WOLLO UNIVERSITY

KOMBOLCHA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Water Resources and Irrigation
Engineering
Course Title : Water Supply and Sanitation Engineering
Course Code:WRIE-4122
Target groups: 4th year WRIE Students
Academic year: 2016, Semester: II

Instructor : Bezawit. T (MSc)

 Course outline
 General about the course
 Course title: Water Supply and Sanitation Engineering
 Course code: WRIE-4122
 Total ECTS : 3
 Course Objectives
To forecast demand and population for designing water supply
scheme methods used
To select water sources and to evaluate the capacity and quality of
the source;
The design concepts for drinking water, treatment, distribution
system, sewerage systems and sewage treatment plants
Course Contents; There are six chapters included under
this course:
1. Water Demand
2. Source of Water
3. Water quality and Treatment
4. Distribution of water
5. Sewerage System
6. Sewage Treatment
1. Birde, G. (1990). Water Supply and Sanitary
Engineering. New Delhi: Dahnpat Rai and Sons.
2. Davis, D. B. (2004). Urban Drainage . New York:
Taylor & Francis e-Library.
3. Garg, S. (1999). Water Supply Engineering. New Delhi:
Payal offset press.
4. Davis, M. (2010). Water and Wastewater Engineering:
Design principles and practices. New york: McGraw-Hill
 Course outline…
 Evaluation

 Quizzes……………..10%

 Mid Exam…………...20%

 Assignment and Project………..20%

 Final-exam ……….50%
 Chapter I
Water Demand
Water Demand:
 Introduction
 Population forecasting
 Types of demand
 Per capital water demand
Total water requirement
Variation in demand
Effect of demand variation on design of water supply
components
INTRODUCTION
So what is it about water that makes it so important to us?
Water is life! Sanitation and hygiene save lives!

 No life can exist without water

 It is as essential for life as air
 Two-third of human body is constituted of water
 Provides luxuries and comforts to human beings

Nicknamed the "water" planet, earth is covered by

one of our most precious resources.
 However, almost 93% is locked in the oceans,

toxic to humans and many plants and animals.

 Water exists in 3-different forms/phases:

 liquid

 solid and

 vapor form.
 Where does water come from?
• The water we use cycles endlessly through the environment.
• This water evaporates from moist surfaces, falls as rain or
snow, passes through living organisms, and returns to the earth
in a process known as the hydrologic-cycle
Hydrologic Cycle
 Global Water over view

But Limited Fresh Water Resource ???

Drinking water : is water used for domestic purposes: drinking,
cooking and personal hygiene;
 Safe drinking water :is water with microbial, chemical and physical
characteristics that meet WHO guidelines or national standards on
drinking water quality.
Wholesome Water :is defined as the water which containing the
minerals in small quantities at required levels & free from harmful
impurities.
 potable water: water that is fit for drinking, safe and agreeable
Access to water-supply services is defined as the availability of at
least 20 liters per person per day from an "improved" source within 1
kilometer of the user's dwelling.
An “improved” source is one that is likely to provide "safe" water,
such as a household connection, a borehole, etc.
  An improved water supply is defined as:
· Household connection
· Public standpipe
· Borehole
· Protected dug well
· Protected spring
· Rainwater collection
Only 48% of the world’s population is connected at the
household level.
 Un improved water supply consists :
• Un protected well
• Un protected spring
• Bottled water
• Vendor provided water
• Tanker truck provided water
 Water supply engineering :deals with the planning, design, construction,
operation and maintenance of water supply systems
 Public water supply system
 Public water supply system comprises Planning, design,
construction, operation and maintenance
Planning
 While planning a water supply project care should be taken to come
up with economical, socially acceptable, and environmentally
friendly schemes that meet the present as well as future requirement.
Water supply system planning involves :
 identification of service needs
 evaluation of options
 determination of optimal strategy to meet services
 development of implementation strategies
The planning exercise involves :
 collection of pertinent data
 consideration of relevant factors, and
 preparation of project documents and cost estimates
Factors to be considered
 Population
 Per capita Requirement
 Industries
 Public places, parks, institutions etc
 Sources of water
 Conveyance of water
 Quality of water
 Treatment works
 Pumping & Storage
 Distribution system
 Economy and reliability
 Objectives of Water supply system

