Milli 10-3
Jig 109 Micro 10-6
Mega 106 Elder brother 10-9
Kilo 103 beak 10-12

Table 1.4 Energy - heat - work either

AND Joule kgf m lbf ft kw h liter atm kcal BTU
Joule 1 0.102 0.738 2.78 E-7 0.00987 0.000239 0.000948
kgf m 9.8 1 7.23 2.74 E-6 0.0968 0.00234 0.00930
lbf ft 1.36 0.138 1 3.77 E-7 0.0134 0.000324 0.00129
kw h 3.6 E6 3.67 E5 2.66 E4 1 35.5 E3 860 3420
liter atm 101 10.3 74.7 2.82 E-5 1 0.0242 0.0961
kcal 4180 427 3090 0.00116 41.3 1 3.97
BTU 1050 108 778 0.000293 10.4 0.252 1

Table 1.5 Power

Q wats kgf m/s CV H.P. lbf ft/s
wats 1 0.102 0.00136 0.00134 0.738
kgf m/s 9.8 1 0.00133 0.0131 7.23
CV 735 75 1 0.985 543
H.P. 745 76 1.01 1 550
lbf ft/s 1.355 0.138 0.00184 0.00182 1

Table 1.6 Specific heat

c cal / g ºC kcal / kg ºC BTU / lb ºF
cal / g ºC 1 1 1
kcal / kg ºC 1 1 1
BTU / lb ºF 1 1 1

Table 1.7 Convection coefficients

h cal / s cm 2 ºC kcal / hm 2 ºC BTU / h ft 2 ºF
cal / s cm 2 ºC 1 36000 7380
kcal / hm 2 ºC 0.0000278 1 0.205
BTU / h ft 2 ºF 0.000136 4.88 1
Table 1.8 Conductivity coefficients
k cal / s cm 2 (ºC/cm) kcal / hm 2 (ºC/m) BTU / h ft 2 (ºF/ft)
cal / s cm 2 (ºC/cm) 1 360 242

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 Thermodynamics Notes
2
kcal / hm (ºC/m) 0.00278 1 0.672
BTU / h ft 2 (ºF/ft) 0.00413 1.49 1

Table 1.9 Viscosity

ν
g/cm s kg/mh kg/ms lb/ft h lb/ft s kgf s /m 2 lbf s / ft 2
g/cm s 1 360 0.100 241.9 0.0672 0.0102 0.00209
kg/mh 0.00277 1 0.00027 0.672 0.00018 0.000028 0.000006
kg/ms 10 3600 1 2420 0.672 0.102 0.0208
lb/ft h 0.00413 1.488 0.000412 1 0.000277 0.000042 0.0000086
lb/ft s 14.9 5363.9 1.488 3619 1 0.152 0.0311
kgf s /m 2 98 35316.7 9.8 2385 6.59 1 0.205
lbf s / ft 2 478 172257.6 47.91 116324 32.2 4.88 1

abla 1.10 Latent heat

cal/g kcal/kg BTU/lb
cal/g 1 1 1.80
kcal/kg 1 1 1.80
BTU/lb 0.555 0.555 1

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

For example, F α ⇒ ma F = kmg; k= g c -1 ;

gc = acceleration of gravity at sea level, so F must have units of force.

gc (only used in technical systems (MKS, CGS and FPS))

N = kg m/s 2

Joule = N m

W = Joule/s

Btu = 778 lbf ft

Hp = 2545 BTU/h

Hp = 746W

UNIT CONVERSION FACTORS

If a=b ⇒ a/b = 1;
b/a = 1;

if Hp = 746 W ⇒ 746 W(a/b) = 746 W(b/a)

The conversion factors can be those that best suit and give greater simplicity to the conversion and uniformity
in the units to be used.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

1. Example.- calculate the weight of a body of 7 Ibm in a place on Earth where the acceleration is 35.4ft/s2

61 F=W
= F = m-9 _ (7 MLw N (35.f± N [u-* 1

9 IUw_f4 _q, kgm-m - q806-em

iif-s* " ™
kj-rs 1 ' 94-5

9, = 4.45w

2. Example if the value of gravity on the moon is 1/3 of the value of gravity on the earth , what is the weight of
a man on the moon whose mass on earth is 185 Ibm.

F = wg - (1951m(£33) - l 185 -fe- • IW • g

%c 32 Ibm - 4 32 ibmfe s*
(bf-s

_ (185) (32) _ 18s

~ (3) (32) ” 3

F —(t.gg IL
1.2 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

A system is that portion of the universe, an atom, a galaxy, a container, a quantity, a matter or a volume in
space, which you wish to study.

A system is a region enclosed or delimited by a specific boundary, it can be imaginary fixed or mobile. The
region that completely surrounds a system is called its surroundings or surrounding medium.

A closed system is one where there is no exchange of matter with its surroundings. Mass does not cross the
boundary, but there can be a flow of energy.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

An open system is one in which there is flow of mass and energy across its boundary. A totally isolated
system is one that is completely impenetrable, neither mass nor energy cross its borders.

In the case of open systems, the control surface is called the boundary, and the space enclosed by the control
surface is called the control volume.

The mass of a body is the absolute amount of matter in it. Extensive properties do not depend on the mass of
the system and are total values. Intensive or specific properties are generally referred to the unit of mass.

From the physical point of view, mass is the amount of matter contained in a body, or the measure of its inertia
or as the force per unit of acceleration. However, in thermodynamics it is better to see mass as the amount of
matter.

This concept is justified from the point of view of classical mechanics, which considers that the mass of
particles does not vary with speed, and that the total mass of a system is made up of particles, and is equal to
the sum of the mass of each particle. The smallest matter being made up of atoms, protons and neutrons, etc.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

The basic unit of measurement for mass is the kilogram mass, and the accepted standard is kept in the office
of measurements, in France.

A pure substance is one that is homogeneous in its composition, and homogeneous and invariable in
chemical aggregation. A simple substance is one whose state is defined by two intensive, independently
varying thermodynamic properties.

The state of a pure substance or system refers to its condition identified by the properties of the substance
and is generally defined by particular values of two independent properties.

A fluid is a substance that exists or is considered to exist as a continuous medium. Characterized by a low
resistance to flow and the tendency to assume the shape of its containing container.

Energy is the ability of a substance to do work or generate heat. Energy is a scalar quantity and only has
magnitude. It is measured in Cal, BTU, Joule, Kwh, Horse-h.

The energy of a system of bodies is simply the sum of the energies of the bodies contained in the system. The
energy of the bodies of a system is the sum of the magnitudes of the various forms of energy, such as kinetic
energy, molecular energy, potential energy, that the system possesses.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

Potential energy Ep = mgh/gc

Kinetic energy Ec = mv 2 /2

m: mass
g: gravity
v: speed
h: height
gc: gravity value at sea level (constant)

DIAGRAM OF A FLOW SYSTEM

Internal energy (u)

The sum of the energies that appear in various complex forms in all the molecules of a system is called
internal energy.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

1.3 MICROSCOPIC PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES

Once a system is defined, the next step is to describe it using magnitudes related to the behavior of the
system or its interactions with the environment or both at the same time. In order to carry out this description,
two criteria can be adopted: A macroscopic and B microscopic.

Heat and work are equivalent ways of varying the energy of the thermodynamic system.

To carry out a microscopic description of the system, use is made of the properties of the system.

In general, microscopic coordinates have the following characteristics:

1. They do not imply special hypotheses concerning the structure of matter.

2. Their number is small
3. Our senses suggest them directly to us.
4. In general, they can be measured directly

In summary, the macroscopic description of a system involves the specification of some fundamental
measurable properties of it, examples: Volume, pressure, temperature, density.

A microscopic description of a system implies the following characteristics:

• Hypotheses are made about the structure of matter, for example the existence of

• of molecules

• Many quantities must be specified

• Our sense does not directly suggest the magnitudes to be specified

• Magnitudes cannot be measured

To calculate energy changes that have occurred in a system or operating substance, one must be able to
express the behavior of the system in terms of macroscopic properties. Like those already mentioned.
Macroscopic properties can be classified as intensive or extensive.

Intensive properties are independent of mass, such as temperature, pressure, and electrical potential.
Extensive properties depend on the mass of the system and are total values such as total volume and total
internal energy. Specific properties refer generally to the unit of mass and are intensive by definition like the
specific volume.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

When we talk about the state of a system we refer to its condition identified by the properties of the substance.
This state is generally defined by particular values of two independent properties. All other thermodynamic
properties of the substance have certain particular values, provided that a certain mass of substance is in this
state.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

particular macroscopic. Examples of thermodynamic properties in addition to P, V, T, are: internal energy,

enthalpy and entropy. It does not matter what happens to a particular quantity in the system, whether it heats
up, expands, cools, if they are brought back to their original values.

Volume, specific volume, density, relative density and specific weight

Volume (V): Region in space occupied by the system V=l3

Specific volume (v): It is the volume per unit of mass v = V/m

Density ( ρ ): is the mass of a substance per unit volume ρ = m/V

Density: is the reciprocal of the specific volume

Relative density ( δ ρδ
x): It is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water
= v -1
x= ρ ρx/
H2O

Specific weight (
3
δ e): The specific weight of a substance is the force of gravity weight per unit volume δ e
= F/l

Pressure
Pressure is defined as the magnitude of the normal force per unit area. Pressure is a scalar quantity.

Gauge pressure: It is the difference between real pressure and atmospheric pressure (Atm) and is what
pressure meters known as manometers measure. The manometric pressure is expressed by indicating
whether it is greater or less than the atmospheric pressure.

Absolute pressure: Atmospheric pressure + manometric pressure

(+/-)P

Atmospher
(-) Empty Absence e
of matter (atm)
P abs = atm + P

Hydrostatic pressure: Ph = atm + h ρ g/gc (technical systems)

g: is the local gravity gc: is the gravity at sea level

h: is the height of the column of the liquid
Atmospheric pressure (Atm): Weight of the air column above a point

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 Thermodynamics Notes

YEAH
1. Determine the mass of the valve of a pressure cooker to operate at 1,985 bar. The cross section of
the pot duct opening is 4 mm 2 . At what temperature will the water boil in the pot in a place where
the atmospheric pressure is 1.01325 bar? Draw the free body diagram of the valve.

Patw + P = 1.985+ Patm

P = 1.985 bay =>
MGPA =- g=Q.
°e
m = • A s U) (4mw*) (xenNlem'N [1033keP \
3 \ /L1omw-N\1.013z bar cw)

mt 0.0goq Fgm
—>
m = 86.9 qYm

Pcocntento - 1.985} V 1.0132 bey = 3.9182 shs.

“ t = \33.6°C +emgexcut e coCtwtewko

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 Thermodynamics Notes

1.4 ZERO LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two bodies, isolated from the surrounding medium, are in
thermal equilibrium with a third, they will be in thermal equilibrium with each other.

1.5 THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

The macroscopic quantities that are related to the internal state of a system are called thermodynamic
coordinates. Such thermodynamic coordinates are called a thermodynamic system. Example a gas, a vapor, a
mixture.

When referring to any unspecified system, the symbols (Y,X) can be used to designate a pair of independent
coordinates. The state of a system in which X and Y have defined values that remain constant, as long as
external conditions do not change, is said to be a state of equilibrium. The walls or boundaries of the system
can be adiabatic or diathermic. If a wall is adiabatic, a state (Y,X) of a system A can coexist in equilibrium with
a state (Y,X) of a system B, for any possible values of the four magnitudes.

System A System A
All values of (Y, X) Only certain values
are possible of
(Y,X)

System B System B only

They are all possible certain values of
The values of Y'X'
Y'X'
If the two systems are separated by a diathermic wall, the values of Y, Both systems are then said to be in
thermal equilibrium with each other. Thermal equilibrium is the system achieved by two or more systems
characterized by particular values of the coordinates of the systems after having been in communication with
each other, through a diathermic wall.

1.6 STATE POSTULATE

If one or more properties of a system vary, it is said to be undergoing a process, that is, it is undergoing a
change of state. If a change of state occurs during which the pressure does not vary, it is said to go through
an isobaric or constant pressure process. If the volume of a given mass does not change when a change of
state occurs, the process is called a process. isometric.

When a certain mass of fluid in a particular state goes through a series of processes and returns to its initial
state, a cycle is said to occur.

A system in thermodynamic equilibrium satisfies the following conditions:

1. Mechanical balance, there are no unbalanced forces acting on part of the system or on the system as
a whole
2. Thermal balance: there are no temperature differences between parts of the system or between the
system and its environment
3. Chemical equilibrium: there are no chemical reactions within the system, nor movement of chemical
components, from one part of the system to another.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

Once the thermodynamic equilibrium of the system is reached and its environment remains unchanged, no
movement will take place and no work will be done. If the unbalanced finite force system is modified by acting
on the system, the following situations may occur:

1. Unbalanced forces appear in the system, waves, turbulence, etc. may arise.
2. Due to the above, a non-uniform distribution of temperatures may arise, as well as a finite temperature
difference between the system and its surroundings.
3. The sudden change in forces and temperature can produce a chemical reaction or the movement of a
chemical component.

Therefore an unbalanced finite force can cause the system to go through states of disequilibrium.

Processes.- Let us remember that state is the condition of a system defined by two of its properties.

(P,V)

Change of state is the change in the condition of a system. Therefore, process is the continuous change of
state.

Trajectory is the path that the process follows.

Phase is the state or condition of intermolecular cohesion of the substance.

Every phase change implies a change of state.

State diagram

State diagrams are a graphical means of displaying a large number of thermodynamic data on a single sheet.
The advantage of a diagram compared to a table is that visual interpolation can be performed directly on the
diagram in the case of input properties with unusual value. While tables require straight-line type interpolation,
which is often very laborious and sometimes inaccurate.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

A transient process is defined as an unstable process that occurs when trying to reach a state of equilibrium or
a permanent or stable state.

Permanent regime is defined as the working condition once the design magnitudes have been reached, for a
system in continuous operation.

Stable state is defined as the value of the properties that the system adopts when reaching the permanent
regime.

RT Transitional regime RP Permanent regime

1.7 HEAT CONCEPT

Temperature concept

1. The temperature of a body is its thermal state considered as a reference to its ability to communicate heat
to other bodies.

2. The temperature of a system is a property that determines whether or not a system is in thermal
equilibrium with other systems.

Temperature is an intensive property that measures the intensity of the molecular energy stored in a system.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

Empirical temperature scales

To set an empirical temperature scale we select as a standard a certain system with coordinates (X, Y) which
is called a thermometer. A set of rules is adopted to assign a numerical value to the temperature associated
with each of its isotherms. We assign the same number to the temperature of any other system in thermal
equilibrium with the thermometer.

Fahrenh Celsius

The triple point temperature of water is the standard fixed point in thermometry. The absolute or
thermodynamic temperature is measured from absolute zero, which corresponds to –273.16 °K.

Sensible heat (QS): it is the heat necessary to saturate the phase of the substance, leading it to the beginning
of the next phase.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

Latent heat (QL): is the heat to convert one phase of one substance to another, the heat to convert a
saturated liquid into saturated vapor is called enthalpy of vaporization. In this process the temperature remains
constant and the volume increases.

