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Foundry Manual, 1958, is an update to the 1944 Foundry Manual that was created primarily
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NAVSHIPS 250-0334

FOUNDRY MANUAL

Department of the Navy, Bureau of Ships

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JANUARY 1958

BUREAU OF SHIPS
NAVY DEPARTMENT
WASHINGTON 25, D. C.

Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. - Price $3

ii

NAVY DEPARTMENT,
Bureau of Ships,
15 April 1958

The Foundry Manual of 1944 has been revised to reflect the advancement in foundry
technology and to indicate current foundry practice. The revised manual contains information
for persons who operate or are employed in a foundry.

J. B. Duval, Jr.
Captain, USN
Assistant to the Assistant Chief of
Bureau for Shipbuilding and Fleet
Maintenance

iii

PREFACE

This Manual is intended primarily for use by foundry personnel aboard repair ships and
tenders. The recommended practices are based on procedures proved workable under Navy
conditions and are supplemented by information from industrial sources.

The Manual is divided into two general sections. The first section, chapters 1 through 13,
contains information of a general nature, such as "How Metals Solidify," "Designing a
Casting," "Sands for Molds and Cores," "Gates, Risers, and Chills," and "Description and
Operation of Melting Furnaces." Subjects covered in these chapters are generally applicable
to all of the metals that may be cast aboard ship.

The second section, chapters 14 through 21, contains information on specific types of alloys,
such as "Copper-Base Alloys," "Aluminum-Base Alloys," "Cast Iron," and "Steel." Specific
melting practices, suggestions for sand mixes, molding practices, gating, and risering are
covered in these chapters.

This manual has been written with the "how-to-do-it" idea as the principal aim. Discussions

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as to the "why" of certain procedures have been kept to a minimum. This manual contains
information that should result in the production of consistently better castings by repair ship
personnel.

iv

This page is blank.

FOUNDRY MANUAL
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Chapter I. How Metals Solidify 1
The Start of Solidification 1
Contraction 1
Freezing Temperature of Metals 3
Crystallization 3
Heat Transfer 4
Gases in Metals 5
Summary 5
Chapter II. Designing a Casting 15
Strength Requirements 15
Stress Concentrations 15
Section Thickness 16
Directional Solidification 16
Wall Junctions 17
Good Casting Design 17
Summary 18
Chapter III. Patternmaking 25
Functions of the Pattern 25
Types of Patterns 25
Pattern Materials 25
Making the Pattern 28
Finishing and Color Coding 28
Maintenance, Care and Repair 28
Calculation of Casting Weight 29
Summary 29
Chapter IV. Sands for Molds and Cores 39

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Molding Sands 39
Sand Properties 40
All-Purpose Sand 43
Properties of a 63 AFS Fineness Number Sand 43
Molding Sand Mixtures 44
Cores 45
Core Sand Mixes 48
Methods for Testing Sand 49
Summary 51
Chapter V. Making Molds 61
Molding Tools and Accessories 61
Types of Molds 64
Molding Loose-Piece Patterns 64
Molding Mounted Patterns 66
False-Cope Molding and the Use of Broken Parts as Patterns 66
Setting Cores, Chills, and Chaplets 67
Closing Molds 68
Summary 68

vi

Page
Chapter VI. Making Cores 83
Coremaking Tools and Accessories 83
Types of Cores 83
Internal Support 83
Facing, Ramming, Relief, and Venting of Cores 83
Turning Out and Spraying 84
Baking 84
Cleaning Assembly 85
Storage of Cores 85
Making a Pump-Housing Core 85
Summary 86
Chapter VII. Gates, Risers, and Chills 95
General Purpose 95
Gating System 95
Risers 98
Chills 104
Summary 105
Chapter VIII. Description and Operation of Melting Furnaces 121
Oil-Fired Crucible Furnace 121

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Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 123

Electric Resistor Furnace 127
Electric Induction Furnace 128
Sintering the Monolithic Lining and Making the First Steel Heat 131
Summary 131
Chapter IX. Pouring Castings 139
Types of Ladles 139
Ladle Linings 139
Pouring the Mold 140
Speed of Pouring 141
Pouring Temperature 141
Summary 142
Chapter X. Cleaning Castings 147
Removing Gates and Risers 147
Grinding and Finishing 147
Welding 148
Summary 148
Chapter XI. Causes and Cures for Common Casting Defects 149
Names of Defects 149
Design 149
Pattern Equipment 150
Flask Equipment and Rigging 151
Gating and Risering 151
Sand 152
Cores 154
Molding Practice 154
Pouring Practice 155
Miscellaneous 155
Summary 156

vii

Page
Chapter XII. Heat Treatment of Castings 179
Iron and Steel Castings 179
Nonferrous Castings 179
Brass and Bronze Treatment 180
Stress-Relief Anne al 180
Reasons for Heat Treatment 179
Aluminum 181
Iron and Steel 181

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Monel 183
Summary 183
Chapter XIII. Composition of Castings 185
Specifications 185
Selection of Metal Mixtures 185
Raw Materials and Calculation of Charges 189
Summary 194
Chapter XIV. Copper-Base Alloys 213
Selection of Alloy 213
How Copper-Base Alloys Solidify 213
Patterns 214
Molding and Coremaking 214
Melting 217
Pouring 220
Cleaning 221
Causes and Cures for Common Casting Defects in Copper-Base Casting 221
Welding and Brazing 222
Summary 222
Chapter XV. Aluminum-Base Alloys 227
Aluminum Silicon 227
Aluminum Copper 227
Aluminum Zinc 227
Aluminum Magnesium 227
How Aluminum Solidifies 227
Patterns 227
Molding and Coremaking 228
Melting 230
Pouring 231
Cleaning 231
Causes and Cures for Common Defects In Aluminum Castings 231
Welding and Brazing 232
Summary 232
Chapter XVI. Nickel-Base Alloys 235
Monel 235
Modified S-Monel 235
How Nickel-Base Alloys Solidify 235
Patterns 235
Molding and Coremaking 235
Melting 236
Pouring 236
Cleaning 237