 A water supply system is designed to attain the

following objectives:
 To supply safe and wholesome water to the user
 To supply water in adequate quantity
 To make water readily available to the users to encourage personal
and household hygiene
 To supply water at convenient points and timings
 To supply water at reasonable cost to the users
 Water supply schemes
 The system comprises the following major elements:
 Source (groundwater or surface water);
 Raw water collection structures (intake structure,
transmission line);
 Treatment plant;
 Distribution systems (pipes, pumps, reservoir, different
appurtenances)
 Need to protect water supply system
 Protected water supply means the supply of water that is treated to
remove the impurities and made safe to public health.
 Water when exposed to the atmosphere contain many impurities
which are harmful to any living organisms.
 If untreated water is consumed by living organisms, it is likely to
cause serious harm to their health (water born diseases).
 Hence, in order to make water potable & free from various
impurities, the purification methods should be adopted.
 water supply system
 A water supply system is generally designed and constructed
to serve the needs of a community for a number of years in
the future.
 In the design of any water supply projects, the basic
factors/parameters/ to be considered are
 The design period
 The design population
 The amount of water that is required(water
demand) VS [the source of water]
 Design period
Designing of Water Supply System
 In the design of any water supply scheme for a town or city it is
necessary to determine the total quantity of water required for
various purposes by the city.
 As a matter of fact the first duty of the engineer is to determine this
quantity of water and then finding out the suitable water sources
from where the demand can be satisfied.
 But as there are so many factors involved in demand of water, it
is not possible to accurately determine the actual demand
 Cont…

Quantity of Water

 Three items need to be determined for calculating the total

quantity of water required for a town:
 Design Period
− The number of years for which the system is to be adequate
 Design Population
− The number of persons to be served
 Rate of Demand
− The average quantity of water required by a city in a day
 The number of years for which the designs of the water works
have been done is known as the design period.
The period should neither be to short or too long.
Mostly water works are designed for design period of 22 - 30 years
which is fairly good period.
 For Rural and Category C5, it is recommended to use a design
period of 15 years.
For Categories the construction of urban water supply projects are
mostly carried out in Two Phases in which each phase holds a design
period of 10 years.
The following are the normal design periods for various units of
water supply system:
No. Name of Unit Design period in years

1 Storage dam) 50

2 Electrical motors & pumps 15

3 Water treatment units 15

4 Distribution (pipe line) 30

5 Pipe connection to several treatm.plants 30

& other appurtenants

6 Raw water & clear water conveyance 30

pipes
In general the following points should be kept in mind while
fixing the design period for any water supply system:
 Funds available
 Life of the pipe and other structural materials used in the water
supply scheme.
 Rate of interest on the loans taken to complete the project
 Anticipated(estimated or projected) expansion rate of the town.
Population forecasting
 Outline
Population forecasting
 Estimating population
 Methods of population forecasting
 Factors affecting population forecasting
 Estimating population
 The water supply scheme are not designed for the present
population only but for the population that is expected in the design
period.
 The design engineer first task is to estimate the size of the
population so that the planned structure will remain adequate
throughout the design period.
 This is not an easy task.
 Depending on the projection needs, population projection may be
short term ( 5-10 years) or long term (10-50 years).
 Prior to the design of a water supply components, it is necessary to
forecast the future population of the communities to be served.
 It is difficult to estimate the population growth due to economic and
social factors involved.
 However, a few models have been used for forecasting population.
 Methods of population forecasting
 The knowledge of population forecasting is important for design of
any water supply scheme
 The following are the standard method by which the forecasting of
popn done:
1. Arithmetic increases method
2. Geometric increase method
3. Incremental increase method
4. Decrease rate method
5. Simple graphical method
6. Master plan curve method
7. Logistic curve method
8. Method used by Ethiopians statistic Authority
 Arithmetic increase method
 This method is based on the assumption that the population is
increasing at a constant rate i.e. the rate of change of population
with time is constant.
 This method is generally applicable to large and old cities.
 The population after’ n’ decades can be determined by the formula:

 pn = po + kn
 Where : po = initial population (present popn)
Pn = population at indicates in the future
k = arithmetic increase
n = no of Decades
Example 1
The following data have been noted from the census department.
Year 1940 1950 1960 1970
Population 8,000 12,000 17,000 22,500
Calculate the probable population in the year 1980, 1990 and 2000?