Specific Heat (Ce): if a substance absorbs heat, a change in its temperature occurs. The speed between the
heat absorbed and the change in temperature is called heat capacity.

Ce = dq/dt

dq = Ce dt

1 Q 2 = m Ce ∆ t

1.8 CONVENTION OF SIGNS

Q (+) Q (-)

W (-) W (+)

Between two systems or substances, the heat that enters is positive, the heat that leaves is Negative.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

3. Example: You want to cool a piece of iron from 500°F to 100°F by immersing it in water that is initially
at 75°F assuming that all the heat from the iron passes into the water and there is no evaporation.
How many pounds of water are required? The specific heat of iron is 0.12 BTU/lbm°F and that of
water is 1 BTU/lbm°F.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

4. Example: - a piece of ice:) o initially at 22°F is immersed in an insulated container that has 40 Ibm
of water at 70°F if the temperature after reaching thermal equilibrium is 40°F How many Ibf did the
ice. Specific heat of ice is 0.501 BTU/lbm°F, specific heat of water is 1 BTU/lbm°F, latent heat of
fusion 143.3 BTU/lbm, melting point of ice is 32°F.

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 Thermodynamics Notes

Cowtwucciw

M,((o. $6z) (o) V 13.3 + ( 1(0) TV = Voo Gtv

JI b)

M, - _1206810. \om_ - 1200

(5.bl V 13. 3+0)BT 158 • 32

°, \w =-.58 Wom

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 Thermodynamics Notes

1.9 WORK CONCEPT

W = Fd = Pv mechanical and thermal work

1 W2= ∫ p dv It is defined as the area under the curve

The differences in point functions are exact and that is why it is correct to write them as final minus initial
state.

There are other magnitudes, which depend on the path and are called path functions.

Work (W) and heat (Q) constitute a realization, not a property, and are a function of the trajectory. Its
magnitude cannot be determined by a simple difference between the values of two states.

1 Q2= ∫ ∫ dQ = T ds is defined as the area under the curve

dS = dQ / dT

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0
 Thermodynamics Notes

Work and relationship with changes in potential and kinetic energy

The application of a force to a substance will produce an imbalance in the state of the substance, generating
an acceleration and modifying its state, increasing or decreasing its potential energy, depending on the
trajectory and direction of the application of the force and the combination of the force. force, it can be an
increase or decrease in the energy of the substance.

5. Example: a 70 HP machine lifts a 75,000 kg package to a height of 2000 ft. Calculate the work and
time used to perform this operation.

F. 10 We
kan = 15,000
h = 2000 44

we.a
P.w_F.¿“28,
tts + '
t _ vn-a _ .
Dn —?
HE

+ - (15000 kgw)"k\2000f\T#ent_ (iL 1 —3" li0Hl 33000 -+) 0.SFgf)

t - (15000 (x) w; w
(#0)(33x 13) (0.5)

t= MSI .018

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 Thermodynamics Notes

1.10 MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT - JOULE'S EXPERIMENTS -

The experiment consisted of correlating the effect that the work ratio would have on a substance and the
change that this substance would undergo in its heat or increase in temperature.

The result of this experiment is known as the mechanical equivalent of heat whose value is (J):

1 BTU = 778 lbf ft

1Kcal = 427 Kgf m
1Kcal = 4184.6 Joule

2. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

2.1 THE ENTHALPY

The constitution of energy is the first law. There are only three manifestations of energy considered in the first
law: heat, internal energy and work. The first law is nothing other than the principle of conservation of energy
applied to a system of many particles. Each state of the system corresponds to an internal energy U. When
the system goes from state A to state B, its internal energy changes by

∆ U=UB-UA

Suppose the system is in state A and does work W , expanding. This mechanical work gives rise to a change
(decrease) in the internal energy of the system.

∆U = -W

We can also change the state of the system by putting it in thermal contact with another system at a different
temperature. If an amount of heat Q flows from the second to the first, its internal energy of the latter

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 Thermodynamics Notes

increases by ∆ U=Q

Thermodynamic parameters

If the system undergoes a cyclic transformation, the change in internal energy is zero, since it starts from state

A and returns to the same state, ∆ U = 0. However, during the cycle the system has done work, which must
be provided by the surroundings in the form of heat transfer, to preserve the principle of conservation of
energy, W = Q.

If the transformation is not cyclic∆ U=0

If no mechanical work is done ∆ U=Q

If the system is thermally insulated∆ U = -W

If the system does work, U decreases

If work is done on the system, U increases

If the system absorbs heat when placed in thermal contact with a source at a higher temperature, U increases.

If the system gives off heat when placed in thermal contact with a source at a lower temperature, U
decreases.

We can summarize all these cases in a single equation that describes the conservation of the energy of the
system.

∆U =Q-W

If the initial and final state are very close to each other, the first principle is written

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 Thermodynamics Notes

dU = dQ - pdV

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 Thermodynamics Notes

Work of a cycle

1W COMPRESSION
2

2 W 3 HEATING
3 W 4 EXPANSION
4 W 1 COOLING

WT=1W2+2W3+3W4+4W1

WT=1W2+0+3W4+0

Heat absorbed by the system: Increase in its internal energy, plus the work done by the system.

Conservation of mass and energy: A concept related to the first law is that mass cannot be created or
destroyed, but only transformed from one form to another. Which constitutes the so-called Law of
conservation of mass and energy. According to relativity, mass and energy are convertible.

2.2 THE FIRST LAW IN CYCLES (THERMAL EFFICIENCY or THERMODYNAMICS)

We define the term efficiency as the measure of the ability to achieve something or make the best use of
something. According to the 1st law of thermodynamics, the heat absorbed by the system is equal to the work
done by the system, and vice versa. The work delivered to the system is equal to the heat generated by the
system. Considering the constant internal energy change.

∑ ∑ Wn = Qn

So we define thermal efficiency as the ratio of net work to net heat supplied.

for a machine

Wnet
ηt Qs

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 25

 Thermodynamics Notes

for a cycle

ηt

η
thermal efficiency
net work
t
Wn Qs heat supplied heat
Qs Qr rejected heat

Qs - Qr
Qs
Where:

When Q 5 is referred to a certain unit such as hp/h, hp/h, kw/h, it is called the specific consumption ratio with
which a machine or cycle develops a specific work or power.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 26

 Thermodynamics Notes

e = cte / specific heat consumption

Where:
Cte: 650 Kcal / hp/h
2544 BTU/hph
3.6x10 6 J/KW h

Specific heat consumption: Machine or cycle data

2.3 THE ENERGY EQUATION

Application in open systems of the 1st law

∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ω ∑ω
me = ms Ee = Es e= s

W: job

ω : mass flow ( ω = dm / dt)

A 1 , A 2 : cutting area of the section where the flow passes
P1 , P2 : absolute pressure
v 1 , v 2 : specific volume

ωω 1, 2: basic flow
U 1 , U 2 : internal energy
V1 , V2 : fluid velocity
Z 1 , Z 2 : elevation above the reference plane
dQ = Q: rate of net heat transfer through the control surface dt dWx = W: net rate of work on the axis passing
through the control surface dt

Consider the figure, in which the enclosed area represents the portion of fluid that passes through the area in
section A1, in the time interval dt. This flow has a volume equal to the product A 1 V 1 dt, the mass of the
volume is A 1 V 1 dt/v 1

V =dd/dt dm/dt = A 1 V 1 dt/v 1 dt = ω = A 1 V 1 /v 1 The continuity equation, based on the principle that in a
process mass does not accumulate and Mass that enters is the same that leaves.

ω ω 1= 2

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 27

 Thermodynamics Notes

v =1/ ρ :A1V1 ρ 1 =A2V2 ρ 2 EC. OF CONTINUITY

Relating these equations to the principle of conservation of mass and energy. We can express the relationship
between the masses and energies that enter and leave a system or machines in the following way

_ (185) (32) _ 18s....................................................................................................................5

F —(t.gg IL..............................................................................................................................5
°, \w =-.58 Wom......................................................................................................................19
we.a........................................................................................................................................21
t - (15000 (x) w; w.................................................................................................................21
ηt =........................................................................................................................................24
" W = Sp-v = (vv,) Ws"sW)......................................................................................................41
W - PN,3................................................................................................................................41
=)...........................................................................................................................................41
W ■ (1 Dw) (100 M \ .403 43 N "uuete)............................................................................................41
rj/ V/Lfe.....................................................................................................................................41
—18f.........................................................................................................................................41
\b \ es IV °°1bh ) 318 Ibf-)L4................................................................................................42
Pv...........................................................................................................................................44
=>............................................................................................................................................44
5
'to y-1..............................................................................................................................44
=>............................................................................................................................................44
pm=pa+pb+pc+ ∑ p i.............................................................................50
⎛ kgmol ⎞⎛ kg ⎞........................................................................................................................52
-..............................................................................................................................................53
1 - ⎟ = 1 + + v ⎠ v...................................................................................................................53
Tc =........................................................................................................................................55
⎞ ⎟ = Z......................................................................................................................................57
C1) wiu. ). u .003 s, co, w.........................................................................................................57
12.ous a1%.wo .003 (Co)..............................................................................................................57
- ($a)(2.8/2w3)KymalK..................................................................................................................58
R„- 22g)('2v.)+(0.s)(*448)* <•»> (85).............................................................................................59
Am 3 5).....................................................................................................................................59
Cowwwon..............................................................................................................................67
,0, 3 2.38 6axw3 1 3 {k\......................................................................................................67

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 28

 Thermodynamics Notes

Kew bvw3 j _Nm J 210*}}...................................................................................................67

N = -238 ^5............................................................................................................................67
k- 5»*&.....................................................................................................................................68
T,, (P,"=...................................................................................................................................................68
TPJ............................................................................................................................................68
-O.*t-'K (-1,141).......................................................................................................................68
h= *2213 -2.1.......................................................................................................................................68
M=v- ( M ' M _ N ( ' N...........................................................................................................68
ü ewRT AN(®M** )(8-6.3)8W5**..........................................................................................70
w=-33%,................................................................................................................................70
gyper.v(6,V4 vk ew qqoceso qbiabdkic....................................................................................70
8, W=-H*HHNR...................................................................................................................70
Pe = y [(h, -h.) v (hh ) • (hh))...........................................................................................................................80
WN T 4- T 1 ⎛ P 1⎞ K - 1......................................................................................................84
ηT == 1 - =1-⎜⎟.....................................................................................................................84
QS T 3- T 2 ⎝ P 2⎠...............................................................................................................84
r ==⎜ ⎟..................................................................................................................................85
1-...............................................................................................................................................85
η=...........................................................................................................................................95
=1-.........................................................................................................................................95
V 1 ⎠⎝ K ( r L − 1 ) ⎠.............................................................................................................95
Dry or superheated steam........................................................................................................103
UH box -- 1 NR , 6o”......................................................................................................112
1*82 xmioru WVf;\e-lz.ue*)..........................................................................................................115
=>............................................................................................................................................120
mUCR) = w,C, =>...............................................................................................................128
,M,=0.5m,............................................................................................................................128
luumuiü..............................................................................................................................................129

The work done by the fluid crossing area 1 exerts a normal pressure P 1 against area A 1 . Resulting in a total

force P1A1 at time dt in the direction of flow and traveling a distance ν 1 dt. Therefore;

W/dt = P 1 A 1 V 1 Work per unit time

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 29

 Thermodynamics Notes

Using the definition of ω W, W/dt equals

ω W = W/dt = P power

The work per unit of time is called power. Thus power is the speed to do work, or force times speed.

The energy equation or EC. bernoUlli

W = Pv ye; In (a)

ω 1 (V 2 /2gc + Zg/gc + u) 1 + ω 1 (Pv) 1 + dq 1 /dt = ω 2 (V 2 /2gc + Zg/gc + u) 2 + ω 2 (Pv) 2 + dw

x /dt

ω ω 1 = 2 = dm/dt : divided by ω
(V 2 /2gc + Zg/gc + u) 1 + (Pv)1 + dq 1 /dm = (V 2 /2gc + Zg/gc + u)2 + (Pv)2 + dw x /dm

When a substance crosses the determined limits, it is observed that the work flow (PV) and the internal
energy (u) always appear, it is convenient to change these two terms to facilitate the calculations. In short, the
following relationship is called enthalpy:

h = u + Pv/J J = The mechanical equivalent of heat

(V 2 /2gc + Zg/gc )1 + h1 + dq 1 /dm = (V 2 /2gc + Zg/gc)2 + h2 + dw x /dm

A transient process is defined as an unstable process that occurs when trying to reach a state of equilibrium
or a permanent or stable state.

Permanent regime is defined as the working condition once the design magnitudes have been reached for a
system in continuous operation.

Stable state is defined as the value of the properties that the system adopts upon reaching the permanent
regime.

Incompressible fluid is defined as a substance that does not experience volume variations in a liquid state.

Internal energy and heat at constant volume

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 30

 Thermodynamics Notes

Adding heat to a substance can produce effects other than an increase in temperature.

The diagram shows two isotherms at constant T and U. The way

1 Q 2 = dQ = mCvdt; Cv: specific heat at constant volume

And relating to the enthalpy

dQ = dU + Pv

But since the process is carried out at constant volume, the second term is zero.

dQ = dU = mCvdt: U 2 -U 1 = mCv(T 2 -T 1 )

This relationship is only valid to determine the ∆ U in a perfect gas, it does not apply to vapors.
The variation in heat is small for liquids and solids with increasing temperature and very large for gases, due
to their expansion coefficients.

The increase in thermal capacity in gases is considered constant up to a temperature of 149ºC; after this, the
variation in its value must be reviewed.

Enthalpy and heat at constant pressure

1 Q 2 = dQ = mCpdt; cp: specific heat at constant pressure

And relating to the enthalpy

H = dQ = dU + Pv dQ = H = mCpdt

Specific heat ratio (K) K=Cp/Cv

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 31

 Thermodynamics Notes

6. Example.-a turbine working in stable flow receives steam under the following conditions: The
turbine loses heat at a rate of 1000 BTU/h with a mass flow of 2500 Ibm/h. What power is the
turbine developing on its shaft?
P1 170 Psia P2 3 Psia
T1 368.4 F T2 141.5 F
V1 2.67 F/Ibm V2 100.9 Fllbm
U1 1111.9 BTU/lbm U2 914.6 BTU/lbm
V1 6000 Ft/min V2 300 Ft/s
Z1 10 ft Z2 0 ft

EG. Aft energy •.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 32

 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos

 Thermodynamics Notes

(0.200 8 + O 012 4- II11.1 + 8U.16 - 0.H) % =

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos

 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 31

 Thermodynamics Notes

P= 10 v$
7. Example an insulated horizontal pipe carries a flow of steam. The steam enters the pipe with a
hez etv Abn
of 1227.6 BTU/lbm and a specific volume of 4.937 ft 3
pressure of 100 psia and an enthalpy1223.9
/lbm. At the exit of the pipe a pressure drop of 10% is experienced, the enthalpy decreases to
v,: 3.^increases to 5.43
1223.9 BTU/lbm, the specific volume 4/11m
ft 3 /lbm. At what speed does the steam
flow enter, at what speed does it leave, what is the steam flow.