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Causes and Cures for Common Casting Defects in Nickel-Base Alloy Castings 237
Welding and Brazing 237
Summary 237

viii

Page
Chapter XVII. Cast Iron 239
Selection of Alloys 239
How Gray Cast Irons Solidify 241
Patterns 241
Molding and Coremaking 242
Melting 244
Pouring 247
Cleaning 247
Causes and Cures for Common Defects in Iron Castings 247
Welding and Brazing 248
Summary 248
Chapter XVIII. Steel 251
Selection of Alloys 251
How Steels Solidify 252
Patterns 252
Molding and Coremaking 252
Melting 254
Pouring 256
Cleaning 256
Welding and Brazing 257
Summary 257
Chapter XIX. Copper 259
Selection of Metal 259
How Copper Solidifies 259
Patterns 259
Molding and Coremaking 259
Melting 260
Pouring 260
Cleaning 261
Causes and Cures for Common Casting Defects in Copper 261
Summary 261
Chapter XX. Babbitting With Tin-Base Bearing Metal 263
Selection of Alloys 263
Preparation of Bearings 263

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Melting 264
Pouring 264
Finishing of Bearing 265
Bearing Failures 265
Summary 266
Chapter XXI. Process Control 269
Sand 269
Molding 269
Melting 269
Inspection and Test 270
Summary 270

ix

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Chapter I
Figure Title Page
1 Schematic Illustration of the Solidification of Metal in a Mold 6
2 Volume Change During the Cooling of a 0.35 Percent Carbon Steel 7
3 Types of Shrinkage 7
(a) piping 7
(b) gross shrinkage 7
(c) centerline 7
(d) microshrinkage 7
4 Cooling Curves of a Pure Metal, a Solid Solution Alloy, and an Eutectic 8
Alloy
5 Melting Points of Metals and Alloys 9
6 Effect of Section Size on Size of Crystals 10
7 Schematic Representation of Crystal Growth 11
8 Dendrite Growth 11
9 High Magnification of Shrink Area in an Aluminum Casting, Showing 12
Dendrites
10 Crystal Growth in a Gun Metal Casting Dumped Before Solidification 12
was Complete
11 Preferred Orientation in Chill Zone Crystals 12
12 Dendritic Solidification and Dendritic-Equiaxed Solidification 13
13 Solubility of Hydrogen in Iron and Nickel at One Atmosphere Pressure 13
14 Mechanism of Pinhole Formation in Steel 13
Chapter II
15 Effect of Section Size on Physical Properties 19

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16 Use of Fillets 19
17 Blending of Thin and Heavy Sections 20
18 Wheel Design 20
19 Recommended Wheel Designs 21
20 Transitions in Section Size 21
21 Simple Directional Solidification 21
22 Taper as an Aid to Directional Solidification 21
23 Hot Spot Location by the Method of Inscribed Circles 22
24 Reduction of Cross Section in L and V Junctions 22
25 Reduction of Cross Section in an X Junction 22
26 Various Treatments for a T Junction 22
27 Coring to Reduce Section in a Rib Junction 22
28 Removal of Heavy Section by Redesign 22
29 Hub Cross Section - Heavy Section 23
30 Hub Cross Section - Improved Design 23
31 Bracket Casting 23
32 Aluminum Yoke Casting 23
Chapter III
33 One Piece Pattern 35
34 Split Pattern 35
35 Core Print Construction 36
36 Chaplet Location With Pads 36
37 Mold Broken Due to a Lack of Taper 36
38 Clean Pattern Draw With Correct Taper 36
39 Pattern Draft 36
40 Distortion Allowance in a Simple Yoke Pattern 37
41 Plaster Patterns and Core Boxes 37
42 Making a Simple Plaster Pattern 37
43 Calculating Casting Weight 37
44 Calculating Casting Weight 37

Chapter IV
Figure Title Page
45 Permeability as Affected by the Grain Size of Sand 53
46 Permeability as Affected by Sand Fineness and Moisture 53
47 The Effect of Sand Grain Shape on Permeability 53
48 Permeability as Affected by the Amount of Binder 53
49 The Effect of Bentonite and Fireclay on Permeability 53
50 Green Strength as Affected by the Fineness of Sand 53

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51 Green Strengths of Sands With Varying Fineness Numbers 54

52 Green Strength as Affected by the Shape of Sand Grains 54
53 Green Strength as Affected by Moisture and Varying Bentonite Contents 54
54 The Effect of Bentonite and Fireclay on Green Strength of Foundry Sand 54
55 The Effect of Bentonite on Sands With Various Moisture Contents 54
56 The Effect of Western and Southern Bentonite on Green Strength and 54
Dry Strength
57 Green Strength as Affected by Mulling Time 55
58 Relationship Between Moisture Content, Bentonite Content, Green 55
Compressive Strength, and Permeability for an All-Purpose Sand of 63
AFS Fineness Number
59 Relationship Between Moisture Content, Bentonite Content, Green 56
Compressive Strength, and Dry Strength for an All-Purpose Sand of 63
AFS Fineness Number
60 General Green Compressive Strengths for Sands of Different Grain Class 56
Numbers
61 Strength of Baked Cores as Affected by Baking Time and Baking 56
Temperatures
62 Core Gas Generated by Two Different Core Binders 57
63 The Effect of Single Binders and Combined Binders on the Baked
Strength of Cores 57
64 Rammer Used for Test Specimen Preparation 57
65 Permeability Test Equipment 58
66 Strength Testing Equipment 58
67 Equipment for Drying Sand Specimens for Moisture Determination 58
68 Jar and Stirrer for Washing Sand 58
69 Sand Washing Equipment Assembled 59
70 The Difference in Sand Grain Distribution for Two Foundry Sands 59
Having the Same Grain-Fineness Number
Chapter V
71 Molder's Hand Tools 69
72 Additional Molder's Tools 70
73 Double-Headed Chaplets 71
74 Stem Chaplets 71
75 Perforated Chaplets 71
76 Recommended Chaplet Design for Emergency Use 71
77 Anchoring Cores With Chaplets 71
78 Pattern Set in Drag With Gating System Parts 71
79 Hand Packing Riddled Sand Around the Pattern 72
80 Ramming a Deep Pocket 72
81 Striking Off the Drag 73
82 Drag Ready for the Cope 73
83 Cope With Pattern and Gating Pieces Set 74

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84 Ramming the Partially Filled Cope 74