1 1 1
 Geometric increase method
 This method is based on the assumption that the percentage increase
in population remains constant.
 This method is mostly applicable for growing towns and cities
having vast scope of expansion.
 If the present population is p and average percentage growth is k, the
population at the end of n decade will be:
Pn = Po (1 + k) ⁿ
 where: Po = initial population ,
Pn = popn at n decades ,
n = Decades &
k = Percentage (geometric) increase
Example 2: Forecast the population of example 1 by means of
geometrical increase method.
Example 3
The Annual Growth Rate of a town in Ethiopia is 3.5%. Assuming the
present population of the town (in 2010) is 4500, what would be the
population in 2025?

AGR = 3.5%; Po = 4500

n = 2025-2010 = 15

Pn = Po(1+AGR/100)n

P15 = 4500(1+3.5/100)15=7540
 Incremental Increase method
 This method is improvement over the above two methods.
 The average increase in the population is determined by the
arithmetical method and to this is added the average of the net
incremental increase once for each future decade.
 Thus, the future population at the end of n decade/year is given by:

Pn = P0 +n(k1+k2)

 Where: Po = present population

K1= average increase per decade/year
k2 = average incremental increase
n = number of decades/years
Example 4: Forecast the population of example 1 by mean of
incremental increase method.
 Decreasing rate method
In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is
worked out and then subtracted from the latest percentage increase for
each successive decade.
This method is applicable to average size cities growing under
normal condition.
Example 5: Solve example 1, by using decrease rate of growth method.
 Method used by Ethiopians statistic Authority
 This method gives more reliable result.
 This method is recommended for Ethiopian towns.

 Where, Pn =population at n decades or years

Po = initial population
n= Decade or year
K=growth rate in percentage
Example 6: According to CA the population of certain town is 15,640
in the year 1994. Determine the probable population in the year 2010
for k = 3%.

Solution:
Po =15,640
n= 16 year
K=3%

Pn = 25,275
 Factors affecting population forecasting
 Generally, population growth of a town or a city is affected by the
following factors: -
➢ Births, it increases population
➢ Deaths, it decreases population
➢ Migration, it increase/ decrease population.
 Economic Factors
 Development programmes
 Social Facilities
 Tourism
 Community life
 Unforeseen factors
WATER DEMAND
 Outline
Introduction
Various Types Of Water Demands
Per Capita Demand
Factors Affecting Water Demand
 Variations In Demand
 Introduction
 Water demand is defined as the volume of water required by
users to satisfy their needs.
o Demand is the theoretical while consumption is actual
 Design of a water supply scheme requires knowledge of
water demand and its timely variations.
 Various components of a water demand are residential,
commercial, industrial, public water uses, fire demand and
unaccounted for system losses.

In the design of any water works projects it is necessary to estimate

the amount of water that is required. This involves:
The determination of people who will be served
The per capita water consumption
Analysis of the factors that may operate to affect consumption
In the design of any water work projects it is necessary to
estimate the amount of water that is required.
The Estimation of future water demand involves:
1) Estimating the population of the service area
2) Estimating the per capita water demand
3) Considering factors affecting water demand
 Climatic condition
 Living Standard of the community
 Mode of supply of the water:- Public tap, yard connection
and House connection etc.
 Various Types Of Water Demands
There are different categories of water demands, these are: -
1. Domestic water demand
2. Industrial water demand
3. Institutional and commercial water demand
4. Fire demand
5. For unaccounted Water losses and waste
 Domestic Water Demand
 This includes the water required in residential buildings for drinking,
cooking, bathing, lawn sprinkling, gardening, sanitary purposes,
etc.
 The amount of domestic water consumption per person varies
according to the living standards of the consumers.
 In most countries the residential demand constitutes 50 to 60% of the
total demand.
 The domestic demand will depend on many factors, the most
important are economic, social and climatic factors.
 The amount water demand required ranges from 20 LPCD to 350
LPCD for developing countries like Ethiopia and developed countries
respectively.
 Generally, there are five types of mode of services of domestic water
demand, these are
 House tap users (HTU),
 Yard tap users (YTU),
 Public tap users (PTU),
 Traditional source user (TSU) and
 Neighbourhood tap user (NTU) and
Commercial and institutional Water Demand

Is the water required for: - Road washing (used in big cities), stores,

Sanitation purposes, large markets, Ornamental purpose, washing

public gardens and, trees on main roads, hotels, shopping centres,

health centres, school and cinema house etc.