P =100 pst h, = 1221.6 &tv/ow

VU.93* 33/(Lv No

With these symbols we have qve \ Ec, from the enexrga Qvea and \e
following wowev:

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 32

 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 33

 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 3

4
 Thermodynamics Notes

8. Example: A water heater operates under two stable flow conditions receiving 500 Ibm per minute of water
at a temperature of 165°F and an enthalpy of 132.9 BTU/lbm. Water is heated by mixing it with a mass of
steam that is supplied to the heater at 215°F and an enthalpy of 1150 BTU/lbm, the mixture leaves the
heater as liquid water at 212°F. How many Ibm of steam is required for the process.

/. w,-0.o 1bw S

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 35

 Thermodynamics Notes

9. Example in an air distribution line there is a decrease in diameter in the pipe, the conditions before
the area reduction are P = 1 atm abs, T = 60 °F, Vi = 1200 ft/min and diameter of 6 inches . The
conditions after reduction are P =1.75atm abs T = 70°F, 3-in. diameter. What is the mass flow in the
two sections and their velocities?

0 3 pla

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 36

 Thermodynamics Notes

10. Example: - based on the previous example, the direction is reversed and the expansion speed is
wanted to be 1/4 of the initial speed.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 37

 Thermodynamics Notes

3. PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES

3.1 THE HEATING CURVE

heating

At f you have 100% saturated liquid

In g we have 100% saturated steam

f 100%
*-----------------------1------------------------------------------. g 100%
x

We define (x) as the quality of the vapor, (y) as the humidity.

X in f is 0, in f is 100%
X in g is 100%, in g is 0
Y= 1-x moisture fraction
X = mg/m vapor quality
mg: mass of the vapor fraction in the mixture
mf: mass of the wet fraction in the mixture
m: total mass of the mixture

With volume:
v = vg + vf Vg = mgvg
mg= xm
m=mf + mf
m=xm + mf
mf=m - xm
mf=m(1-x)
V=mgvg + mfvf
V=xmvg + m(1-x)vf
V= mv
mv= mxvg + m(1-x)vf; between me
v=xvg+(1-x)vf: and likewise for all other properties
u=xug+(1-x)uf [btu/lbm]
s=xsg+(1-x)sf [btu/lbm]
h=xhg+(1-x)hf [btu/lbm°R]
or h=hf+xhfg hfg= hg-hf

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 38

 Thermodynamics Notes

3.2 THE MOLLIER DIAGRAM

It is the representation on the ordinate of the enthalpy and on the abscissa of the entropy, in constant flow
processes.

) 16-B Mollier diagram for vapor (H2O) (SI units)

modified and reduced from Steam and Air Tables in SI Units, Irvine and Hartnett, published by Hemisphere Publishing Corporation (1976). It is reproduced
with permission of Springer-Verlag 'ubiishing Company, owners of the rights to the diagram.

11. Example In a 10 ft 3 container there is a mixture of saturated liquid water and water vapor at a

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 3

9
 Thermodynamics Notes

pressure of 100 psia, if the total mass is 3 Ibm. Calculate the mass of the liquid, the vapor, and the
total volume of the liquid and vapor.

Data :
Vy:
M, = 3 Iw
P, = 910

Oetblas wants to be 1st ps1o

V,-0.01*4 P8/w
V=.z1 $2/Ww
V,,:,403 P•/W w

V=xV9+(-x)N, or V=V+xha
7- \L-VF - 18-00111 - 0.453
hFs H.Ho3

M, = m (1-x) = 3Im U - 0.153)

m, 0.409 WM

$) m:m+Wa =?
M,= mw =3- 0.*u09

»• Mg= 2.259 Vom

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 40

 Thermodynamics Notes

12. Example: What is the heat change of water at 100 psia? How much work does an Ibm of water do
when evaporating at 100 psia?

•) The calot ie evqeoractón is the cQmio le entlpi le wGv'o STheco % Verox sqtvvado, 6
twto:
h9s = 888.8 Gtu or 100 p3iq
Wow
" W = Sp-v = (vv,) Ws"sW)
W - PN,3
=)
W ■ (1 Dw) (100 M \ .403 43 N "uuete)
rj/ V/Lfe
W= 6303, W.GGTV-
—18f
'• W- 91. yru

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 41

 Thermodynamics Notes

13. Example.- Calculate the properties of a mixture of water vapor and water at 100 psi for a content of
40% liquid

Y= or '/.
Y(-x)=0. =>

X= Ho.q = 0.4

°- GONE RSiQ + - 322• F

30.01*4 he” 218.60 ^20.44^3 ,= 248.03
Vg2 .21
W, 888.1 $,9=1.1281 u,,-801.2

VsXvegV, - (o.()(4.03)* 0.0111- 2.14 A

hzxhig+h = (0.0) (888.6) + 298.6 = 831.36 et/w
=(0.6) 01.1286)+0.43 = .is) •Tv/Uw'F
u-xu,+u . (6.6)(904.2) +298.03 - 182.35 67/bm
5 Vsüno A eqviveleste weconico e cqlor

W:uPy ueW_P
u= 831.46 ot - hoo ? \2gg943 (Grv---------------------------------------A Vhh
\b \ es IV °°1bh ) 318 Ibf-)L4.
W =831,414 -9.3
•*. u= +2. T
Ww
14. Example Calculate the enthalpy at 97% quality and 100 psia of a wet vapor

at t0pa W4=18+.2BtU , W,=298. •TV

)bm Ibw

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 42

 Thermodynamics Notes

X: 0.4+
Y-0.03 =>
he (0.91) (1184.) V (0.03(298.) = uto. 53 UTU
\bm

9 200' hga1s.q . and V. q4 Btu _

Wm
h: (0.41)(M5.9) + (0.03) (164.9) - wEe.se &to
Vom
h- 1165. er UTU
________ tbm

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 43

 Thermodynamics Notes

15. Example.-Calculate the vg at 90 psi.

Pv
gohtov 4,431]
(90- % \H.0%3
-50 8,515 J
10
38.2

wtelpolqsko
50- 4, 043-
No - 20 and - 2
=>
Y: 0.8166
=>
Vcq.MsiVO.glUr 5-IM?6
. X = 5.2

4
9s yes

50-o .083_10
5
'to y-1
=>
Y= 0.V083
=>
X = 4.432V 0.4083

E) tAg,6me e Molhr es\Yeveenqcóh in ovlewkl

eo eneitia • ew\ esa le \ ewvopta । yorocecos
• ljo Cws qwe
3.3 THE EQUATION OF STATE (GASES)

When a substance is free of electrical, magnetic, gravitational and capillary phenomena, its behavior can be
characterized based on two independent properties. From the thermodynamic point of view this is interesting
since the phenomena analyzed here lack such phenomena.

It follows from this state postulate that given any three properties, one will be a function of the other two
properties.

Pv = ŘT PV = nŘT PV = m/M ŘT

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 44

 Thermodynamics Notes

Where
Ř: universal gas constant
Q: pressure
v: specific volume
T: absolute temperature
M: molar weight
m: mass
n: number of moles

Values of the constant in different units.

Kinetic theory of ideal gases

To obtain detailed information about the thermodynamic coordinates and thermal properties of systems
without resorting to experimental measurements, calculations based on the properties and behavior of the
molecules in the system are required. There are two microscopic theories; one of them is the so-called kinetic
theory, and the other statistical mechanics. Both theories deal with molecules, their internal motion, their
collisions with each other and with any existing walls, and their interaction forces. Using the laws of mechanics
and probability theory, kinetic theory deals with the details of molecular motion and collision and is able to deal
with the following non-equilibrium situations:

1. Molecules that escape from a container through a hole, a process called effusion.
2. Molecules moving in a conduction under the action of a pressure difference, a movement called
laminar flow.
3. Molecules with a certain linear momentum that cross a plane and mix with molecules with less linear
momentum, a molecular process that causes viscosity.
4. Molecules with a certain kinetic energy that cross a plane and mix with molecules of lower energy, a
process that causes heat conduction.
5. Molecules of one type crossing a plane and mixing with molecules of another type, the process is
called diffusion.
6. Chemical combination between two or more kinds of molecules, takes place with finite speed and is
called chemical kinetics.
7. Unevenness of molecular collisions on the various faces of a very small object suspended in a fluid;
This difference gives rise to a random, zigzag movement of the suspended particle, which is called
Brownian movement.

Thermodynamic concepts about ideal gases

PvT Surface; POV work

PvT Surface

All the information contained in the Pv and PT diagrams can be represented in a single diagram, carrying the
three coordinates P,VT on rectangular axes. The result is called PvT Surface Figures 1.5 and 1.6 show two
surfaces of this type, for a substance that contracts when frozen, and for a substance that expands when
frozen. If we imagine a PvT surface on a Pv plane we will obtain the usual Pv diagram. By projecting the
surface onto the PT plane, the entire solid vapor region is projected onto the sublimation curve; the entire
liquid-vapor region in the vaporization curve; The solid-liquid region is projected on the fusion curve and finally
the triple point line is projected on the triple state.

The limit after which a transformation from liquid to vapor is not possible is called the critical state. In the PvT

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 45

 Thermodynamics Notes

diagram it appears as a point on the general surface. Associated with it are certain property values that are
usually denoted by the subscript c ( Pc , vc and Tc ).

When the volume of a closed system (or control mass) is changed, work is done. This common type of quasi-
static work is called expansion or compression work, or simply boundary work. According to basic mechanics,
the expression of the work done on such a system would be given by

δ • W=F ds= Fds.

If the scalar form of the previous equation is used, then the force would be calculated in terms of the system
pressure P, using F = - PA. Consequently, for a differential movement (for example in a piston) the following
would apply:

δ W= -PAds

Since this example is a cylindrical space, Ads = dV, which is the change in volume. Therefore, the differential
amount of work done by subjecting a substance to an expansion or compression process is

δW = -PdV

This relationship can be applied arbitrarily to the contraction or expansion of any system, in particular we can
see that this relationship follows the mathematical format of the equation for generalized quasistatic work
interactions which is as follows:

X k , eq
2
=
∫ X 1 k , eq k

The total quasistatic work of compression or expansion, done during a finite volume change, is the sum of the
Pdv terms for each differential volume change. The mathematical expression corresponding to this statement
is:
V

W front = -∫ V12 PdV

In which V i and V 2 are the initial and final volumes of the system, respectively. Integrating the expansion or
compression work equation requires knowing the functional relationship between P and V. Normally this
relationship is determined from experimental observations of P and V during the course of a process.

Mechanical work done by or on the system.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 46

 Thermodynamics Notes

Consider, for example, a gas inside a cylinder. The gas molecules collide with the walls changing the direction
of their velocity, or linear momentum. The effect of the large number of collisions that take place in the unit of
time can be represented by a force F that acts on the entire surface of the wall.

If one of the walls is a mobile piston of area A , and it moves dx , the energy exchange of the system with the
outside world can be expressed as the work done by the force F along the displacement dx .

dW=-Fdx=-pAdx=-pdV

Where dV is the change in the volume of the gas.

3.5 THE PERFECT GAS AND ITS EQUATION

Perfect gas is one that exactly follows the laws of Boyle, Charles, Joule and Avogadro. In nature there is no
perfect gas, however air, oxygen, nitrogen, helium and various other gases behave very closely to perfect
gases. In such a way that they can be considered as such. Every gas approaches the ideal gas when its
temperature increases and its pressure decreases, otherwise, as it moves away from the point where it can
condense into a liquid. Gases close to the liquid phase are called vapors.

Boyle's Law

At constant temperature, the volume of a given weight of a perfect gas is inversely proportional to the absolute
pressure, that is, P 1 V 1 = P 2 V 2 = P 3 V 3 = Cte

Where P is absolute pressure, V is the total volume and C is a constant.

The curve that joins the point-states that are at the same temperature is called isotherm and its shape is the
equilateral hyperbola on the PV plane.

Charles

Boyle's Law

Charles

Charles's Law

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 47

 Thermodynamics Notes

When a given weight of a perfect gas receives or gives up energy while maintaining a constant volume, the
absolute pressures are directly proportional to the absolute temperatures. That is to say:

P/T = Cte = P 1 / T 1 = P 2 / T 2 = P 3 / T 3

The curve that joins the points that have the same volume is called isochore, in the perfect gas they are
straight vertical lines in the PV plane.

Another Charles' Law says that when a given weight of perfect gas absorbs or releases energy while
maintained at constant pressure, the volumes are directly proportional to the absolute temperatures. that is to
say:

V 1 / T 1 = V 2 / T 2 = V 3 / T 3 = Cte

The curve that joins the points are straight horizontal lines, called isobars in the PV plane.

Combined gas law or characteristic equation of perfect gases

In the previous figure P 1 V 2 = P 3 V 3 and T 1 = T 3

Dividing by the temperatures P 1 V 1 / T 1 = P 3 V 3 / T 3

Also V 2 = V 3 P 2 /T 2 = P 3 /T 3

P2V2/T2=P3V3/T3

At points 2 and 3, V 2 = V 3

Therefore: P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2=P3V3/T3

The relationship shows that for a perfect gas the value is the same for any state with a fixed weight (m = cte)

Joule's Law for the ideal gas

du = Cv dt dh = Cp dT

The internal energy of a perfect gas depends only on the temperature, since the pressure decreases and the
volume increases, keeping the temperature and internal energy constant.

The change in internal energy of an ideal gas is just the change in temperature.

Avogadro's Law

Equal volumes of all ideal gases at particular pressures and temperatures contain the same number of
molecules (only for the ideal gas).

N A = M/m

M: molecular mass [gm/gmol] [lbm/lbmol] [kgm/kgmol]

m: mass of a molecule [gm] [lbm]
N A : Avogadro's number [1/gmol]
N A = 6.0225X10 23 gmol -1
n = m/M number of moles

Also two gases X and Y, when each one is occupying the same volume at the same P and T.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 48

 Thermodynamics Notes

Mx / My = ρ ρ
x/ y = Vx / Vy

Specific heats for an ideal gas

From joule's law du = Cv dt and dh = Cp dT

From the definition of h = u + Pv and Pv = RT

We obtain h = u + RT
dh = du + RdT

In Joule's Law

Cp dT = Cv dT + RdT Ó R = Cp –Cv and also K = Cp /Cv

Cp = KR/K-1 Cv = R/K-1

Equation of the path of the evolution of a gas or Poison's equation:

If the expansion or compression curve of the pressure-volume diagram is transferred point by point to a linear
coordinate system, in which the log P refers to the log V, the points thus obtained form a straight line whose
relationship is:

Log P + n log V = log Cte.