85 Venting the Cope 75
86 Start of the Pattern Draw 75
87 Pattern Completely Drawn 76
88 Setting the Core 76
89 Cope and Drag Ready for Closing 77
90 Clamped Mold With Weights and Pouring Basin 78
91 Pouring the Mold 78
92 Finished Pump Housing Casting 79
93 Propeller Set in the Drag 79
94 Propeller in the Drag With Parting Line Cut 80
95 Drawn Cope 80
96 Mold Ready for Closing 81
97 As-Cast Propeller 82

xi

Chapter VI
Figure Title Page
98 Arbor for a Medium-Size Core 87
99 View of Inside of Core Showing Hollowing to Make the Core More 87
Collapsible When Metal is Poured Around It
100 Section of Mold Showing Use of Lifting Eye for Supporting Heavy Core 87
101 Typical Lifting Hooks for Lifting Cores 87
102 Core Boxes for Pump Housing Core 88
103 Ramming Up the Core 88
104 Striking Off the Core 89
105 Placing the Reinforcing Rods 89
106 Cutting Vents 90
107 Drag Core Turned Out 91
108 Cope Core Turned Out 92
109 Applying Core Paste 93
110 Assembling the Two Core Halves 93
Chapter VII
111 Parts of a Simple Gating System 106
112 Illustration of Gating Ratio 106
113 Gating Nomenclature 107
114 Unfavorable Temperature Gradients in Bottom Gated Casting 108
115 Defect Due to Bottom Gating 108
116 Bottom Gate 108
117 Reverse Horn Gate 108

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118 Reverse Horn Gate 108

119 Bottom Gating Through Side Risers 109
120 Bottom Gating Through Riser with Horn Gate 109
121 Sprue With Well at Base 109
122 Simple Top Gating 109
123 Pencil Gate 109
124 Typical Parting Gate 109
125 Parting Gate Through the Riser 110
126 Whirl Gate 110
127 Simple Step Gate. (Not Recommended.) 111
128 Thirty-Degree Mold Manipulation 111
129 Complete Mold Reversal 111
130 Pouring Cups 111
131 Pouring Basin 111
132 Solidification Time vs. A/V Ratio 111
133 Effectiveness of Square and Round Risers 112
134 Proper and Improper Riser Height 112
135 Poor Riser Size and Shape 112
136 Proper Riser Size and Shape 112
137 Riser Location at Heavy Sections 112
138 Cold Metal Riser (Not Recommended ) 112
139 Hot Metal Riser 113
140 Feeding Through a Thin Section 113
141 Flanged Casting with Open Riser 113
142 Flanged Casting with Blind Riser 113
143 Inscribed Circle Method for Riser Contact 113
144 Effect of Keeping Top Risers Open 113
145 Effect of Keeping Blind Risers Open 114
146 Casting Defects Attributable to Shrinkage Voids and Atmospheric Pressure 114
147 Blind Riser Principle 114
148 Individual Zone Feeding for Multiple Risers 114
149 Padding to Avoid the Use of Chills or Risers 115
150 Padding to Prevent Centerline Shrinkage 115

xii

Figure Title Page

151 Typical Padding of Sections 115
152 Shrinkage on the Thermal Centerlines of Unpadded Sections 115
153 Use of a Core to Make a Padded Section 115
154 Effect of Insulated Risers 115

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155 Reduction in Riser Size Due to Insulation 115

156 Comparison of Ordinary Riser, Insulated Riser, and Exothermic Riser 116
157 Typical Internal Chills 116
158 Typical External Chills with Wires Welded-On or Cast-In to Hold Chill in 116
Place
159 Use of External Chills in a Mold for an Aluminum Casting 117
160 Use of External Chills on a Bronze Casting 117
161 As-Cast Aluminum Casting Showing Location of External Chills 118
162 Gear Blank Mold Showing Location of External Chills 118
163 Principle of Tapering Edges of External Chill 118
164 Effect of Chill Mass and Area of Contact 119
165 Typical Application of External Chills to Unfed L,T,V,X, and W Junctions 119
166 Preferred Method of Applying External Chills by Staggering 119
Chapter VIII
167 Pit-Type Crucible Furnace 133
168 Crucible for Tilting Crucible Furnace 133
169 Tilting Crucible Furnace 133
170 Cross Section of a Stationary Crucible Furnace 133
171 Undercutting a Refractory Patch 133
172 Proper Burner Location 134
173 Proper Fit for Crucible Tongs 134
174 Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 134
175 General Assembly View of Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 134
176 Accessory Equipment for Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 135
177 Properly Charged Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 135
178 Electric Resistor Furnace 135
179 Electrode-Bracket Assembly for Electric Resistor Furnace 136
180 Cross Section of Electric Induction Furnace 136
181 Flow Lines in an Induction Furnace Melt 136
182 Essential Parts of an Induction Furnace 137
183 Typical Electric Induction Furnace 137
184 Induction-Furnace Control Panel 137
185 Method of Lining Induction Furnace Using a Steel Form 137
Chapter IX
186 Lip-Pouring Ladle 143
187 Teapot Ladle 143
188 Lip-Pouring Crucibles 143
189 Teapot Crucibles 143
190 Lining a Teapot Pouring Ladle 143
191 Proper Pouring Technique 144
192 Poor Pouring Technique 144

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193 Use of Pouring Basin and Plug 144

194 Skim Core in Down Gate 144
195 Skim Core in Pouring Basin 144
196 Pyrometer Field When at Correct Temperature, Too High a Setting, and Too 144
Low a Setting
197 Effect of Pouring Temperature on Grain Size 145
Chapter XI
198 Sticker 173
199 Gross Shrink 173
200 Surface Shrink 173

xiii

Figure Title Page

201 Surface Shrink 173
202 Internal Shrink 174
203 Gating and Risering that Corrected Internal Shrink in Figure 202 174
204 Gross Shrink 174
205 Dross Inclusions 174
206 Blow 174
207 Expansion Scab 174
208 Erosion Scab and Inclusions 175
209 Metal Penetration and Veining 175
210 Hot Tear 175
211 Pin Holes 175
212 Rattails 176
213 Rattails 176
214 Buckle 176
215 Cracked Casting 176
216 Misrun 176
217 Blow and Expansion Scab 177
218 Sticker 177
219 Blows 177
220 Blow 178
221 Drop 178
Chapter XIII
222 Example of Charge Calculation for Ounce Metal 210
223 Example of Charge Calculation for Gray Iron 211
Chapter XIV
224 Horizontal Molding of a Bushing 223
225 Vertical Molding of a Bushing 223