To meet the water demand for public use, provision of 5% of the

total consumption is made designing the water works for a city.

 Industrial water demand:

o Is the water required by factories.

o The amount of water is depending upon the type of industry,

numbers and size of industry in the city.

o Types of industries are the followings, Paper mills, textile mills,

breweries, sugar mills, steel mills, leather mills, fertilizer mills, etc.

o The quantity of water demand for industrial purpose is around 20 to

25% of the total demand of the city.

 Fire demand
It is the quantity of water required for fighting a fire break-out.
Water requirement is particularly essential in high value district.
Fire hydrants are usually fitted to the water mains and fire-fighting
pumps are connected to these mains by the fire brigade personnel
when a fire breaks out.
This demand is taken of by increasing the volume of the storage
tanks by 10 %.
This quantity is normally obtained on the basis of certain empirical
formula.
The following are some these formulas:
Example 1:Workout fire demand for a population of 100,000. Use
formulae of Freeman, Kuchling and National Board of Fire Underwriter.

Solution:
 Public Water Use

 The quantity of water required for public utility purposes

 These are the quantities used public purposes (washing streets,

maintaining green areas, supply for fountains, etc.), maintenance

of water and sewage systems (cleansing, flushing mains) or other

specific uses (military facilities, sport complexes, zoos, etc.).

 Usually the demand may range from 2-5% of the total demand.
 For unaccounted Water losses and waste
 All the water, which goes in the distribution, pipes does not reach the
consumers.
 The following are the reasons
 Losses due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes,
faulty valves and fittings.
 Losses due to, consumers keep open their taps of public taps even
when they are not using the water and allow the continuous
wastage of water
 Losses due to unauthorized and illegal connections
 While estimating the total quantity of water of a town; allowance of
15%-20% of total quantity of water is made to compensate for losses,
thefts and wastage of water
 Per Capita Demand
 In community, water is used for various purposes as described above.
 For the purpose of estimation of total requirements of water, the
demand is calculated on an average basic, which is expressed as so
many litres/capita/day.
 If Q is the total quantity of water required by a town per year in litres,
and the population of the town is P. the per capita demand will be.

 q(Per capital demand )=

The per capita demand of the town depends on various factors and will
be according to the living standard of the public and the number and
type of the commercial places in the town etc.
Factors affecting water demand
 Factors Affecting Water Demand
 The following are the main factors affecting for capita demand of the
city or town.
a)Climatic conditions : The quantity of water required in hotter and dry
places is more than cold countries because of the use of air coolers, air
conditioners, sprinkling of water in lawns, gardens, courtyards, washing
of rooms, more washing of clothes and bathing etc.
b)Size of community : Water demand is more with increase of size of
town because more water is required in street washing, running of
sewers, maintenance of parks and gardens.
c) Living standard of the people : The per capita demand of the town
increases with the standard of living of the people because of the use of
air conditioners, room coolers, maintenance of lawns, use of flush,
latrines and automatic home appliances etc.
d) Industrial and commercial activities : As the quantity of water
required in certain industries is much more than domestic demand, their
presence in the town will enormously increase per capita demand of the
town.
e)Pressure in the distribution system: The rate of water consumption
increase in the pressure of the building and even with the required
pressure at the farthest point, the consumption of water will
automatically increase.
o This increase in the quantity is firstly due to use of water freely by
the people as compared when they get it scarcely and more water
loss due to leakage, wastage and thefts etc.
f)System of sanitation: Per capita demand of the towns having
water carriage system will be more than the town where this system
is not being used.
g)Cost of water: The cost of water directly affects its demand. If
the cost of water is more, less quantity of water will be used by the
people as compared when the cost is low.
h)System of supply: The supply of water may be continuous or
intermittent.
o In continuous supply, water is supplied for 24 hour and in the
intermittent water is supplied for certain duration of day only.
o It is claimed that intermittent supply system will reduce per capita
demand.
 VARIATIONS IN DEMAND
 Due to various factors there are great fluctuations in seasonal, daily
and hourly water demands.
 The water demand varies from season to season, day to day, even
hour to hour.
 Seasonal variation: high in hot season and less in cold season.
 Daily variation: high during holidays, Saturday, Sundays.
 Hourly variation: high in morning, launch time, evening.