The slope is –n and the equation becomes:

PV n = cte

And if the values of two states for P and V, are known:

PV n = P 1 V 1 n = P 2 V 2 n

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 49

 Thermodynamics Notes

Eliminating n:
n = (log P2/P1) / (log V1/V2)

3.5 PRESSURES AND PARTIAL VOLUMES

Dalton's law of partial pressures

Dalton was the one who first stated that the total pressure p m of a mixture of gases is the sum of the
pressures that each gas would experience when it alone occupied the container with the volume V m and the
temperature T Si of the mixture - but this law also turns out to be strictly true only in the case of ideal gases. If
p a , p b and p c represent, respectively, the individual pressures of the mixed gases A, B, C, for i components
of a mixture, Dalton's law expresses that

p m =p +p +p +∑p
a b c i

Yo

[T m = T a = T b =T c V m = V a =V b = V c ]

If we apply pV = nRT to an individual gas and to the mixture; For example,

paVm =n a RT m and pmVm =n m RT m nm =n∑

i
Yo
where n is the number of moles. Dividing these
equations member by member gives

p a V m = n a RT
D.V.
=X
m
nV n RT pm m nm m O well p a
=na a
pmnm

where We can generalize that for ideal gases, the partial pressure of component i of the mixture is the volume
fraction multiplied by the total pressure p m

pi =X i p m where ∑X Yo
i= 1
Amagat's Law

Amagat's law states that the total volume of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the volumes that each
gas would occupy, each being at the pressure p m and the temperature T m of the mixture. For example, if we
fear a mixture of three gases X, Y, Z have been separated into compartments, each at a pressure p m and a
temperature T m ; The corresponding volume of each gas is its partial volume and if the basis of the
calculations is i mole of mixture, these volumes are also the mole fractions, as the following example

illustrates. Applying pV = nRT to any component and the mixture, and then dividing, we have:

a=na=
V
p V n RT p ma = O well X

am Vm nm
nV n PT

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 50

 Thermodynamics Notes

where n m =∑n j . In general terms, the mole fraction of component i of a gas mixture in thermal
equilibrium is

∑
neither

n
Saw

n ∑ V i
[ ∑Xi = 1
ii ]

If the mole fraction of component i in a mixture is X i , then (considering kilograms – moles)

⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
kgmol kg

⎜ ⎟=
X i i ⎟⎜ M i i
X i M i kg of i per kgmol of mixture
⎜
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
kgmol m
⎟ ⎜
kgmol i
⎟

where M i is the molecular mass of component i. It follows that the equivalent molecular mass of the mixture
(which is basically defined as the total mass m m divided by the number of moles of the mixture n m , that is, M
m = m m /n m ) is

Mm =X a Ma +X b Mb +=∑X i Mi
Yo
for i components; The units are, for example, kg/kgmol of mixture. If we wish to evaluate the specific gas
constant of the mixture, we have

Rm
Mm

And since the eq. (b) gives the mass of the mixture, and Eq (a) gives the mass of a component, the fraction of
mass of component i is
XiMi niMi
O well fe [ideal gases]
E =∑ X iE Yo
nM ii
Yo

which is the means to convert from volumetric analysis to gravimetric analysis. It is also possible to convert
from gravimetric fractions to volumetric fractions.

3.6 REAL GASES AND EQUATIONS OF STATE: VAN DER WAALS

Most substances do not behave like ideal gases, nor are tables available for their basic properties. Over time,
many equations have been proposed for these substances, some of which attempt to cover all gases (none
are universally applicable), and others have been formulated to accurately represent the relationship between
p, v and T in the case of a particular substance for a limited range. Among the most useful are the so-called
virial equations, sometimes purely empirical, but whose coefficients can represent the effects of intermolecular
forces, quantitatively evaluated by statistical mechanics. Below is an equation of this type:

pv B(T)C(T)D(T)
(6)......... = 1+ + 2 3+ +.... explicit in p
RT v v v

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 51

 Thermodynamics Notes

where the virial coefficients B,C,D, are functions of temperature; B, C, etc., are called, respectively, second,
third, etc., virial coefficients.

There are many such equations, but Redlich and Kwong have proposed a largely empirical equation, with two
constants, that often fits experimental states better than more complex equations. This equation is the
following:

(7)..... R
p
T
v
= 1 + B '( T ) p + C '( T ) p + D '( T ) p + ... explicit in v
2 3

(8) p
+
T 0.5
to
v(v +b (v -b)=
) RT
2 2.5
where a= 0.4278 R Tc and b=0.0867 RTc
pc Pc
for T in K, p in atm and v in cm 3 /gmol. At high pressures the molar volume of all gases (at any temperature)
tends to the value of 0.26 v c ; Equation 8 satisfies the condition that b=0.26 v c .
Van der Waals equation

One of the first equations of state for real gases, which is frequently used due to its simplicity, is the one
proposed by van der Waals; which in different ways is expressed as follows :
(9})....... ( p + )( v - b ) = RT
v2

RT to
(10)
p = -
v - bv 2

(11)...... pv 3
- ( pb + RT ) v + av - ab = 0
2

which is a cubic equation in ν . Taking this eq to the virial form of eq. 8 we have that through eq.10:

(12) pv RT (1= - b
)-1-a
vv

and applying the binomial theorem for ( 1 - bIv ) -1

we have that: substituting the latter in (12) we have:

⎞
b
bbb 3
+3 ... v
-⎟=
(13) 3
v
2 +

1
-1
1 ++
RTb - a RTb 2
RTb 3
(14) =
pv RT + + + + ...
vv 2 v 3

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 52

 Thermodynamics Notes

where the term ν -3

may be negligible.

In the case of a limited range of properties, a, and b can be found for p, ν , and T known in two states. In the
case of what is known as van der Waals gas, a and b are calculated as described below: The constant b is
considered proportional to the volume of the molecules. Gas molecules that behave almost ideally are so far
apart, compared to their size, that they occupy a negligible portion of the given volume. Looking at equation
(10) we see that the effect of a higher value of b is to increase the calculated p. Since molecules experience
mutual attraction, which is a certain function of their mass and their distance apart, the pressure it exerts on
the walls of its container is a little less than it would be if there were no intermolecular forces; Consequently,
the correction aIv 2 of equation (10), proportional to the square of the density, was intended to take into
account the forces of molecular attraction.

Now, if various temperatures are assumed in eq. (10) and a series of isothermal curves are drawn in the p ν
plane for a particular substance, the result will be approximate to that of Figure 1.3. Since the equation is

cubic in ν , there will be three roots. Above the vurva C where the eq. It is quite useful, there are one real
root and two imaginary ones; Below C there are three real roots; at C, which is the critical point, the three
roots are . The dotted curve BC

It represents the saturated vapor line. In the case of equilibrium states, the real isotherm in the two-phase
region remains at constant pressure afb . Outside this region, the van der equation

Waals generally gives more exact results than p ν

=RT, but there are states where this equation produces
erroneous answers, therefore this equation should be used only when it is known that it is applicable with the
required accuracy.

One of the requirements for a general equation of state is that the critical isotherm must have an inflection

point at the critical point, the mathematical conditions being that the curve is not only horizontal at that point (

∂∂ p v ) T = 0 , but also that the rate of change of the slope is zero ( ∂ ∂ 2

pI v 2
) = 0 . These two
T

conditions define the critical point of an equation of state. Differentiating eq 10 we have:

(15) ∂p ⎞ RT 2 (16) ∂ ⎞ 2
p 2 RT
a
-

νν , the critical volume, and T=T c ,6the

a critical
ν ν ν
And since these are the critical point conditions, = c

temperature. Solving the system of simultaneous equations for c we have that (16) c = 3b or, b=
c /3

Substituting this value into equation (15) we have

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 53

 Thermodynamics Notes

(17)
Tc = 8
a.m.

(18) pc to
27 b
2

and finally substituting the values of T c and ν c into eq. (10) we obtain that

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 54

 Thermodynamics Notes

Since critical pressure and temperature data are more common and often more accurate than critical volume
data, the above equations are generally used to calculate a and b.

3.7 THEORY OF CORRESPONDING STATES

Reduced coordinates and compressibility factor

A reduced property is evaluated by its real value divided by its value at the critical point as follows:
T
pc vv R ≡ tc

p =p R pc v =v R v
=
T TR
Tc

where p R is the reduced pressure, ν R the reduced volume and T R the reduced temperature.

In the case of ideal gases p ν /(RT)=1; but for all real gases p ν /(RT) → 1 when p → 0,

therefore, p ν /(RT) is a variable for real gases, called the compressibility factor Z,

Z ≡ RT
pv = ZRT pV = nZRT pv = ZRT
[1KG] [n moles] [1 mole]

The values of this factor can be represented graphically and the specific values of Z can be used to calculate

an unknown value of p, ν T.

Principle of corresponding states

As can be seen, a large amount of data is required to construct a Zp diagram for a particular substance. As a
consequence, another way of taking advantage of compressibility factors has been developed, known as the
principle of corresponding states. This principle can be used in relation to state consequences and was in fact
first proposed by van der Waals.

It is said that two gases (and this concept is also extended to liquids) are in corresponding states when they
have two reduced coordinates in common, for example Z=f(p R , T R ). The principle assumes that the
thermodynamic behavior of all fluids is the same as a function of the reduced coordinates, and that each
property change for all fluids can be obtained from the same equation. For the principle to be universal,
substances with particular values p R and T R must have the same value of reduced volume and

compressibility factor; In summary, the following equation must be verified where Z c =p c ν c /(RT c ).

= pvRT
= pRTR pR Tc vc R v c = ⎜⎛
⎛ ⎞⎟
T p
⎜
RT c R
pRv
c„C
Prepared by Dr. Gabriel LeónTde los Santos
Z
55

⎠
T R
 Thermodynamics Notes

This principle fails significantly in the case of some substances. Gases that have almost spherical molecules
have a value of Z c , close to 0.3; for many polar molecules Zc will be about 0.23; in the case of hydrocarbons,
it is very close to 0.27.

16. Example The carbon dioxide molecule contains a carbon whose atomic mass is 12.01115 and two
oxygens whose atomic mass is 15.9994. What is the mass of CO2 produced by the combustion of 1
kg of coal.

(1)(n.oms) = v2.01S % G/ mo\

C1) wiu. ). u .003 s, co, w

=>
12.ous a1%.wo .003 (Co)
=D

12. omsgC —.> .009 to Co,

\0o g C ------------------->V

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 56

 Thermodynamics Notes

17. Example A rigid tank contains gaseous carbon dioxide at a pressure of 5 bar and a temperature of 30°C
and a leak occurs in the tank, which is detected because the pressure decreases to 4 bar, if the
temperature determined at the time of the leak is 20 °C. Find the amount of mass of the gas that leaked,
if the original mass was 25 kgm.

Se tene on doowen ce Le (or

P,= s bav t 1 = %0' (

M, - Kgm

R,V-",R6,T,
Re, R
ne
"o,* 0)(12.0115) + :(15.4431) = 0044 K,w

=3 R = 0.0g315 K3"
u, - 0.08315 bOxv\ 6%wo \
kgmo) K) .0099 kgw)-0.001881

V- MRc,T. z (25 $aw)(0.001%84 bm

• kgm k

#? N =2,862 w
° "98N M2 e$.
- ($a)(2.8/2w3)KymalK
x (0.001889 bavw)(201243)K

)2 0.686 km
Mevys,, = W,-W,= 25- 2o. UAM

"Y
O

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 57

 Thermodynamics Notes

18. Example A closed container A contains 3ft 3 of air at a pressure of 500 psi and 120°F
of temperature, this container is interconnected to another through a pipe and a
valve, the second container has a pressure of 15psi and 50°F. When the valve
opens, the resulting pressure is 200 psi and the temperature is 70°F. What is the volume of
the
container b.

Vbwol OR

(0.36+ ps #)(*0+H60)N

4.0U6-.08 = 3.Q, Wom

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos

 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 58

 Thermodynamics Notes

19. Example A gas mixture contains 60% O 2 , 25% CO 2 , 15% N2; The mixture is at 350°K and a pressure of 1.8
bar. Determine the gravimeter analysis of the mixture, the partial pressure of each component, apparent molecular
weight of the mixture, the volume that 10 kgm of the mixture would occupy, as well as the partial volume of each
component.

Comqowevte .Kg MeE?,wa] 7,M, P Da}

0, 0.6 32 19. $5. 81 log
Co, 0.25 W $1.98 0.45

N, 0.15 28 #.1 .10 0.24

Meec l either , 34*4 100 1.8

Vm2 350V Ww -/m -192.20.558

P.-18bay 5*
Rn: k,x, P. " (.8) (0.0) " 1.08 wV PLew (7. V) and , ' Gwe %0,*,+%Ro*%w.Rh
20.6335 bgw* ■ 3Mo
R„- 22g)('2v.)+(0.s)(*448)* <•»> (85)
Km= 0.001559+ 0.000+2 + 0.0005

Rm= 0.00246 bom3

VSm S
Mm- (. vo) f Ks) + (IVa)(Ne))+ (2-Vy)(M •)
Mw, (0.61(3)+0.25)(400 + (0.15)(20)=19.2 +W+*.2-3 kwo
Am 3 5)
&»*K= &m:922345-=0.003417 k
________
Pm?
.(q OI 1
Vg= lio *9.)(0.00241 k ) ($50%) (19a) =

4 . ENERGY BALANCE

4.1 PROBLEM SOLVING METHODOLOGY

The basis of all research, including physical, social, and economic phenomena, is the Experimental Scientific
method based on:

• Observation

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 5

9
 Thermodynamics Notes

• Hypothesis

• Experiments

• Results

• Conclusions

• Law or postulate

To solve problems, we generally follow the following steps:

• Data

• Scheme or diagram

• Considerations (observations)

• Relationships or mathematical tools

• Solution method

• Results

• Verification

4.2 CASISTATIC PROCESSES

Isochorus or at constant volume

The internal energy U of the system depends only on the state of the system, in an ideal gas it depends only
on its temperature. While heat transfer or mechanical work depends on the type of transformation or path
followed to go from the initial state to the final state.
Isochore or at constant volume

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 60

 Thermodynamics Notes

There is no change in the volume of the gas, therefore

W=0

Q=nc V (T B -T A )

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 6

1
 Thermodynamics Notes

Where c V is the specific heat at constant volume

Isobaric or constant pressure

W=p(v B -v A )

Q=nc P (T B -T A )

Where c P is the specific heat at constant pressure

Specific heats at constant pressure c P and constant volume c V

In a constant volume transformation dU=dQ=nc V dT

In a constant pressure transformation dU=nc P dT-pdV

Since the variation of internal energy dU does not depend on the type of transformation, but only on the initial
state and the final state, the second equation can be written as nc V dT=nc P dT-pdV

Using the equation of state of an ideal gas pV=nRT , we obtain the relationship between the specific heats at
constant pressure and constant volume

_ (185) (32) _ 18s....................................................................................................................5

F —(t.gg IL..............................................................................................................................5
°, \w =-.58 Wom......................................................................................................................19
we.a........................................................................................................................................21
t - (15000 (x) w; w.................................................................................................................21
ηt =........................................................................................................................................24
" W = Sp-v = (vv,) Ws"sW)......................................................................................................41
W - PN,3................................................................................................................................41
=)...........................................................................................................................................41
W ■ (1 Dw) (100 M \ .403 43 N "uuete)............................................................................................41
rj/ V/Lfe.....................................................................................................................................41
—18f.........................................................................................................................................41
\b \ es IV °°1bh ) 318 Ibf-)L4................................................................................................42