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226 Gating a Manganese Bronze Casting 223

227 Gating a Number of Small Castings in Manganese Bronze or Red Brass 223
228 Gating for a Thin Nickel-Silver Casting 223
229 Poor Gating System for a Cupro-Nickel Check Valve 223
230 Improved Gating That Produced a Pressure-Tight Casting 224
231 Globe Valve - Poor Risering Practice 224
232 Globe Valve - Improved Risering Practice 224
233 High Pressure Elbow - Poor Risering Practice 224
234 High Pressure Elbow - Improved Risering Practice 225
235 Risers for a Cupro-Nickel Valve Body 225
236 Tapered Chills on a Flat G Metal Casting 225
237 Tapered Chills on a G Metal Bushing 225
238 Examples of Gassy and Gas-Free Metal 225
Chapter XV
239 Enlargement-Type Sprue Base 233
240 Well-Type Sprue Base 233
241 Coarse-Grained Structure (Caused by Iron Contamination ) 233
242 Porosity. (Caused by Excessive Moisture in the Sand ) 233
Chapter XVI
243 Poor Gating and Risering Practice for a Nickel-Base Alloy Casting 238
244 Improved Gating and Risering for Nickel-Base Alloy Casting 238

xiv

Chapter XVII
Figure Title Page
245 Knife Gate 249
246 Lap Gate 249
247 Riser for a Gray Iron Casting Molded in the Cope and Drag 249
248 Riser for a Gray Iron Casting Molded in the Drag 249
249 Riser for a Gray Iron Casting Molded in the Cope 250
250 Plan View of Runner, Riser, and Ingate 250
251 Operating Log for Cast Iron Heats 250
Chapter XVIII
252 Iron-Carbon Diagram 258
253 Tapered Chill 258
254 Steel Rods Used for Determining the Pouring Temperature of Steel 258
Chapter XIX
255 The Effect of Various Elements on the Electrical Conductivity of Copper 262
256 Properly Deoxidized Copper Sample 262
257 Partially Deoxidized Copper Sample 262

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258 Gassy Copper Sample 262

Chapter XX
259 Jig for Babbitting Bearings 267

Chapter I
HOW METALS SOLIDIFY

Making a casting involves three basic steps: The speed of solidification depends on how
(1) heating metal until it melts, (2) pouring fast the necessary heat can be removed by the
the liquid metal into a mold cavity, and (3) mold. The rate of heat removal depends on
allowing the metal to cool and solidify in the the relation between the volume and the
shape of the mold cavity. Much of the art and surface area of the metal. Other things being
science of making castings is concerned with equal, the thin sections will solidify before
control of the things that happen to metal as it the thick ones. Outside corners of a casting
solidifies. An understanding of how metals solidify faster than other sections because
solidify, therefore, is necessary to the work of more mold surface is available to conduct
the foundry-man. The control of the heat away from the casting. Inside corners are
solidification of metal to produce better the slowest sections of the casting to solidify.
castings is described in later chapters on The sand, in this case, is exposed to metal on
casting design, gating, risering, and pouring. two sides and becomes heated to high
temperatures. Therefore, it cannot carry heat
The change from hot molten metal to cool away so fast.
solid casting takes place in three main steps.
The first step is the cooling of the metal from Changes in design to control solidification
the pouring temperature to the solidification rate sometimes can be made by the designer.
temperature. The difference between the If, however, a change in solidification rate is
pouring temperature and the solidification required for the production of a good casting,
temperature is called the amount of the foundryman is usually limited to methods
superheat. The amount of superheat that result in little or no change in the shape
determines the amount of time the of the casting. The rate of solidification can
foundryman has available to work with the be influenced in three other ways: (1) by
molten metal before it starts to solidify. changing the rate of heat removal from some
parts of the mold with chills; (2) by proper
The second step is the cooling of the metal gating and risering, mold manipulation, and
through the range of temperature at which it control of pouring speed, and (3) by padding
solidifies. During this step, the quality of the the section with extra metal that can be
final casting is established. Shrink holes, machined off later.
blow holes, hot cracks, and many other
defects form in a casting while it solidifies. CONTRACTION

The third step is the cooling of the solid metal Metals, like most other materials, expand
to room temperature. It is during this stage of when they are heated. When cooled, they
cooling that warpage and casting stresses must contract or shrink. During the cooling of
occur. molten metal from its pouring temperature to
room temperature, contraction occurs in three

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THE START OF SOLIDIFICATION definite steps corresponding to the three steps

of cooling. The first step, known as liquid
Solidification of a casting is brought about by contraction, takes place while the molten
the cooling effect of the mold. Within a few metal is cooling from its pouring temperature
seconds after pouring, a thin layer of metal to its freezing temperature. The second,
next to the mold wall is cool enough for called solidification contraction, takes place
solidification to begin. At this time, a thin when the metal solidifies. The third
skin or shell of solid metal forms. The shell contraction takes place when the solidified
gradually thickens as more and more metal is casting cools from its freezing temperature to
cooled, until all the metal has solidified. room temperature. This is called solid
Solidification always starts at the surface and contraction. Of the three steps in contraction,
finishes in the center of a section. In other the first liquid contraction causes least
words, solidification follows the direction trouble to the foundryman because it is so
that the metal is cooled. small in amount.

The way in which metal solidifies from mold Figure 2, which shows the change in volume
walls is illustrated by the series of steel of a steel alloy as it cools from the pouring
castings shown in figure 1. The metal that temperature to room temperature, illustrates
was still molten after various intervals of time these contractions. In a similar way, most of
was dumped out to show the progress of the metals considered in this manual contract
solidification. All metals behave in a similar in volume when cooling and when
manner. However, the time required to reach solidifying. The amount of shrinkage in
a given thickness of skin varies among the several metals and alloys is given in table 1.
different metals. Notice that some compositions of gray cast
iron expand slightly

TABLE 1. THE AMOUNT OF SHRINKAGE FROM POURING TEMPERATURE TO

ROOM TEMPERATURE FOR SEVERAL METALS AND ALLOYS
Name Composition Decrease in Total
Volume Decrease
During in Volume,
Solidification, percent
percent
Copper Deoxidized 3.8 10.7
Red brass 85 Cu, 5 Zn, 5 Pb, 5 Sn 6.3 10.6
Yellow brass 70 Cu, 27 Zn, 2 Pb, 1 Sn 6.4 12.4
Bearing bronze 80 Cu, 10 Sn, 10 Pb 7.3 11.2
Manganese 56-3/4 Cu, 40 Zn, 1-1/4 Fe, 1/2 Sn, 1 Al, 4.6 11.5
bronze 1/2 Mn
Aluminum 90 Cu, 10 Al 4.1 11.2
bronze
Aluminum Commercial 6.5 12.2
Nickel 98 Ni, 1-1/2 Si, 0.1 C 6.1 14.2