 Demand variations are commonly described by the peak factors.

•These are the ratios between the demand at particular moments and
the average demand for the observed period (hour, day, week, year,
etc.).
SEASONAL VARIATIONS

The water demand varies from season to season.

In summer the water demand is maximum, because the people will

use more water in bathing, cooling, lawn watering and street

sprinkling.

This demand will becomes minimum in winter because less water

will be used in bathing and there will be no lawn watering.

The variations may be up to 15% of the average demand of the year.

DAILY VARIATIONS
• This variation depends on the general habits of people, climatic
conditions and character of city as industrial, commercial or
residential.
• More water demand will be on Sundays and holidays due to more
comfortable bathing, washing etc as compared to other working
days.
• The maximum daily consumption is usually taken as 180% of the
average consumption.
HOURLY VARIATIONS
 The maximum consumption may be rise up to 200% that of
average daily demand.
 The determination of this hourly variations is most necessary,
because on its basis the rate of pumping will be adjusted to meet
up the demand in all hours.
 DESIGN DEMANDS
 The water demands used for the planning and design of water supply
systems include :

 Average Day Demand (ADD )

 Maximum Day Demand (MDD)
 Peak Hour Demand (PHD)
 Total demand
Average Day Demand
 The average day demand is taken to be the sum of the demands of
domestic, non domestic and Non Revenue Water (NRW).
 The average water demand represents the daily demand of the town
averaged over the year
 For an average day demand, 20 hrs. of pumping are
recommended.
Maximum day demand
The maximum day demand is the highest demand of any one 24hour
period over any specific year.
The amount of water required during the day of maximum
consumption in a year.
It represents the change in demand with season.
The maximum day demand is taken to be 120 – 150% of the average
day demands.
The ratio of the maximum daily consumption to the mean daily
consumption is called the maximum day factor and usually varies
between 1.0 and 1.3.
 Important for the design of source pumping ,requirements water
treatment plants and Pipe mains.
Peak hour demand
 It is the highest demand of any one-hour over the peak day.
 Such an event is likely to happen during morning hours when most
people use water for bathing, washing utensils and cooking.
 Moreover, it could also occur at the end of the day when people
need water for the same purpose after working hours.
 The peak hour water demand is greatly influenced by the size of the
town, mode of service used and social activity pattern.
 The ratio of the peak hour demand to the maximum day demand is
called peak hour factor
 This value is considered to be 200 - 300% of the average water
demand
Important for design of distribution systems and elevated
reservoirs
MDD & PHD FACTORS
Estimation of Total Water Demand For A Town Or City
Adjustment for climate
 In order to account for changes in climate which affect the water
demand, the values of the average per capita domestic water
demand established above should be factored for climatic changes
using the Ministry of Water Resources‟ climate factors guidelines
shown in the table below.
Adjustment due to socio-economic conditions
 To accommodate the changes due to the potential for growth, the
following recommended socio-economic factors are used.
 These factors are applied for all the domestic demand values
above.
Example
For a town having population of 60,000 estimate average daily
demand of water. Assume industrial use 10%, institutional &
commercial use 15 %, public use 5% and live stock 10% of domestic
demand. Take per capita consumption of 50 l/day and leakage to be
5%.
Solution
P = 60,000
Domestic = 50 x 60,000 = 3000000 l/day= 3000 m3/day
Industrial = 0.10 x 3000 m3/day = 300 m3/day,
Inst & com. = 0.15 x 3000 m3/day = 450 m3/day
public = 0.05 x 3000 m3/day = 150 m3/day
live stock = 0.10 x 3000 m3/day = 300 m3/day
leakage = 0.05 x 3000 m3/day = 150 m3/day
Total average daily demand = 4350 m3/day
Exercise :
Calculate the water requirements for a community that will reach a
population of 120,000 at the design year. The estimated municipal
water demand for the community is 300 l/c/d. Calculate the fire flow,
design capacity of the water treatment plant, and design capacity
of the water distribution system. Use Freeman formula for fire
flow.
WATER SOURCES
 Outline