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 62

 Thermodynamics Notes

Pv...........................................................................................................................................44
=>............................................................................................................................................44
5
'to y-1..............................................................................................................................44
=>............................................................................................................................................44
pm=pa+pb+pc+ ∑ p i.............................................................................50
⎛ kgmol ⎞⎛ kg ⎞........................................................................................................................52
-..............................................................................................................................................53
1 - ⎟ = 1 + + v ⎠ v...................................................................................................................53
Tc =........................................................................................................................................55
⎞ ⎟ = Z......................................................................................................................................57
C1) wiu. ). u .003 s, co, w.........................................................................................................57
12.ous a1%.wo .003 (Co).............................................................................................................57
- ($a)(2.8/2w3)KymalK..................................................................................................................58
R„- 22g)('2v.)+(0.s)(*448)* <•»> (85).............................................................................................59
Am 3 5).....................................................................................................................................59
Cowwwon..............................................................................................................................67
,0, 3 2.38 6axw3 1 3 {k\......................................................................................................67
Kew bvw3 j _Nm J 210*}}...................................................................................................67
N = -238 ^5............................................................................................................................67
k- 5»*&.....................................................................................................................................68
T,, (P,"=...................................................................................................................................................68
TPJ............................................................................................................................................68
-O.*t-'K (-1,141).......................................................................................................................68
h= *2213 -2.1.......................................................................................................................................68
M=v- ( M ' M _ N ( ' N...........................................................................................................68
ü ewRT AN(®M** )(8-6.3)8W5**..........................................................................................70
w=-33%,................................................................................................................................70
gyper.v(6,V4 vk ew qqoceso qbiabdkic....................................................................................70
8, W=-H*HHNR...................................................................................................................70
Pe = y [(h, -h.) v (hh ) • (hh))...........................................................................................................................80
WN T 4- T 1 ⎛ P 1⎞ K - 1......................................................................................................84
ηT == 1 - =1-⎜⎟.....................................................................................................................84
QS T 3- T 2 ⎝ P 2⎠...............................................................................................................84
r ==⎜ ⎟..................................................................................................................................85

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 63

 Thermodynamics Notes

1-...............................................................................................................................................85
η=...........................................................................................................................................95
=1-.........................................................................................................................................95
V 1 ⎠⎝ K ( r L − 1 ) ⎠.............................................................................................................95
Dry or superheated steam........................................................................................................103
UH box -- 1 NR , 6o”......................................................................................................112
1*82 xmioru WVf;\e-lz.ue*)..........................................................................................................115
=>............................................................................................................................................120
mUCR) = w,C, =>...............................................................................................................128
,M,=0.5m,............................................................................................................................128
luumuiü..............................................................................................................................................129

The variation of internal energy in an AB process is ^ U=nc V (T B -T A ) ,=g

The quotient Cy is called the adiabatic index of an ideal gas.

Isotherm or at constant temperature

pV = nRT

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 64

 Thermodynamics Notes

The p =cte/ V curve that represents the transformation in a p-V diagram is a hyperbola whose asymptotes are
the coordinate axes.

^ U=0
Q=W

Adiabatic or thermally insulated, Q =0

We have obtained the equation of an adiabatic transformation from a simple ideal gas model. Now we are
going to obtain it from the first principle of Thermodynamics.

Adiabatic transformation

From the first principle dU=-pdV

,, uRT ,t, ncydi = - ay dT = _RdV

Integrating
T cv

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 65

 Thermodynamics Notes

Where the exponent of V is called the adiabatic index ^ of the ideal gas. If A and B are the initial and final
states of an adiabatic transformation, it is true that

Cv Cv Cv
= p^l = cte
To calculate the work it is necessary to carry out an integration similar to the isothermal transformation.

As we can see, the work is equal to the variation of internal energy changed sign, If Q=0 , then W=- ^ U=-nc V
(T B -T A )

Summary table of thermodynamic transformations

Equation of state of an ideal gas pV=nRT
Adiabatic equation of state pV Y = cte
Relationship between specific heats c p -c V =R
Adiabatic index of an ideal gas c,
•= —
CV
First Law of thermodynamics ^ U=QW

Process Heat Job Var. Internal energy

Isochore (v=cte) Q=nc V (T B -T A ) 0 ^ U=nc V (T B -T A )
Isobar (p=cte) Q=nc p (T B -T A ) W=p(V B -V A ) ^ U=nc V (T B -T A )
Isotherm (T=cte) Q=W w = nRTIn Ya ^ U=0
Goes
Adibatic (Q=0) 0 W =-^ U ^ U=nc V (T B -T A )

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 66

 Thermodynamics Notes

In the case of constant mass systems that undergo internally reversible processes

Processes Isobaric P = c Isothermal T Tropic Isen

— Isometric V = C Polytropic pV" = C
=C S.C.

p,V; = P7 ^ P^ - p,V

p, v, t
TeV
You -
p,V, = P,V2
; • ()...

.1
relations T, P, T, V,

S|S
, Ak ...

ot — 19
1%/k

II
- to

—
Q,
•2
pdV 0 p{V 2 ~ v,) py, In V2 Pz^z - Pl^l
•1 V, 1-n
1-k
2
-\Vdp k{p 2 V 2 - p,V,) 1 - n(p2V2-p,V,)
J1
-P,) 0 p,V, In VV,
k 1-n

U,-U, m^c v dT mfc, dt mJc, dT m^c and dT

mc v { T2- T,) mc v { T 2 - T,) 0 mc v { T 2 - T,) mc v i T 2 - T y )

Q mc, dT m c p dT m 7" ds m^c n dT

0
p,V, In V
mc„ (T2- T,} mc p (T 2 - T,} mc„(T 2 - T,)
V
n oo 0 1 k -oo to + oo

Specific heat c C, C
P OO 0 c„ = c, kn)
V1-n

[k=C]

H H, m
mJc, dT

c p (T 2 - T,}
mc p dT

mc p { T 2 -T,}
0
m^c p dT

mc p (T 2 ~ T,)
m
mJc, dT
C„(T 2 - Ty}

Q m ÍCQ d
T-T
65 ic

-T -T T

me in
me, In T, T, mR In V2 V, mc„ In T2 T,
mk dT - T
+ mR In Y? m CpdT - mR In El
V, -T Q,

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 67

 Thermodynamics Notes

20. Example: determine the volume occupied by one kgm of steam at a pressure of 8.5 bar and the
expansion with K = 1.13.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 68

 Thermodynamics Notes

Cowwwon
,0, 3 2.38 6axw3 1 3 {k\
Kew bvw3 j _Nm J 210*}}

#38*,E**)
N = -238 ^5

66
Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos
 Thermodynamics Notes

21. Example: A frictionless piston-cylinder system contains two pounds of steam at a pressure
of 400 psia and 500 °F. Heat is added to the system at constant pressure to a point at
which the volume is twice the initial volume. Determine the change in potential energy in
the piston (g=30 ft/s 2 ), the heat involved in the process.

Vaxet e Q36

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 67

 Thermodynamics Notes

22. Example.- Air is compressed from 1atm abs and 90 °F to 73.5 psig and 1440°RV, = 0.5 ft 3 Calculate
everything.

Awe:
M= 29 Wom
Vb mol
R=s3.33 4
Vm • R
C: 0.1 yu. .
Ibw°R
Cv “ 0.1 OtU
k- 5»*&
T,, (P,"=
TPJ
550 - N-
IHH0 k '4.^ )
0.3914 =(0.|Hi^
(0.3819): 0s In (0.1666)

-O.*t-'K (-1,141)
-0.624h= _ । .*111n + 1.4914 =>
-*111-0.46) = 1.4414 =>

h= *2213 -2.1
M=v- ( M ' M _N('N
\ /\53*30?44)[550°R)
= 2.505*1 (Lw W V jMM ttó l _
pi3 f U te A ?
M= 0.036 Wom

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 68

 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 69

 Thermodynamics Notes

23. Example.- We want to compress air at a rate of 100 Ibm/min from 14 psi and 70°F to 350 psia
adiabatically. Calculate the power required.

and - 100 Lom

Yi
P = M st
t,= 40• V
0,= 3^0 959
a),_T, (9*, (404010) (9525 = 1324.5 •R

NT 499.5°%

ü ewRT AN(®M** )(8-6.3)8W5**

= -323 *, in one eaqo
w=-33%,
gyper.v(6,V4 vk ew qqoceso qbiabdkic
P, ' P) P" 9w7,-

8, W=-H*HHNR

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 70

 Thermodynamics Notes

4.3 APPLICATION OF THE FIRST LAW IN CYCLES

Application of the first law in closed and open systems with real substances and the ideal gas

Theoretical and ideal Carnot

cycle

Inverted Carnot Cycle

HE SF

Work is done on the refrigerant to raise its temperature from T 2 to T 1 abs.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 71

 Thermodynamics Notes

QR

QA
refrig
eratio

Environment
either
heating

The efficiency of the ideal reverse cycle of a heat engine in producing cooling is designated by the coefficient
of operation (cop). Which is the relationship between the cooling effect Q 2 and the work W/J necessary to
produce it.

W = Q 1 -Q 2 Q 1 = T 1 (SE-SF)

Q 2 = T 2 (SE-SF)

Ideal COP = Q 2 / W = Q 2 / (Q 1 -Q 2 ) = T 2 / (T 1 -T 2 )

The unit of measurement is the ton of refrigeration defined as the absorption of 3024 Kcal/h or 12000 BTU/h

Rankine cycle

It is a power cycle used for the generation of electrical and mechanical force, if the power on the turbine shaft
drives an electrical generator the result is electrical fluid, if not the result is a torque or work on the shaft
available for the drive of some machine.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 72

 Thermodynamics Notes

The Rankine machine may present variations in its operation such as regeneration, reheating, against positive
or negative pressure or a combination of all, in order to improve its thermal efficiency; in addition to the
possibility of using auxiliary equipment to optimize the main equipment.

TO
)

5 4

Normal Overheating

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 73

 Thermodynamics Notes

Regeneration are stages of preheating the working fluid in the liquid phase using the same working fluid in the
vapor phase, taken from the expansion zone. Superheating is the increase in temperature of saturated steam
at constant pressure. Back pressure is the expansion of the working fluid to a positive or negative pressure.

TD C)
)

Reheat and Regeneration S Reheating and Regeneration Stages S

The limitations to the Rankine machine process are the amount of steam and the number of extractions during
the expansion in the high and low pressure sections of the turbine for regeneration, in addition to the
cavitation and seals of the feedwater pumps. to the boiler. For superheating, the limitation is the space where
the superheater must be placed, in addition to the maximum permissible temperatures in the tubes and parts
subject to pressure. On the back pressure part, it is only limited in terms of the discharge of the turbine at
vacuum pressure and is limited by the temperature of the cooling medium and the value of the maximum
vacuum pressure.

From the TS diagram B)

Q =h -h +h -h +h -h
S 1 5 2 1 3 2 [J] [BTU] [Kcal]

W E =h 4 -h 3 [J] [BTU] [Kcal]

Q R =h 5 -h 4 [J] [BTU] [Kcal]

η=WE/QS [%]

Where:

QS: It is the heat supplied or process in the steam generator

WE : It is the work delivered or process in the steam turbine
QA: It is the rejection of heat or process in the condenser

The Rankine machine is composed of a series of stages, carried out by specific equipment, involving a heat
generating source (such as a boiler), a heat exchanger (such as a superheater), a steam engine (such as a
turbine), a heat absorber (such as a condenser), a compression machine (such as a water pump), a cooling
system (such as a cooling tower), all operating in cycle and complementing each other.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 74

 Thermodynamics Notes

The main forms of energy waste in these processes are in the form of heat in the combustion gases and
rejection heat in the working fluid as part of the process operating requirement (obligated waste). Analyzing
these processes and integrating them under the complement scheme, it is observed that the interaction of
both energy obtaining processes is feasible under a dual cycle of electricity and useful heat generation, based
on the use of exhaust gases and heat from rejection. Regarding the energy distribution offered by the Sankin
diagram for the electricity and steam generation processes, we observe the benefit in graphic form.

PERFORMANCE CURVE

The diagram corresponds to a Rankine i cycle with a fuel-electricity efficiency of 31%, from the heat rejection
process (47%) that corresponds to the output of the steam turbine, steam could be extracted under counter
pressure or in extractions at different rates. pressures to feed an industrial process, with which part of this
energy would not pass to the condenser, reducing the percentage of heat rejection and increasing efficiency
under the dual electricity - heat cycle scheme. In this way, part of the energy sent to heat rejection could be
used to provide steam to the process at high, medium or low pressure, recovering 21 to 33% of the rejection
energy. With this, obtaining an efficiency of between 52% to 64% in the generation of electricity and steam in
a dual heat – electricity system.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 75

 Thermodynamics Notes

A plant operating with regeneration could qualify as a cogeneration system since electricity is obtained and
steam from extractions is used (at different pressures to preheat the feed water) if this operated in a process
plant the steam from the extractions could be heating kettles, cooking malt, cooking nixtamal, drying paper,
evaporating milk or sterilizing clothing, containers, etc. Which constitutes a cogeneration system.

Likewise, if the heat rejection corresponded to a Brayton cycle, the heat from the gases could be used in a
regeneration boiler as does a combined cycle (cogeneration) plant. As shown in these examples, electricity
generation plants are examples of natural cogeneration systems.

Power Driving losses

supplied 6%
100%
Electrical
Losses 1%

Radiation losses 4%

Useful
energy
In a process plant whose thermal requirements 31%
are generated in boilers and the electrical
requirements are acquired from the public
Rejection
energy network, technically the same process heat 47%
could be carried out as in large power plants, the
limitation falls on the economic - financial viability
that justifies the adaptation of the processes and the acquisition of equipment that allows their implementation,
in addition to the trends in energy prices and the productive culture of businessmen and their administrators.
All this mixed in a hazy way with the economic, energy, legal, environmental and geographical policies that
give scope to the environment of the industry.

P1

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 7

6
 Thermodynamics Notes

The configuration of cogeneration systems with steam turbines finds viable application in capacities above
10 MW, in general.

NON-CONDENSING TURBINE

TURBINE WITH EXTRACTIONS

AND CONDENSATION

P2, P3 GO TO A PROCESS

P2

P1

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 77

 Thermodynamics Notes

The specific heat consumption of a turbine is the amount of steam required by the turbine to generate one unit
of energy.

h 1 -h 2

c
WT=

Where:
W T = Specific theoretical heat consumption Kg/KWh
h 1 = Enthalpy of steam at the inlet KJ/kg
h 2 = Enthalpy of steam at outlet KJ/kg
C = 3600 KJ/KWh (Energy equivalent 1 KWh = 3600 KJ)

The actual specific heat consumption is obtained by dividing the theoretical consumption by the turbine
efficiency.