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Monel 67 Ni, 32 Cu 6.3 13.9

Nickel silver 20 Ni, 15 Zn, 65 Cu 5.5 12.1
Carbon steel 0.25 C, 0.2 Si, 0.6 Mn 3.8 11.4
Nickel cast iron 13 Ni, 7 Cu, 2 Cr, 3 C 1.6 7.8
Gray cast iron 2.18 C, 1.24 Si, 0.35 Mn 4.85
3.08 C, 1.68 Si, 0.44 Mn 1.94
3.69 C, 2.87 Si, 0.59 Mn -1.65
(expands)

during solidification. This results from the Centerline shrinkage occurs most frequently
formation of graphite, which is less dense in alloys having a short solidification range
than iron. The formation of graphite and low thermal conductivity.
compensates for a part of the shrinkage of the Microshrinkage, which is also known as
iron. microporosity, occurs as tiny voids scattered
through an area of metal. It is caused by
Reservoirs of molten metal, known as risers, inability to feed metal into the spaces
are required to make up for the contraction between the arms of the individual crystals or
that occurs during solidification. If risers are grains of metal. This type of shrinkage, which
not provided at selected spots on the casting, is illustrated in figure 3d, is most often found
shrinkage voids will occur in the casting. in metals having a long solidification
These voids can occur in different ways, temperature range. Microporosity may also
depending on the shape of the casting and on be caused by gas being trapped between the
the type of the metal. Piping, the type of arms of the crystals.
shrinkage illustrated in figure 3a, occurs in
pure metals and in alloys having narrow After solidification, cast metal becomes more
ranges of solidification temperature. Piping in rigid as it cools to normal room temperature.
a riser is usually a good indication that it is This cooling is accompanied by contraction,
functioning properly. Gross shrinkage, which is allowed for by the patternmaker in
illustrated in figure 3b, occurs at a heavy making the pattern for the casting.
section of a casting which has been Contraction in cast metals after solidification
improperly fed. Centerline shrinkage, is resisted by the mold. Often, different
illustrated in figure 3c, occurs in the center of cooling rates of thin and heavy sections result
a section where the gradually thickening in uneven contraction. This uneven
walls of solidified metal from two surfaces contraction can
meet.

severely stress the partially solidified, and solidification temperatures are different for
still weak, heavier sections. Resistance to each material.
contraction of the casting results in severe
"contraction stresses" which may tear the Most of the metals used by foundrymen are
casting or which may remain in the casting impure and are not eutectic mixtures. These
until removed by suitable heat treatment. metals solidify over a range of temperature
Sharp internal corners are natural points for known as the solidification range. Mixtures

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these stresses. of metals have many of the solidification

characteristics of mixtures of salt and water.
Some metals, such as steel, undergo other Just as the addition of salt to water changes
dimensional changes as they pass through the temperature at which water starts to
certain temperature ranges in the solid state. freeze, so does the addition of one metal to
In the case of castings with extreme another change the freezing point of the
variations in section thickness, it is possible second metal. An example of such a mixture
for contraction to take place in some parts at of metals is the copper-nickel system shown
the same time that expansion occurs in in figure 4b (right). A given mixture of
others. If the design of the junctions of these copper and nickel will be liquid until it
parts is not carefully considered, serious reaches the temperature that crosses the line
difficulties will occur in the foundry and in marking the upper boundary of Area A + L.
service. In the Area A + L, the mixture will be partly
liquid, and in the Area A, it will be entirely
FREEZING TEMPERATURE OF solid. It will be noted that the addition of
METALS copper to nickel lowers the freezing
temperature. On the other hand, the addition
Molten metal has the ability to dissolve many of nickel to copper raises the freezing
substances, just as water dissolves salt. The temperature. A metal system which has the
most important elements that are soluble in same general shape as the copper-nickel
molten iron are other metals and five system is said to have complete solid
nonmetals--sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, solubility. Like the mixture of water and salt,
nitrogen, and hydrogen. When substances are metal mixtures of this type must be cooled
dissolved in a metal, they change many of its well below the temperature at which freezing
properties. For example, pure iron is begins before they are completely solidified.
relatively soft. A small amount of carbon In its simplest form, the cooling curve looks
dissolved in the iron makes it tough and hard. like that in figure 4b (left). The range of
Iron containing a small amount of carbon is temperature between the upper and lower line
called steel. More carbon dissolved in the is the solidification range.
iron makes further changes in its properties.
When enough carbon is dissolved in the Most of the metal mixtures used in the
molten iron, the excess carbon will form foundry do not have cooling curves as simple
flakes of graphite during solidification. This as those shown in figures 4a and 4b. As an
metal is known as cast iron. The graphite example, the addition of tin to lead lowers the
flakes lower the effective cross section of the freezing temperature of the mixture (see
metal, lower the apparent hardness, and have figure 4c, right). The addition of lead to tin
a notch effect. These factors cause cast irons also lowers the freezing temperature of the
to have lower strengths and lower toughness mixture. However, there is one specific
than steels. mixture which has a lower freezing
temperature than either lead, tin, or any other
One of the most important changes in a metal mixture of the two. The mixture that has the
as it dissolves other substances is a change in lowest freezing temperature is the eutectic
the freezing characteristics. mixture. A typical set of alloys that has an
eutectic mixture is that of the lead-tin system
Pure metals and certain specific mixtures of
shown in figure 4c (right). A cooling curve
metals, called eutectic mixtures, solidify
for one lead-tin alloy is also shown in figure
without a change in temperature. It is
4c (left). In such mixtures, the mechanism of
necessary, however, to extract heat for
solidification is quite complicated.
solidification to occur. The solidification of
pure metals and eutectic mixtures is very The melting temperatures of important metals
similar to the freezing of water. Water does