 Introduction
 Ground water
 Surface water
 Rain water
 Introduction
 Nature of water source determines the components of the water
supply system
 Factors to be considered to select source:
 Quantity
 Quality
 Reliability
 Safety of source
 Water rights
 Environmental impacts…
 In nature water occurs abundantly as:
• water vapor in the atmosphere,
• As liquid water in inland waters and the ocean,
• As ice in polar regions, and
• As water of hydration in many rocks and minerals in the earth’s
crust.
 TYPES OF WATER SOURCES
 Sources of water supply schemes can conveniently be classified as:
1)Rain: harvesting rain water from different catchment
2)Surface water: Rivers, Lakes, Pond, Sea water, Impounding
reservoirs, Wastewater reclamation
3)Underground sources
Springs
 Depression springs
 Contact springs
 Artesian springs
Wells
 Shallow wells
 Deep wells
 Infiltration galleries
 Infiltration wells
Types of water supply sources
Surface water Groundwater
sources sources

Rainwater Spring water

Lakes and
wells
reservoirs

Infiltration
River water
gallery…

Sea water
 Ground water sources
 occurs under most of the world's land surface, but there are great
variations in the depths at which it is found, its mineral quality, the
quantities present and the rates of infiltration (thus yield potential)
and the nature of the ground above it (thus accessibility).
 Groundwater accumulates as the result of percolation of water
down to the water table through the void spaces in the soil and
cracks in rock formations
 In hilly areas it emerges from the ground in places as natural
springs, otherwise wells have to be constructed and pumps or
other lift mechanisms installed.
 Groundwater is an important source of water supply through out the
world.
o Use in irrigation, industries, municipalities, & rural schemes
continues to increase.
 GW occurs in many types of geologic formations known as
aquifers.
• The place where groundwater accumulates is called an aquifer.
• An aquifer is defined as any porous water-bearing geologic
formation.
• The size, thickness, and depth of aquifers can vary considerably.
 An aquifer is a formation that contains sufficient quantities of
saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of water.
 Groundwater sources

Aquifer
Types of Ground Water sources
Spring
Infiltration Gallery
Wells
1.Springs: When the under ground water
reappears at the ground surface by under
ground pressure.
i.Depression spring: is a spring formed when
the ground surface intersects with the water
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ii.Contact spring: When due to an obstruction