Turbine
One step 45

Multi steps 80

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 78

 Thermodynamics Notes

31. Example.- A marine boiler provides steam to a turbine to drive a propeller with a capacity for a
displacement of 28,000 tons at 22 knots maximum speed, the boiler operates within the cycle shown:
Feed water at 196°C and 85 Kg/cm 2 , operating pressure 62 Kg/cm 2 , temperature in the superheater 499
°C and a flow of 28 ton/h, pressure in the condenser 560 mm Hg, fuel flow of 2880 barrels measured in a
trip of 14 days, fuel oil with a heating value of 18,500 BTU/lbm, the average efficiency of the boiler is
84.8%, the condenser works with an effectiveness of 96%, An economizer heats the water up to 196°C.
What capacity does the boiler have, what power does the turbine develop, what power does the feedwater
pump require, what is the fuel consumption, what water flow is required in the condenser. What was the
cycle load factor during the trip.

'Com}ust\

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 79

 Thermodynamics Notes

From tbl$, to Cohvetones Ce tewgetokvyo 9 vvestitón

+ Collexo # Ecewomilov
ho = 83*.06 kb As 5:159.3 k)/rg
ho = 831.6 k}/kg
*/*9
h: 1185.0 K}/Ks • hype
*}/kg 'sz mn Mg
* vvoi f,= 85*3/cwe
h,* 33*5. *SAe
h = 2128. 29KS /k9
* Conensqox
= 3128 .29 K}/sg
hs = 159.43 K3/Ks

• Rotenci leo Ce\Lev

Pe = y [(h, -h.) v (hh ) • (hh))
R= 28000 s(103.*-932.06)+ (a3gs.0-1213.3)*(3s-3 -2185)) *9
= 28000 <9 3 6H+1$*1.3 * $90.1]
W

2 18000 « k}- #1.0404 x

WL{3W

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 80

 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 81

 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 8

2
 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 83

 Thermodynamics Notes

Brayton cycle

The machine is made up of an intake nozzle, a turbo compressor, a combustion chamber, a turbine coupled to
the same compressor shaft, and another nozzle if it is for impulse, as well as heat exchangers for cooling and
regeneration.

The Brayton machine operates in an open thermodynamic cycle, used for the generation of impulse, electrical
and mechanical power using a gas turbine engine.

The machine can operate with regeneration and intercooling to improve efficiency, as well as retro impulse if
the application is for aviation.

WS=h2-h1 [J] [BTU] [Kcal] Compressor

QS=h3-h2 [J] [BTU] [Kcal] Combustor Turbine
WE=h4-h3 [J] [BTU] [Kcal] Available energy
WN=WE-W [J] [BTU] [Kcal]
S
K
WN 4- T 1 ⎛ P 1⎞ K - 1
T
ηT == 1 - =1-⎜⎟
Q ST 3- T 2 ⎝ P 2⎠

The efficiency increases with increasing pressure ratio (r) W N will be maximum when T 2 =T 1 T3

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 84

 Thermodynamics Notes

⎛T 3 ⎞
Q2 2(K-1)

r ==⎜ ⎟
P ⎝T ⎠
1 1

r increases when T 3 increases and T 1 is fixed, but T 3 is limited by the thermal resistance of the turbine
materials. W E is lower if the compression is with intercooling.

Compression is a work cycle on a compressible substance with the purpose of varying its volume and
obtaining pneumatic power via the expansion capacity in a pneumatic motor, hammer. This machine ii
operates based on a thermodynamic cycle of compression, cooling, compression and cooling, in as many
stages as is justifiable. If the compression ratio is greater than 5 it is advisable to divide the work into two or
more stages, a container is installed between the successive cylinders to allow the working substance to cool
to the temperature of the medium before entering the next stage. If the compression were isothermal, no
benefit would be obtained

done this way.

In the first stage it is compressed to P 1 , the work being:

n-1

W1 = P V 1- ⎛ ⎜ P
n
⎢ 1

⎢ ⎞⎟
A A

n - 1
n

The area under the curve of the PV diagram represents the compression work, by cooling in each
intermediate stage the peak-shaped area formed by the heating curve and the TA curve, represents the work
saving in each compression stage. The work carried out in each stage is of equal magnitude and the total
work will be the sum of the work per stage:

W1=W2=W3

WT= ∑ W

The total net work for the number X of stages will be:

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 8

5
 Thermodynamics Notes

n-1

⎞
n
WT= PAVA
P
n -1 Xn
3

P TO ⎠

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 8

6
 Thermodynamics Notes

30. Example.- A gas turbine engine with basic and ideal standard air has a compressor temperature of
519 °R and a turbine inlet temperature of 2520 °R, calculate: a) the pressure relationship that gives
the maximum net work, b) the work of the compressor, that of the turbine, the added heat and the
thermal efficiency, for the pressure ratio a).

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 8

7
 Thermodynamics Notes

Cevdwwwoac\ów.
W, -LW, -288.42- 12.24 = 16.6s BTV lbw
2W3- hy-kz= 651.18 - 288.92 = 362.66 TY \bM
3Ws = he-h, e 288.42- 651.448 - g6 BTV ) bm

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 88

 Thermodynamics Notes
== >
M - _ t - - 180.9
C 2035 Ty-V. 330.3

'• v 5.(1

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 89

 Thermodynamics Notes

Otto Cycle

Internal combustion engine cycle for gasoline with air-based working substance, used for the generation of
mechanical power mainly and the most widely used thermal engine along with the stove and the water heater
in the entire world. The power of the internal combustion engine has its application in transportation and in
driving pumps or generators.

The machine can be normally aspirated or supercharged in the intake in order to increase its efficiency and
with subcooling in the exhaust. There are certain conditions that must be met to obtain an operation of the
mechanical cycle that is most similar to the thermodynamic cycle and they are:

• Maximum cylinder volume with minimum exposed surface area to reduce transmission temperature

• Maximum pressure at the beginning of the expansion time

• Maximum plunger speed to limit heat transfer

• Maximum possible expansion

=h3-h2
QS [J] [BTU] [Kcal] Carburetor
QR=h1-h4 [J] [BTU] [Kcal] Exhaust and water jackets
WS=h2-h1 [J] [BTU] [Kcal] Compression stroke
WE=h4-h3 [J] [BTU] [Kcal] Expansion career

Efficiency increases by increasing the pressure ratio or by decreasing T 1 and increasing T 2 .

V1
V2

η=1-
=1-
T2
T 1
QS - Q RWE
=
QS QS

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 90

 Thermodynamics Notes

T 1 ⎛ V 2⎞ - ⎛ V 3⎞ -
K 1 K 1
T4
T 2 = ⎝ ⎜ V 1⎠ ⎟= ⎝ ⎜ V 4⎠ ⎟ =
T3

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 91

 Thermodynamics Notes

26. Example.- An OTTO machine that has a compression ratio of 7 and the temperature is less
than 90°F and the highest is 3000°F, the initial pressure is 14.7 psia. Find

53.33 bit
. ALw HEAR

- (u.5 43

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 9

2
 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 93

 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 94

 Thermodynamics Notes

Diesel Cycle

Internal combustion engine cycle for diesel with air-based working substance, used for mechanical power
generation, electrical fluid generation and transportation. Like the Otto machine, it can be normally aspirated
or supercharged in the intake in order to increase its efficiency and with subcooling in the exhaust. The
essential difference between the Otto machine and the Diesel machine is the compression ratio that one and
the other can handle, based on the fact that ignition in the diesel machine is carried out by ignition
temperature, reached by compressing the air until it reaches the temperature and At an instant before this
happens the fuel is injected; In the Otto machine this happens with an ignition spark generated in a spark plug.
For this reason, the Diesel machine is more robust and has a better application in transport based on trucks,
ships and in stationary power plants.

=h3-h2
QS [J] [BTU] [Kcal] Injector
QR=h1-h4 [J] [BTU] [Kcal] Exhaust and water jackets
WS=h2-h1 [J] [BTU] [Kcal] Compression stroke
WE=h4-h3 [J] [BTU] [Kcal] Expansion career
V1rc=
V2
Compression Ratio and Load Ratio

V3
V2

η QS -Q R =1-T4 -T 1 =1- V 2 ⎞⎟⎛⎜

QS K(T3 -T 2
r L K
-1⎞⎟
T3 V3
=
T2 V4

K-1
T4 V3
T3 ⎞⎟

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 95

 Thermodynamics Notes

It is optimal to work with the Otto machine with r c of 12 and with the Diesel of 20 in both cases the efficiency
of the machine is 64%. The difference lies in the robustness of the machine, one operates at 12 and the other
at 20 atm of pressure, plus the quality and price of the fuel.
%η
84

74

64

54

44

The possibilities of heat recovery in IC engines focus on the points of the cooling and heat rejection process,
in this way the rejection heat in a generator set with recovery potential is of the order of 50%, with a
generation electricity of 40% and losses of 9 to 11%.

g Generator AN Exhaust
M mci TO oil tank
R radiator h exhaust gases

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 96

 Thermodynamics Notes

27. Example.- A diesel machine works with the same parameters as the previous Otto machine. Find
everything only that re = 15.

It- $50 °R
T,= 360 OR

162.99

ww-m) = 116.93

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 97

 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 9

8
 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 99

 Thermodynamics Notes

The steam engine and recovery boiler

The steam generator is made up of several basic and auxiliary components, the basic ones generate steam at
operating pressure and temperature, the auxiliary ones help carry out the process with greater efficiency.

The generation process involves a change in the physical properties of water through heat transfer by
convection, radiation and conduction. The most common way to generate heat is through the oxidation of a
fuel with oxygen from the atmosphere in a combustion process. Heat is transferred to the water through a
contact surface called the heating surface. This process is carried out at constant pressure. The liquid water is
injected with a pump at the operating pressure, after the heat has evaporated the water, the steam is ready to
be used directly as saturated steam or to be superheated.

The steam engine operates within a heat transfer process and makes use of sensible and latent heat, with a
heat generating source (burner), a heat exchanger (heating surface), a compression machine (such as a
pump of water).
T ts

Boiler Over heater

----------------, S
Technically, the section of the steam generator where steam generation is carried out or water is heated is
called a boiler. The boiler can be internal combustion if the fireplace is inside the body of it. External
combustion if the home is outside it. Regenerative if the heat transfer is through a hot mass flow as in the case
of a combined cycle, electric core or solar plant.

The power of a boiler is defined by the ASME (American Society of Mechanics Engineers) as the boiler horse
(cc) and represents the evaporation of 15.65 kg/hr of water at 100 °C to produce steam at 100 °C, this
definition of horse Boiler encompasses only the latent heat of evaporation.

DC Equivalence
1 CC 15.65 kg/hr
34.50 lb/hr
33.45 btu/hr
8510 kcal/hr

In general, low capacity boilers are indicated in kcal/hr or Btu/hr, medium capacity boilers in cc, and high
capacity boilers in kg/hr or lb/hr. The important characteristic in a boiler is the working pressure, based on this
they can be classified as: low pressure, when the design pressure does not exceed one atmosphere; medium
pressure, when they are greater than one atmosphere and less than 10.5 kg/cm 2 ; high pressure for those
greater than 10.5 kg/cm 2 .

They are classified according to the type of heating surface, referring to the relative position of the combustion
gases and water inside the boiler, this is how boilers are classified.

- Igneotubular (smoke tubes)

- Aquatubular (water tubes)

This great classification can be made more specific if secondary aspects are considered such as the position
of the tubes (straight or bent tubes), based on the use for which they are intended, based on their capacity,
and according to their physical state. .

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 100

 Thermodynamics Notes

The selection of the type of boiler depends on the service for which it is intended, the fuel available, the values
of temperature, pressure and flow required. On the other hand, there are other factors that intrinsically
intervene such as operation, installation, safety, maintenance, as well as the overall deciding factor, economic
cost.

Smoke tube boilers are those in which the combustion products circulate inside the tubes and are surrounded
by water on the outside. In this way the heat transfer from the gases to the water is carried out by conduction
in the wall of the tube, by convection in the water on the surface of the metal to the furthest water. Also as part
of the heating surface there are integral or combustion tube hearths, limited by water-cooled surfaces called
mirrors and refractories.

These boilers are used in processes where relatively low pressures are required. Smoke tube boilers have
simple operation without notable disturbances due to the variation in steam demand, in addition to the fact that
their control can be carried out by automatic devices and controls.

Smoke tube boilers are made up of mirrors, flux tubes, corrugated or smooth metal hearth, refractories,
casing, insulation, chimney and controls.

Water tube boilers consist of domes, refractories, insulation, burners, chimneys, and the same controls as
smoke tube boilers but with a different principle of operation. In them, the water passes through the inside of
the tubes that can be straight or bent, the hot gases flow outside, surrounding them.

An important characteristic of these boilers is that they can produce large quantities of steam due to their large
heating surface and the long path of the combustion gases. Given the above, water tube boilers can cope in a
short time with the increase in steam demand, which is why they are widely used in processes that require
operating pressures greater than 21 kg/cm 2 and in power generation plants.

Poorly operated equipment will impact operating costs due to expenses generated by: damage repair, fuel
waste, excessive spending on spare parts, operational downtime, process delay, unproductive investment,
distraction of financial, material, human and unsafety. All this translated into a bad image and loss of
competitiveness.

There are three types of boiler operation systems, 1) with one flame position, 2) with two flame positions and
3) with flame modulation. Each manufacturer presents its models based on its operating system. Boiler
models for one flame position or for constant steam demand do not have any degree of flexibility. Models with
two flame positions, high and low fire, these have the possibility of adapting to two load conditions. The most
used boilers are those that can be adjusted to any demand condition within the load range, depending on the
design, they vary the steam generation from 100% to 25 or 30%, they present a high degree of flexibility.

The boiler operating systems are optimal if they operate where the conditions of the process to which they will
provide steam service require equipment with such characteristics. If the equipment does not have the
characteristics of the process, its operation will be difficult, expensive and it will not be able to meet the
demand for steam with quality; not because the equipment is of poor quality and design; If not, because both
the type of operating system and the capacity were not properly selected.

The satisfaction of steam demand must be covered with quantity and quality within the optimal operating
range of the equipment (manufacturer's design). Equipment that has to work outside the operating range due
to poor selection of operating characteristics and capacity will be inefficient.

Equipment with more (excess) capacity than required will present two problems from its acquisition: 1)
operation below the optimal load range and 2) financial investment in excessive unproductive capacity. Such a
situation will generate loss of financial resources in the acquisition of excess capacity; In addition, excessive
wear of parts and components will occur during the stop and start periods caused by generating much more
steam than is consumed. Likewise, the repetitive operation of boiler controls and elements increases the
probability of a failure occurring.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 101

 Thermodynamics Notes

On the other hand, equipment short on capacity will present problems in operation and non-compliance with
steam demand. A boiler in this situation will require more time to reach working conditions; in continuous
operation the working pressure cannot be maintained. Disturbances will occur in level control due to excessive
waves on the water surface; The steam generated will contain greater humidity, condensate carryover, and
loss of temperature and pressure will occur; directly impacting the steam lines, machines and the process in
general.

A boiler is basically a heat exchanger (70% of its cost is made up of the heating surfaces) with its own
generating source of the heating fluid, its performance depends on three factors: combustion efficiency, speed
of heat transfer to the liquid of work and reduction of losses due to radiation and conduction.