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not begin to freeze until the temperature is are shown in figure 5. The melting
lowered to 32°F. The temperature of the ice temperatures of many metals are so high that
and water does not change from 32°F. until they create real problems in selecting
all of the water is converted to ice. After this, materials for handling the molten metal and
the ice can be cooled to the temperature of its for making the mold.
surroundings, whether they are zero or many
degrees below zero. This type of temperature CRYSTALLIZATION
change during cooling, shown in figure 4a, is
typical of pure metals, eutectic mixtures, and A casting is made up of many closely packed
water. Actual and joined grains or crystals of metal. Within

452605 0-58-2

any particular crystal, the atoms are arranged arranged in any particular pattern and that
in regular orderly layers, like building blocks. grow about the same length in each direction.
On the other hand, there is no orderly Such grains are called randomly oriented,
arrangement of atoms in molten metal. equiaxed grains. The crystals of zinc on the
Solidification, therefore, is the formation and surface of galvanized steel are a familiar
growth of crystals, layer by layer, from the example. Another example of crystal
melt. The size of the crystals is controlled by structure is shown in figure 10. The faces of
the time required for the metal to solidify and the individual crystals can be seen easily and
by its cooling rate in the mold. Obviously, the growth would have continued if it had not
heavy sections take more time to freeze than been dumped to reveal the crystals.
the light sections. As a result, the crystalline
structure of a heavy section is usually coarser For a while after solidification begins at the
than that of the lighter members. This may be surface of the casting, there will be a solid
seen in figure 6. skin against the mold and the metal in the
center will still be liquid. The growth of the
Although the physical properties of coarse- metal crystals in the skin will take place by
grained metals differ from those of fine- the building up of metal on some of the
grained metals of the same chemical crystals of the surface layer which are
composition, this difference will not be favorably positioned for further growth.
considered in detail. As one example, coarse Figure 11 shows the small grains at the mold
grains lower the strength of steel. surface, with some of them positioned for
further growth. The position for favorable
Metal crystals start to grow at the surface of growth is perpendicular to the mold wall and
the casting because this is where the molten parallel to the direction of heat transfer from
metal first cools to its freezing temperature. the casting. Properly oriented crystals will
Once a crystal starts to form, it grows grow in toward the center because side
progressively larger until its growth is growth will stop as soon as adjacent crystals
stopped by other crystals around it or until meet. This type of crystal growth toward the
there is no more molten metal to feed it. The center of the casting is known as columnar
growth of metal crystals is similar to the grain growth. Depending on the pouring
growth of frost crystals on a pane of glass. temperature and the type of metal, growth of
elongated grains may extend to the center of
A schematic drawing of the start and growth the casting. If the characteristics of the metal
of metal crystals is shown in figure 7. The are such that it is impossible to feed properly

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black square represents the original crystal the last parts of the dendrites, the casting
center or nucleus which grows into a crystal defect known as centerline shrinkage is
or grain by the addition of layers of atoms formed. This is shown in figure 12a. A point
from the melt. A three-dimensional sketch of may be reached during solidification when
crystal growth is shown in figure 8. Part (a) the solidification temperature is reached by
shows the crystal shortly after it has formed the entire remaining liquid metal. Nucleation
and has started to grow. In part (b), the crystal and growth of crystals will then start
has become elongated and growth has started throughout the melt and result in an equiaxed
in two other directions. Still further growth is crystal structure in that part of the casting.
shown by part (c). The original body of the Solidification which started as dendritic
crystal has grown still longer and has become growth and finished as an equiaxed structure
thicker in cross section. Two other sets of is shown in figure 12b.
arms have started growing near the ends of
the longest arms of the crystal. A still further HEAT TRANSFER
stage of growth is shown in part (d). Crystals
grow in this manner with continued The solidification of molten metal in the
branching and thickening of the arms. mold is a result of the extraction of heat from
Because of its branching nature, the type of the metal by the sand that surrounds it. This
crystal shown in figure 8 is called a dendrite. process of heat extraction is called heat
When the metal is completely solidified, the transfer.
arms will have grown and thickened until
The transfer of heat from the molten metal to
they have formed a continuous solid mass. A
the sand and its transfer away from the
photograph of dendrites in a shrink area of an
casting is most rapid at the time the mold
aluminum casting is shown in figure 9. The
cavity is first filled. As the casting cools and
branching of the dendrite arms at right angles
solidifies, the transfer of heat is carried on at
can be seen in this photograph. Close
a reduced rate. The rapid heat transfer in the
examination will also show where the growth
early period of solidification is due to the
of crystals was stopped by the growth of
ability of the sand to store a large amount of
neighboring dendrites.
heat. As the maximum capacity of the sand to
The first metal that solidifies at the mold store heat is reached, the sand becomes
surface will be composed of grains that are saturated with heat,
not

and further transfer of heat from the casting The gases are trapped as the metal solidifies.
to the mold is controlled by the ability of the In some cases, gas is generated by chemical
sand to conduct the heat away. Because this is reactions within the metal, such as may
a much slower process than the absorption of sometimes occur between carbon and oxygen
heat by the sand, the transfer of heat away in steel to form carbon monoxide.
from the casting takes place at a lower rate.
Many times, the rate of transfer is further A good example of the formation of a casting
slowed by an air gap which is formed when defect due to gas in pinhole formation in
the solidified casting starts to contract and steel. This takes place as shown in figure 14.
draw away from the mold. The presence of When the molten steel comes in contact with
this air gap causes a further decrease in the moist sand in the mold, a thin skin of steel is
rate of heat transfer. Chills produce an formed almost immediately. At the same

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increased rate of solidification because of time, the water in the sand is changed to
their increased heat-storage capacity, as steam with an increase in volume of
compared to an equal volume of sand, and approximately 5,000 times. The steam is
their ability to conduct heat at a rate much highly oxidizing to the steel and reacts with
more rapid than that at which sand can it. As a result, iron oxide and hydrogen are
conduct it. formed. The iron oxide produces the scale
which is seen on steel castings when they are
GASES IN METALS shaken out of the mold.