ground water is collected in the form of a
reservoir and forces the water to overflow at
the surfaces
iii.Artesian spring: is a spring that results from
the release of water under pressure from
confined water bearing formation either
through a fault or fissure reaching the ground
surface.
2.Wells: Are artificial holes or pits vertically excavated for bringing
ground water to the surface.
i. Shallow wells: may be large diameter hand dug wells (diameter 1-
4m) and depth <20m. Or machine drilled wells of small diameter
(diameter 8-60cm) and depth <60m.
ii. Deep wells: are most large, deep, high-capacity wells constructed by
drilling rig.
o Construction can be accomplished by cable tool method or rotary
method.
o Drilling rigs are capable of drilling wells 8 to 60cm in diameter and
depth < 600m.
iii. Infiltration wells: are shallow wells
constructed under the beds of rivers.
o They are suitable where there are deposits of
sand and porous material at least 3m deep in
river bed.
Iii .Infiltration Gallery: is a horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel which
is constructed through water bearing strata.
o It is sometimes referred as horizontal well
o Simple means of obtaining naturally filtered water
 Groundwater sources
Advantages :
– It is likely to be free of pathogenic bacteria
– free from turbidity and colour
– It can be used without further treatment
– In many instances it can be found in the close vicinity of rural
communities;
– It is economical to obtain and distribute
– The water-bearing stratum from which it is drawn usually
provides a natural storage at the point of intake.
 Groundwater sources…
Disadvantages
– often have high in mineral content;
– It usually requires pumping.
– The drilling work requires skilled labour and expensive equipment.
 Generally, GW contains cations and Anions such as :
• CATIONS: calcium, magnesium, iron and manganese
• ANIONS: bicarbonate, carbonate, and chloride
..\WATER QUALITY AND TREATMENT\Vidio WSSEM\1 How a Water Well is Drilled.mp4
 Surface water sources
In streams, lakes and ponds is readily available in many populated
areas, but it is almost always polluted.
 It should only be used if there are no other safe sources of water
available or a safe water treatment system can be set up.
The following are the different surface sources of water:
River or stream
Ponds or lakes
Storage reservoir
 River or steam : It is formed by the runoff in the mountain & hill
areas. Some rivers are perennial (water available through out the
year) and some are non perennial (water available in raining season
only).
o Perennial River(water available through the year) should always be
selected for the scheme.
o In case of non perennial rivers( water available in rainy season
only), the weir or low dam may be constructed to form a storage
reservoir.
o The streams are suitable for small water supply scheme.
 Pond or Lake : It is natural or artificial depressions where surface
runoff is collected in rainy season.
 Impounding reservoirs: Are artificial lakes formed by the
construction of dams across a valley.
 This sources is always preferred for large water supply projects.
 Wastewater reclamation: Sewage or other waste water may be used
as source of water for cooling, flushing water closets (WCS),
watering lawns, parks, etc. for fire fighting and for certain industrial
purposes after giving the necessary treatment to suit the nature of the
use.
 Rain water
 Rain is the principal source of all water sources.
 Rain water might contain dust, smoke, bacteria, carbon dioxide… as
falling from high altitude
 The quality of rainwater falling on the open land (undisturbed
environment) or fields is better than that falling on the cities or
towns.
 Rainwater is soft water but flat to the taste and corrosive in nature.
 Rain is rarely an immediate source of water supplies.
RW Harvesting- roofs are most effective and can be integrated with
tanks
Roofs are mostly obvious choices as catchments for rainwater
harvesting and tanks located near or close to homes increase the
convenience of this system.
 Rain water…
Advantages of rainwater collection:
◦ Quality of RW is high
◦ The collection system is independent.
◦ Local materials can be used for collection
◦ No energy costs are needed to run the system.
◦ Ease of maintenance by the owner /user.
◦ Time saving and convenient
Disadvantages
◦ High initial cost (i.e. for a family)
◦ Quantity of water is dependent on the roof area and rainy seasons
◦ Mineral free water has a flat taste.
 Water Source Selection
The process of choosing the most suitable source of water for
development into a public water supply largely depends on the
local condition.
The selection of the source of water supply to a town or city
depends on the following factors:-
 Location of the water sources
 Quantity of water
 Quality of water
 The cost of the water supply scheme.
1. Location of the water source
 The source should be as near to the consumer as possible.
2. Quantity of water /reliability
 The source of water should have sufficient quantity of water to
meet up all the water demand through out the design period.
3. Quality of Water
 The quality of water should be good which can be easily and
cheaply treated.
4. The cost of the water supply scheme
 The cost depends on many factors as system of supply, ground
levels of the town, distance between source and distribution etc.
 The cost of the units of the water supply schemes should be
minimum.
Source selection:-
 Surface water sources
◦ Safe water yield during the drought
years
◦ Urbanization and land development in
the watershed
◦ Proposed impoundments on tributaries
◦ Water quality
◦ Assessment of reliability
◦ Requirements for construction of water
supply system components
◦ Economics of the project
◦ Environmental impacts of the project
◦ Water rights
Source selection…
• Ground water sources
– Aquifer characteristics (depth, geology,
– Safe aquifer yield
– Permissible drawdown
– Water quality
– Source of contamination(gasoline, oil,
chemicals)
– Saltwater intrusion(areas near to seas or
oceans)
– Type and extent of recharge area
– Rate of recharge
– Water rights