All actions aimed at improving the performance of a boiler must take into account the three factors mentioned
in the previous paragraph. Thus, each manufacturer offers, for these cases, better technology systems and
auxiliary equipment, which can be incorporated into new boilers or those in use at the customer's request.

A boiler that does not have auxiliary equipment will work with lower efficiency and will also require greater
attention. The boiler and its operation should not be allowed to: 1) fouling of the heating surfaces, 2)
imbalance in the combustion system, 3) poor condition of refractories and insulation, 4) condensate carryover,
5) air in steam lines, 6) lack of purge, 7) excessive purge, 8) lack of condensate return, 9) non-recovery of
water and heat in the purges.

Cleaning of heating surfaces includes the water side and the smoke side. Its ensuing is linked on the water
side to the treatment of the feed water, conditioning and frequency of purges; The good state of these aspects
depends on the degree of awareness of the people in charge of carrying them out. The equipment that
performs and controls these functions exists on the market in simple and sophisticated models.

The cleanliness of the surfaces through which the smoke circulates is linked to the combustion and quality of
the fuel. A well-operated boiler, working two shifts per day, should be swept every 9 months by burning gas,
every 6 months by burning diesel or diesel; every 4 months burning fuel oil; this as a general recommendation
from the manufacturers, based on the cleanliness factor

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 102

 Thermodynamics Notes

used for calculating the heating surface. In practice, chimney sweeping equipment must be done when the
temperature of the gases in the chimney is above 190°C. The optimal temperature range is 160 to 190°C with
conventional equipment. A poorly carbureted boiler emitting smoke can become sooty in a day.

The return of hot condensate to the boiler allows, on the one hand, to reduce fuel consumption and, on the
other hand, the waste of treated water. The condensate return system must allow the maximum return of
water at the highest possible temperature, so that the feed water to the boiler is mostly distilled water free of
100% mineral matter and with a temperature close to the boiling.

Dry or superheated
steam

Recovery boilers are heat

exchangers based on smoke tubes, water tubes and coils. The variations with respect to a steam generator or
conventional boiler lie in the nature of their function within the process and whether they have, half have or It
does not have its own burner.
5. SECOND THERMODYNAMIC LAW (ENTROPY)

EFFECTIVENESS OF HEAT EXCHANGE SURFACES

5.1 THE POSTULATE OF CLAUSIUS (REFRIGERATORS) AND OF KELVIN AND PLANCK (THERMAL
MACHINES)

It is impossible for a machine that acts by itself, without the help of an outside agent, to pass heat from a body
at a certain temperature to another at a higher temperature. Likewise, it is impossible to build a
thermodynamic machine that, when operating according to a certain cycle, does not produce more effects
than doing work and exchanging heat with a single thermal deposit.

A and B Carnot machines

_ (185) (32) _ 18s....................................................................................................................5

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 103
 Thermodynamics Notes

F —(t.gg IL..............................................................................................................................5
°, \w =-.58 Wom......................................................................................................................19
we.a........................................................................................................................................21
t - (15000 (x) w; w.................................................................................................................21
ηt =.........................................................................................................................................24
" W = Sp-v = (vv,) Ws"sW)......................................................................................................41
W - PN,3................................................................................................................................41
=)............................................................................................................................................41
W ■ (1 Dw) (100 M \ .403 43 N "uuete)............................................................................................41
rj/ V/Lfe.....................................................................................................................................41
—18f..........................................................................................................................................41
\b \ es IV °°1bh ) 318 Ibf-)L4................................................................................................42
Pv...........................................................................................................................................44
=>............................................................................................................................................44
5
'to y-1..............................................................................................................................44
=>............................................................................................................................................44
pm=pa+pb+pc+ ∑ p i..............................................................................50
⎛ kgmol ⎞⎛ kg ⎞........................................................................................................................52
-...............................................................................................................................................53
1 - ⎟ = 1 + + v ⎠ v...................................................................................................................53
Tc =........................................................................................................................................55
⎞ ⎟ = Z......................................................................................................................................57
C1) wiu. ). u .003 s, co, w.........................................................................................................57
12.ous a1%.wo .003 (Co)..............................................................................................................57
- ($a)(2.8/2w3)KymalK..................................................................................................................58
R„- 22g)('2v.)+(0.s)(*448)* <•»> (85).............................................................................................59
Am 3 5)......................................................................................................................................59
Cowwwon..............................................................................................................................67
,0, 3 2.38 6axw3 1 3 {k\......................................................................................................67
Kew bvw3 j _Nm J 210*}}...................................................................................................67
N = -238 ^5............................................................................................................................67
k- 5»*&......................................................................................................................................68
T,, (P,"=...................................................................................................................................................68
TPJ.............................................................................................................................................68
-O.*t-'K (-1,141)........................................................................................................................68

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 104

 Thermodynamics Notes

h= *2213 -2.1.......................................................................................................................................68
M=v- ( M ' M _ N ( ' N...........................................................................................................68
ü ewRT AN(®M** )(8-6.3)8W5**..........................................................................................70
w=-33%,.................................................................................................................................70
gyper.v(6,V4 vk ew qqoceso qbiabdkic....................................................................................70
8, W=-H*HHNR....................................................................................................................70
Pe = y [(h, -h.) v (hh ) • (hh))............................................................................................................................80
WN T 4- T 1 ⎛ P 1⎞ K - 1.......................................................................................................84
ηT == 1 - =1-⎜⎟......................................................................................................................84
QS T 3- T 2 ⎝ P 2⎠................................................................................................................84
r ==⎜ ⎟..................................................................................................................................85
1-................................................................................................................................................85
η=...........................................................................................................................................95
=1-..........................................................................................................................................95
V 1 ⎠⎝ K ( r L − 1 ) ⎠..............................................................................................................95
Dry or superheated steam........................................................................................................103
UH box -- 1 NR , 6o”......................................................................................................112
1*82 xmioru WVf;\e-lz.ue*)..........................................................................................................115
=>.............................................................................................................................................120
mUCR) = w,C, =>...............................................................................................................128
,M,=0.5m,............................................................................................................................128
luumuiü...............................................................................................................................................129

WA = QA1(1-T3/T2) 7; 6 in 7

QA3 = QA1(T3/T1) 8

Likewise for B

QB3 = QB2(T3/T2) 9; 8 and 9 in 5

QS3 ≥ QA1T3/T1 + QB2T3/T2 ÷ T3

QS3/T3 ≥ QA1/T1 + QB2/T2

of 1

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 105

 Thermodynamics Notes

QS3/T3 ≥ QS1/T1 + QS2/T2

0 ≥ QS1/T1 + QS2/T2 + QS3/T3 ⇒∑ Qn/Tn ≤ 0

→∞
When n

∑ ∫ ≤ Qn/Tn = dQ/dt = 0

⌠
⌡ ≤ dQ/dt 0 Clausius inequality

5.2 THE REVERSIBLE PROCESS, CAUSES OF IRREVERSIBILITY

A process or cycle reversible in all respects is the most perfect that can be conceived. All real processes are
irreversible.

irreversibility = losses (Friction, turbulence, rubbing, rubbing, rebound)

If after a process ends it can be made to return in reverse order through the different states of the original
process, and if all quantities of energy entering or leaving the surrounding medium can be returned to their
original state (work as work, heat as heat etc.), then such a process is externally and internally reversible.

5.3 THE ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALE

Temperature is an index of the relative internal energy of mass. Temperature is the thermal potential causing
the heat flow. A gas that has no internal energy would be at absolute 0 (-460ºR or -273ºK).

°F °R °C °K
212 672 100 373

32 492 0 273

0 460 -17.8 255.2

-459.7 0 -273.2 0

5.4 ENTROPY PRODUCTION (EXERGY)

If a process has some irreversibility (Clausius inequality)

∫ ∫ ∆
dS = dq/dt + Sp = 0

∆
Where, Sp is always positive and is called internal entropy production or entropy growth.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 106

 Thermodynamics Notes

The cyclic change in entropy is equal to zero because entropy is a trajectory property.

∆ Sab + ∆ Sbc + ∆ Sca = 0

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 107

 Thermodynamics Notes

32. Example.- Consider a copper bar insulated at one end, heat is transferred at a rate of 200W from a
region that is at 300°C and the same amount of heat is discharged through the other end to a region
that is at 21°. c. How much is the production of entropy?

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 108

 Thermodynamics Notes

33. Example.- A steam turbine can operate under partial load conditions by reducing the inlet flow
through a throttling valve, if the steam at the boiler outlet is at 20 bar and 300°C and the
pressure at the boiler inlet is turbine is reduced to 4 bar. Calculate the Sp.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos

 Thermodynamics Notes

Exergy concept

The First Principle of Thermodynamics says that energy is conserved in any process and that it cannot be
created or destroyed; The energy that accompanies a fuel, the flows of matter, etc., can be located and
determined in the resulting products, but the Principle of Conservation of Energy does not clarify other aspects
related to the use of energy resources.

If a fuel is assumed to burn, the final state is determined by a mixture of combustion gases, ash, residual air
and heat; The energy associated with the system remains constant, but the initial mixture of fuel and air is
much more useful and has better quality than the final mixture of hot gases, that is, the fuel could always be
used in any device to generate work, while that the possible uses of the combustion products would be more
restricted, so the useful energy of the system at the beginning of the process is much greater than the useful
energy that the gases have at the end of combustion, which is destroyed due to the irreversible nature of the
process, that is, useful energy is not conserved, unlike energy.

The foundations of the concept of exergy are revealed when defining the Second Principle of
Thermodynamics and the Laws of Equilibrium of real transformations, as there is the possibility of generating
work when two systems in different thermal states come into contact.

If one of them is an ideal system (environment) and the other is a closed system, the exergy is the
maximum theoretical work that can be obtained from their mutual interaction until reaching the
equilibrium state , the numerical value of it depending on the states of the considered closed system and the
environment.

Exergy can be destroyed by irreversibilities and can also be transferred to or from a system; The efficient use
of energy resources is associated with the destruction and loss of exergy in the systems, the objective of
exergetic analysis being to locate, quantify and identify these causes.

Exergy is, therefore, the maximum theoretical work that can be obtained when the closed system evolves from
a given initial state to its dead state, interacting only with the environment. Exergy can also be defined as the
minimum theoretical work necessary to contribute to ensure that the closed system goes from its dead state to
another predetermined state, and it cannot be negative.

Exergy is a measure of the difference between the state of a closed system and the state of the environment.

Environment concept

Every system evolves when it interacts with its environment, so it is important to distinguish between the
concepts of environment and environment or surroundings of the system.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 106

 Thermodynamics Notes

The environment is defined as everything that is not included in the system and is immediate to it, remaining
in contact with its thermal exchange surface, while the concept of environment (universe) can be applied to
that region in which its properties intensive are uniform and do not change significantly as a result of the
process carried out, and can be considered for thermal purposes as a black body.

Irreversibilities can be considered located within the system, internal irreversibilities, or in its immediate
environment, external irreversibilities.

The environment (universe) is assumed to be free of irreversibilities, and is defined as a simple,

compressible system of large dimensions, which is always maintained at a uniform pressure P 0 and
temperature T 0 , values that may or may not coincide with typical environmental conditions.

Its intensive properties are not modified, but the extensive ones, internal energy Ua, entropy Sa and volume
Va, can vary as a result of the interaction with other systems, being related by the equation, DUa = T 0 DSa - P
0 Dva

The kinetic and potential energies are evaluated in relation to the environment, and it can be considered that it
is always at rest with respect to any other reference system, so any modification in its energy can only be due
to a variation in its internal energy. .

Dead state concept

If the state of a constant amount of matter that constitutes the closed system is different from that of the
environment, there is the possibility of generating work. However, as the system evolves towards equilibrium
with the environment, this possibility decreases, disappearing completely when thermodynamic equilibrium is
reached; This particular state of the system is called the dead state , and the closed system is at rest relative
to the environment at its temperature T 0 and pressure P 0 .

In the dead state, both the closed system and the environment possess a certain energy, but the value of their
exergy is zero, since it is not possible for a spontaneous change to occur in the closed system or in the
environment since they cannot there are interactions between them.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 107

 Thermodynamics Notes

EXERCISES:

YEAH
3. A liquid-vapor mixture of refrigerant 134a is maintained in a rigid container at 60°C. The system is heated
until its final state is the critical point. Determine (a) the initial quality of the mixture, and (b) the initial
relationship between the volumes of vapor and liquid.

P:H115bo V=w'c s- 0.684 k>_

'Km K
% 60 C or pesvh es le 15.25 bqr
Se 0.646 5 s, = Vs = W. W c"/9r m
0.3358 V5 0.8581 cm,m

$=s,x * (- X)s, =,

0.5687-0.3358 - 6.68
0.6165- 0.3358

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 108

 Thermodynamics Notes

Y
E
A 4. Carbon dioxide enters a steady state into an adiabatic nozzle at 1 MPa pressure and 500
H °C, with a mass flow of 6000 kg/hr and leaves at 100 kPa and 450 m/s. The cross
section of the entrance has an area of 40 cm 2 . Determine (a) the inlet velocity and (b)
the outlet temperature.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 109

 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos

 Thermodynamics Notes

YEAH
6. Determine the specific volume of refrigerant 134a in the vapor phase, at 60 °C, and 14 bar,
using (a) the ideal gas equation of state and (b) the principle of the corresponding states,
and (C) the superheated steam tables.

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos

 Thermodynamics Notes

Cvtwcc16 n

3. v-0.016
.Kg

0 Ae +aLVa,

UH box -- 1 NR , 6o”
N -0.014 m3
Egmn

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 112

 Thermodynamics Notes

YEAH
7. A 0.1 m 3 device contains 0.70 kg of N2 and 1.10 kg of CO 2 at 27 °C. Calculate (a) the
pressure of component N2 in kPa, (b) the volume of each substance in m 3 , (c) the total
pressure in kPa, and (d) the gas constant for the mixture in kJ/kg-K.

M..Rm _ ( 0.+Kgmkwol
Na V. 38 K°m /
\ Kyme K/( 0.1m3

1.32 * =

:. P,, = c 23. c KP *•

Po, -(11) í f ,
5
or 1 ) 1,033 J
5/V° 10
. Pco,- 623.61 kR
= 124 .23 k (a

P- (23. ¿i R4 +623.61
Pm-1*.23kR =
8 ____+243)K 1 EmlEsf

6) and . M. RTI(o.+\( 117.23K?

" "”2 V * •

V,,- 5,093 Kqm(iu26**,.\'

' Ra "9*j
g-]-
V,,= 0.05m

Meo - /11/847.4\(24423
1
\H9 ( 1b0*
Vt,= 0.0Sw3 N(1t.315 )
/\ 1.033 )
mm\13/"
D f 8.313 k \ ( k«wo)-------------- \ %m* ((a)-31.11 *5
VKgmelk ) 3# ko" )
•. Rw-o.00k> ___

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos w

m
 Thermodynamics Notes

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 114

 Thermodynamics Notes

N - 1482. Wof

Sos-*osew ¿o ew * kenemos qve:

P= 91.93 - 1*82 xmioru WVf;\e-lz.ue*)

=10.39k?