Many defects in castings are caused by gases The hydrogen which is formed in this
which dissolve in the metal and then are reaction passes through the thin layer of solid
given off during solidification. These defects steel and enters the still molten steel. The
may range in size and form from microscopic hydrogen in the molten steel can then react
porosity to large blow holes. Because of the with iron oxide, which is also dissolved in the
large volume that a small weight of gas steel. This reaction produces water vapor. As
occupies, very little gas by weight can cause the steel cools, it must reject some of this
the foundryman a lot of trouble. As an water vapor and hydrogen, just as an ice cube
example, at room temperature and must reject gas as it freezes. A bubble is
atmospheric pressure, 0.001 percent by formed and gradually grows as more steel
weight of hydrogen in a metal occupies a solidifies. The bubbles become trapped
volume equal to that of the metal, and at between the rapidly growing crystals of steel
2,000°F., the same amount of hydrogen and cause the familiar pinhole defect.
would occupy a volume equal to four times
that of metal. SUMMARY

Gases may be absorbed by the metal during An understanding of the solidification or

smelting, refining, melting, and casting. Here, freezing of metals is important to the
we are primarily concerned with the gas foundry-man who wants to know how to
absorption during melting. The gases in any make good castings.
melting process often come from water vapor
in the air, or from water which is introduced Solidification of a casting starts by the
into the melt by careless foundry practice. formation of solid grains next to the surface
of the mold. These grains grow inwardly
A gas frequently absorbed by metals is the from the surface until they meet other grains
hydrogen produced from water vapor. The growing from other surfaces. When these
solubility of hydrogen in nickel and steel at growing surfaces meet, the casting is solid.
various temperatures is shown in figure 13.
Notice that it is possible to dissolve more Improper foundry practice will cause many
hydrogen in molten metal than in solid metal. defects which can be explained and avoided
Therefore, gas that is absorbed during if proper attention is given to the way in
melting may escape when the molten metal which the metal solidifies. Casting defects
cools and solidifies. If the gas cannot escape which can occur if the freezing characteristics
from the metal freely, bubbles are trapped in of metals are not taken into account are as
the casting causing defects. The treatment of follows: (1) microshrinkage, (2) centerline
metals to reduce their gas content before they shrinkage, (3) shrink holes, (4) certain types
are poured into the mold is discussed in later of gas holes, (5) piping, and (6) hot tears.
chapters dealing with the specific metals. These defects can be minimized if proper
attention is given to the practices described in
Gas defects in castings are not always caused later chapters, particularly Chapter 2,
by gas that is dissolved in the molten metal. "Design," and Chapter 7, "Gates, Risers, and
In some cases, these defects are caused by Chills."

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gases driven into the metal from the mold.

Figure 1. Schematic illustration of the solidification of metal in a mold.

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Figure 2. Volume change during the cooling of a 0.35 percent carbon steel.

Figure 3. Types of shrinkage

(a) piping (b) gross shrinkage

(c) centerline (d) microshrinkage

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Figure 4. Cooling curves of a pure metal, a solid solution alloy, and an eutectic alloy.

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Figure 5. Melting points of metals and alloys.

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Figure 6. Effect of section size on size of crystals.

11

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Figure 7. Schematic representation of crystal growth.

Figure 8. Dendrite growth.

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Figure 9. High magnification of shrink area in an aluminum casting showing dendrites.

Figure 10. Crystal growth in gun metal

casting dumped before solidification was Figure 11. Preferred orientation in chill zone
complete. crystals.

13

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Figure 14. Mechanism of pinhole formation

in steel.
Figure 12. Dendritic solidification and
dendritic-equiaxed solidification.

Figure 13. Solubility of hydrogen in iron and

nickel at one atmosphere pressure.

14

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15

Chapter II
DESIGNING A CASTING

The design of a casting might seem to be the proper safety factor. Care should be taken
something far removed from the field of not to overdesign a casting. Many times when
interest of a Navy molder. He is usually a casting fails, certain regions in the vicinity
called upon to make a casting from a loose of the failure will be made larger with the
pattern or from the broken parts of an idea that additional strength will be gained
existing casting. Very rarely is he consulted with an increase in thickness. In reality, this
as to what is good casting design from the overdesign frequently produces casting
foundryman's point of view. Nevertheless, an defects which offset the desired increase in
understanding of what constitutes good strength.
casting design will help the molder to make a
consistently better product. Sections that are heavier than necessary do
not make use of all the strength that is
Design influences the soundness, freedom available in the metal. As a general rule, a
from dirt, shrinkage, porosity, hot tears, and metal has lower strength per square inch of
cracks found in a casting, and thus affects its cross section when cast in thick sections than
serviceability. A capable foundryman may it does in thin sections. The effect of
produce satisfactory castings that violate increasing section size on the strength and
some of the principles of good design, but he elongation of four different copper-base
will never produce them with any degree of alloys is shown in figure 15. It is evident that
consistency. Superior craftsmanship of the the tin bronze and red brass are very sensitive
foundry-man should not be relied upon to to section thickness, while aluminum bronze
overcome poor design. and manganese bronze are less affected by
section size. From this, it can be seen that the
Good casting design is based on two general effect of section size on the properties of a
considerations. The first thing to consider is casting must be considered if the casting is to
the intended use of the casting, and the make the best use of the metal poured into it.
second is which alloy should be used. The
intended use of the casting (that is, whether it STRESS CONCENTRATIONS
is a supporting structure, moving part,
pressure casting, or bearing) will be the major One of the major factors that cause the
factor in determining the general shape of the untimely failure of castings is the
casting. The amount of corrosion resistance, concentration of stresses that results from
wear resistance, machinability, and strength improper design. Stresses, of course, are the
that are needed will determine which alloy forces and loads that cause a casting to crack,
should be used. More often than not, a tear, or break.
casting must meet a combination of
requirements. Sharp corners and notches should be avoided
in castings because they are points of high
Many times, the same features of design stress. The liberal use of fillets and rounded
which give trouble to the foundryman will corners of proper size is the easiest way to
also adversely affect the service life of the reduce the concentration of stresses in
part. Therefore, the first step in the corners. A sharp corner will also produce a

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production of a casting should be a careful plane of weakness in a casting where crystal

study of its design in the light of the growth from two sides meet. This is shown in
information given in this chapter. This applies figure 16a. The combination of high stresses
equally to a new design and to the and the plane of weakness result in early
replacement of a casting of an old design. In failure of the casting. The partial removal of
the replacement of a casting, the defective this plane of weakness by rounding the
part should be thoroughly studied to corners is shown in figure 16b, and its
determine if failure was in any way due to complete elimination, in figure 16c.
design faults; whether faulty design
contributed to casting unsoundness, or The junction of thin and heavy sections is
whether it adversely affected the service another point of stress concentration. The
strength of the solid part. stresses in this case result from the rapid
solidification and contraction of the thin
STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS section. This contraction will set up very high
stresses at the junction with the hotter,
The amount of strength that is needed for a weaker, heavy section and may produce hot
casting will be determined primarily by the tearing. Where sections of different
part it plays in the structure or machine in thicknesses are necessary, they should be
which it is used. A casting should be blended together to reduce the
designed so that the strength requirements are
met with