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 115

 Thermodynamics Notes

YEAH
9. A rigid container contains water vapor at a pressure of 15 bar and an unknown temperature. When the
steam cools to 180 °C, it begins to condense. Estimate (a) the initial temperature in °C and (b) the
change in internal energy in kJ. (c) Sketch the process on a pv diagram.

The Se\uyqción 180° =>

Pe\0k
15%26k}

y =3901.34
x-343.4

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 116

 Thermodynamics Notes

Cow'waciów

evo 4t
9*.18 “ S2 = 6.586 this means what V
In*
Break
Wsminoge s est es tmosikle, poi What you see the most {ec\ is Nseo
9) e) is {sovolmetic = >
t■. .■
1- _
10 - 06:5C What I have hex that As seq n
18012*3 ------ - MG$ nesqivo g Poy lo tqnto
m<s Iveq\

117

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos

 Thermodynamics Notes

YEAH
10. An unknown liquid has a vapor pressure of 88 mmHg at 45°C and 39 mmHg at
25°C. Using the Clausius-Clapeyron equation , estimate the enthalpy of -3 . «1. «1
vaporization. (R = 8.31x10 kJmol K ).

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 118

 Thermodynamics Notes

11. How much mass of concrete fits in an 18 liter can? The mixture is 73% by mass
of concrete and the rest is water. The density of concrete is 6.24 g/cm and that of water is
998.2 kg/m 3 . How many cans are required to cast a 0.13 x 0.30 x 4 m beam,
neglecting the volume of the rod reinforcement. In kg and number of cans.

Ms, revol}oq

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos

 Thermodynamics Notes

Cov\woc6h

==>
Meon = (0.+3)(4(.U5) =33.9
+yabe = o. 156 w3

=>
N, boats — 0»5 6 LoA e _ 8 66 boats
0.018 m3%

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 120

 Thermodynamics Notes

YEAH
12. A refrigeration system that used R-12 as the working substance is replaced with said
substance, evacuated and then charged with R-134a refrigerant at a constant temperature of
20°C. The system volume is 18 liters. Determine the pressure in the system when the mass
being loaded is 0.4 kg. In Kpa.

V Ct, V)
V = 18 X= 0.018 m*
=>
v, 0.018m* - 0.65 3 =>
0. leg 9

P (10, 0.05)

of +b)s penalty R-\3* se A jan qve:

P=k?

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 121

 Thermodynamics Notes

YEAH
13. A container with a capacity of 30,000 cm 3 contains a gas in two compartments a and b
separated by a wall. When the wall is removed the gas mixes, producing a fluid of 0.8 kg/m 3 .
Calculate the original mass in compartment a, if the original densities in a and b were
respectively 1.1 kg/m 3 and 0.28 kg/m 3 . In kg.

M+ML = oo m K3

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 122

 Thermodynamics Notes

YEAH
14. A condensation chamber works at a vacuum pressure of 70 kPa in the DF (Patm. of 78 kPa).
The chamber is moved to a location that is 4200 m above sea level and must operate at the
same absolute pressure, the new vacuum pressure is asked to calculate. Consider that the
atmosphere is isothermal at 15°C and that R is 287 N m /kg °K.
 Thermodynamics Notes

YEAH
15. The barometer can be used as a device for altitude measurement in airplanes. Ground control
reports a barometric reading of 753 mm Hg while the pilot's reading is 690 mm Hg. Estimate the
altitude of the plane from level 3
soil, if the average air density is 1.2 kg/m, the density of mercury is

2
13600 kg/m and the force of gravity is 9.81 m/s .

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 12

4
 Thermodynamics Notes

YEAH
16. A block of iron of 50 kg at 80°C is introduced into an insulated tank that 3
contains 0.5 m of water at 25°C. Water is considered an incompressible fluid with
3
a density of 1000 kg/m and the specific heats of Iron and water are 0.45 kJ/Kg K and 4.18
kJ/Kg K respectively. Determine: a) the temperature when thermal equilibrium is reached; b)
the change in entropy of the system, as well as whether the process is reversible, irreversible
or impossible.

90 v 2322. = 12.881*

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 125

 Thermodynamics Notes

Y
E 17. A hair dryer consists of a duct in which an electrical resistance is placed. A small fan pushes the air
and forces it to pass through the resistance where it is heated. Air enters a 1200 W hair dryer at
100 kPa and 22°C and leaves at 47°C.
2
The cross-sectional area of the dryer is 60 cm . Neglect the power consumed by the fan and the
thermal losses through the walls of the dryer as well as the changes in kinetic and potential energy.
Determine: a) the volume flow ratio 3
of air through the dryer in m /s; and b) the speed of the air at the exit. Consider air as an ideal gas
with a specific heat at constant pressure of 1.005 kJ/kg K. The particular constant of air is 0.287
kJ/kg K.
18. In a perfectly insulated heat exchanger, 2 currents enter a single phase. The specific heat at

.on Kyf
tol.325 kcw

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 12

6
 Thermodynamics Notes

constant pressure of stream 1 is four times that of stream 2. Determine the flow ratio necessary so
that the outlet temperature of stream 1 is the inlet temperature of stream 2 and vice versa.

G&2HC* =>
m,C dT, =M,CA, s se +ene qve AT, = AT, => M,C,=M,C =>
mUCR) = w,C, =>
HM, = m, = >
m,= \w, H
,M,=0.5m,

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 127

 Thermodynamics Notes

Y
E
A 19. Two parallel plates 20 cm long and 10 cm wide form a channel through which water passes.
H If a resistance 2 is placed on the outside of both plates
electric constant heat flow of 5500 W/m. Determine the flow of water in kg/h that passes
between the plates, if the outlet temperature of the water is 1°C higher than that of the inlet.
Consider the specific heat at constant pressure of water as 4.18 kJ/Kg K.

luumuiü

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 128

 Thermodynamics Notes

ISSUES

1. Structure the thermodynamic concept of a heat engine, also explain its reason for being and under
what premise it is designed.

2. Water flows from a reservoir. Determine the speed and volumetric flow rate in the discharge.

3. Find the pressure values at the indicated points, 1000 kgm/m 3

4. An oil well in the Campeche probe produces crude oil by injecting water and nitrogen. The procedure
consists of injecting water until it floods the well cavity. The height of the well cavity is 200 m, of which
the water must cover 45m, nitrogen is injected under pressure to force the crude oil out with a
pressure of 1 kg/cm 2 and at a height of 20 m above ground level. What pressure must the compressor
exert to inject the nitrogen? The density of the water used is 1016 kgm/m 3 ; The density of the crude
oil is 136.15lbm/ft 3

5. A piece of ice, initially at 5°C below zero, is placed in a cooler that has 18 liters of water at 18°C; After
melting completely, the ice can cool the water up to 5°C. The heats of water are 0.501 BTU in the
solid state, 1BTU/lbm °F in the liquid state and the heat of fusion is 143.3 BTU/lbm. How much did the
piece of ice weigh if its melting temperature is 32°F?

6. An isothermal compression takes 0.002 kgm of air from a pressure of 78 kPa to 400 kPa, the initial
Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 129
 Thermodynamics Notes

volume is 1.08 m3/kgm. What is the value of the work done in kJ?

7. A turbine operating in a steady state with a flow of 4.6 tons/h develops 1000 KW. At the inlet the
pressure is 60 bar and the temperature is 400 °C with a speed of 10 m/s. At the outlet the pressure is
0.1 bar and the quality is 90% with a speed of 50 m/s. Calculate the losses of the turbine to the
environment and if the process is adiabatic, how much is the efficiency of the turbine.

8. A steam engine receives this fluid at an absolute pressure of 14 kg/cm2 and a temperature of 204.4
°C. The absolute exhaust pressure is 1.4 kg/cm2. In the event that a low pressure turbine is coupled
whose absolute exhaust pressure is 25.4 mm hg to reuse the fluid leaving the first. What would be the
percentage increase in usable energy, assuming that the expansion is not isentropic. X 1 =1, X 2 =1

9. To a control volume that operates in a stable state, a steam flow of 40 kg/s at 7 bar measured on a
manometer is entering, at another point water enters at 7 bar gauge and 40 ºC through a 25 cm duct. 2
and a saturated liquid leaves at 117.6 psia with a flow of 0.06 m 3 /s. Determine the mass flows.
Determine the speeds and temperatures.

10. In a turbine that operates in a stable state, a steam flow of 4.6 tons/h enters, the turbine develops
1000 kW. The steam pressure at the turbine inlet is 60 bar and 400ºC with a speed of 10 m/s. The
outlet pressure is 460 mm Hg and there is a quality of 0.9, with a speed of 50 m/s. Calculate the heat
losses from the turbine to the environment. The generation of entropy. If the process is adiabatic,
determine the efficiency of the turbine (the temperature of the medium is 25ºC).

11. An open water preheater operates with a water inlet (1) at 50ºC and 10 bar. In a separate line (2),
another flow enters at 10 bar and with a mass ratio m 2 /m 1 of 0.22. At the outlet there is saturated
liquid at 10 bar. For flow 2, determine its temperature if the steam is superheated or the quality if the
steam is saturated.

12. Calculate the efficiency of a Diesel cycle that has 5% cut and a pressure ratio of 15.

13. The efficiency of an Otto cycle is 54%. How much does clearing cost?

14. 2238 net KW are needed in a pumping plant based on a gas turbine, crude oil is pumped from the
Campeche probe to the Tula refinery. The air enters the compressor at 99.5 kPa abs and 278 °K. The
pressure ratio rp is equal to 10. The turbine receives the hot gases at 1111 °K. Assume a closed cycle
and calculate: A) air mass flow, B) thermal efficiency and C) optimal temperature relationships.

15. An Otto machine that has a compression ratio of 7 and the temperature lower than 90ºF and 3000ºF
higher, the initial pressure is 14.7 psia. find everything

16. A Diesel machine works with the same parameters as the previous Otto machine, find everything, only
rc=15

17. Calculate the efficiency of a Diesel cycle that has 5% cut-off and a pressure ratio (rc) of 15.

18. The efficiency of an Otto cycle is 54%. How much does the clearing cost?

19. A basic and ideal standard air gas turbine engine has a compressor intake temperature of 519ºR and
a turbine inlet temperature of 2520°R. Calculate:
a. The pressure ratio that gives the maximum net work.
b. The work of the compressor, that of the turbine, the added heat and the thermal efficiency for
the pressure ratio of a)
c. Consider variable specific heats

20. A refrigeration cycle based on Freon 12 operates within the following conditions:

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 130

 Thermodynamics Notes

a. Evaporator inlet 1.8 bar, evaporator outlet 1.8 bar, compressor outlet 7.5 bar and 30°C,
condenser outlet 7.5 bar, expansion valve outlet 1.8 bar ys=cte.
b. Find the work done by the compressor, the heat rejected, the heat absorbed and the work of
expansion. How much is cop efficiency worth? And if the mass of freon is 1 kg/h, what
refrigeration capacity does it have in tons. The pressures are absolute.

21. Explains the concepts of state, equilibrium, intensive properties, extensive properties.
22. What does the pvT diagram represent? Make an outline.
23. How the internal energy and enthalpy are defined as a function of C v and C p .

24. Determine the specific volume of refrigerant 134a in the vapor phase, at 60 °C, and 14 bar, using (a)
the ideal gas equation of state and (b) the principle of the corresponding states, and (C) the tables of
superheated steam.

25. A 0.1 m 3 device contains 0.70 kg of N 2 and 1.10 kg of CO 2 at 27 °C. Calculate (a) the pressure of
component N 2 in kPa, (b) the volume of each substance in m 3 , (c) the total pressure in kPa, and (d)
the gas constant for the mixture in kJ/kg·K .

26. A 3.27 m 3 tank contains 100 kg of nitrogen at 225 K. Determine the pressure in the tank, using (a) the
ideal gas equation and (b) the van del Waals equation. Compare your results with the actual value of
2000 kPa.

27. A rigid container contains water vapor at a pressure of 15 bar and an unknown temperature. When the
steam cools to 180 °C, it begins to condense. Estimate (a) the initial temperature in °C and (b) the
change in internal energy in kJ. (c) Sketch the process on a pv diagram.

28. Determine the mass of the valve of a pressure cooker to operate at 1,985 bar. The cross section of the
pot duct opening is 4 mm 2 . At what temperature will the water boil in the pot in a place where the
atmospheric pressure is 1.01325 bar? Draw the free body diagram of the valve.

29. A group of 10 executives meet in a room measuring 6m × 6m × 3m. Assume that each person has a
volume of 0.07 m 3 and provides heat at a rate of 396 kJ/h. Calculate the increase in air temperature
that occurs 30 minutes into the meeting, if the room is perfectly sealed and isolated. Consider that the
C v of air is 0.718 kJ/kg·K, the molar mass of air is 28.97 kg/kgmol and the universal gas constant (R
u ) is 8314 J/kgmol·K. Assume that the process starts at standard atmospheric conditions (ambient
temperature of 25°C and atmospheric pressure of 1.01325 bar).

30. A liquid-vapor mixture of refrigerant 134a is maintained in a rigid container at 60°C. The system is
heated until its final state is the critical point. Determine (a) the initial quality of the mixture, and (b) the
initial relationship between the volumes of vapor and liquid.

31. Carbon dioxide enters in a permanent state to an adiabatic nozzle at 1 MPa pressure and 500 °C, with
a mass flow of 6000 kg/h and leaves at 100 kPa and 450 m/s. The cross section of the entrance has
an area of 40 cm12 . Determine (a) the inlet velocity and (b) the outlet temperature.

1 The historical development of Rankine cycles was initially limited by work pressures, so their efficiencies were
around 15%. With advances in the resistance of materials, efficiencies could be raised to 35% by increasing
working pressures up to 210 kg/cm2, after these improvements improvements of the order of 4 to 9% were
achieved with the preheating and reheating stages in the feed water and steam respectively, placing the global
efficiencies in the order of 38 to 40%, the most recent development to this cycle is the introduction of a mixture
of ammonia and water (75% ammonia and 25%) as a working substance, thereby reducing the evaporation
temperature and maintaining the pressures of work, achieving lower fuel consumption, equipment such as the
boiler and turbine do not suffer alterations, but the heat exchangers that condense do require modifications, in
addition to eliminating the use of copper and its alloys as they are corroded by the mixture of ammonia and
water. This modification to the Rankine cycle is called Kalina cycle and represents improvements in the order of
10% compared to the most efficient Rankine.
2 Modifications in the operation and configuration of the gas turbine cycle have developed since the seventies,
ii

Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 131

 Thermodynamics Notes

with the introduction of new materials and the introduction of a variant with the injection of pressurized steam
after the combustion chamber, with the advantage of reducing the formation of nitrogen oxides by reducing the
temperature of the flame and gases, as well as an increase in efficiency of the order of 6 to 8% with the addition

of mass that generates additional thrust, This modification is called the Cheng cycle .
Prepared by Dr. Gabriel León de los Santos 132