16

stresses as much as possible. Recommended will promote directional solidification

practices for the blending of junctions are described in the next paragraph. A sudden
shown in figure 17. Although shown for change in section thickness should be
aluminum, the same practices should be avoided wherever possible. Where a change
followed for all metals. in section thickness must be made, it should
be gradual. A blending, or gradual change in
There are some castings in which the design section thickness reduces stresses at the
must allow for the absorption of casting junctions. Figure 20 shows various methods
stresses in order to produce a good casting. A for changing from one section thickness to
spoked wheel is an example. Correct and another.
incorrect designs for wheels are shown in
figure 18. The original design (with straight DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION
spokes) caused hot cracks at the junction of
the spokes with the rim and hub. The Directional solidification means that
modified design (with a curved spoke) solidification will start in one part of the
produced a casting without hot tears. The mold and gradually move in a desired
modified design permits the spokes to stretch direction; it means that solidification will not
and distort slightly without tearing under the start in some area where molten metal is
stresses set up by contraction. Two other needed to feed the casting. An effort is
patterns made to prevent tearing in a wheel always made by the foundry-man to get
casting are shown in figure 19. solidification to progress toward the riser
from the point furthermost from the riser.
Contraction stresses often cause warping of Casting design is a determining factor in the
the casting. When distortion cannot be solved control of the direction of solidification, and
directly by design, as with the wheel casting, every effort should be made to apply the

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it must be allowed for by the patternmaker principles of good design to reach this
after consultation with the molder. Correction objective.
of this type of distortion is covered in
Chapter 3, "Patternmaking." A slab casting of uniform dimension, shown
in figure 21, demonstrates directional
SECTION THICKNESS solidification. The metal is poured through
the riser, and as it flows over the mold
The minimum thickness that can be cast is surface, it gives up some of its heat to the
determined by the ability of the metal to flow mold. Such a condition will mean that when
and fill thin sections without the use of an the mold is filled, the metal at the right end
excessive pouring temperature. The normal will not be as hot as the metal near the riser.
minimum sections that can be cast from The first metal to solidify will then be the
several metals are listed in table 2. metal at the right, as shown in figure 21a. The
mold to the left of the casting will also have
TABLE 2. NORMAL MINIMUM been heated by the molten metal flowing over
SECTIONS FOR CAST METALS it and its ability to conduct heat away from
the casting will be reduced so that the cooling
Material Normal Minimum Section of the casting in that area will be retarded.
Thickness, in. Figure 21b shows the casting with
Gray cast iron 1/8 solidification in a more advanced stage.
White cast 1/8 Because of controlled solidification, this will
iron probably be a sound casting. However, the
Steel 3/32 reduction of area at the corner is undesirable
from the structural design standpoint.
Brass and 3/32
bronze In actual practice, conditions are usually such
Aluminum 1/8 that directional solidification cannot be
obtained as simply as described above
These minimum dimensions for thin sections because of the properties of the metal or the
may vary slightly with composition of the design of the casting. In such cases, the
alloy, pouring temperature, and size or design desired directional solidification of the
of the casting. The use of adequate but not casting must be obtained by other methods.
excessive section thickness in a casting In designing a casting to control directional
cannot be stressed too strongly, because it is a solidification, tapering sections can be used.
major factor in good design. The sections are tapered with the larger
dimensions toward the direction of feeding.
An effort should be made at all times to When a flat casting is poured, solidification
increase gradually the section size toward the will begin at about the same rate from both
reservoir of liquid metal in the riser. This sides and centerline shrinkage will be found
because of the lack of directional
solidification. Solidification of this type is
known as progressive solidification and is
shown in figure 22a. If this casting did not
have

17

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to have parallel sides, then a taper could be the part of the casting from which
used to good advantage. Figure 22b shows solidification was to start. The first method is
the taper employed to obtain directional most commonly used. Chills may also be
solidification. It will be noted that although used to produce a sound junction. They are
solidification has taken place at the same rate described in Chapter 7, "Gates, Risers, and
from the opposing walls, the taper permits Chills."
molten metal to feed the casting properly.
An X section has a still greater tendency
If it is impossible to design a casting to make toward hot spots and unsoundness than do the
full use of directional solidification, then L or V sections. The only way to reduce the
other aids must be used. The most effective wall section in this type of junction is to use a
and most easily used is the chill. Chills are core, as shown in figure 25b, to produce a
used to start or speed up solidification in a hole in the junction. A method which is
desired section of a casting. Their application preferred, especially when the junction is a
and use are covered in Chapter 7, "Gates, result of ribbed construction, is that of
Risers, and Chills." Another method of staggering the sections so as to produce T
obtaining directional solidification in a junctions which can be more easily controlled
casting is to taper the section intentionally with chills. Figure 25c shows the staggered
and then remove the excess metal by design. Various treatments for a T section are
machining. This method, called "padding," is shown in figure 26. A cored hole can be used,
also described in chapter 7. as in figure 26a; the section thickness can be
used, as in figure 26b; the external chills can
WALL JUNCTIONS be used, as in figure 26c; or internal chills
can be used, as in figure 26d. Internal chills
Junctions such as "L" and "T" sections must should not be used without authorization
be given special consideration when from the foundry supervisor.
designing a casting. Because a junction is
normally heavier than any of the sections Many times, a large casting will require ribs
which it joins, it usually cools more slowly to provide added strength at certain locations.
than adjacent sections. The method of The use of ribs produces a hot spot at the
inscribed circles, illustrated in figure 23, can junction because it is thicker. The heavy
be used to predict the location of hot spots, section may also be reduced by using a core
which are locations of final solidification and to make a hole at the junction of the rib with
possible shrinkage. In the L section, the the casting section, as shown in figure 27.
largest circle which can be drawn in the
junction is larger than the largest circles that GOOD CASTING DESIGN
can be drawn in the walls. The same is true of
the T section, where the circle at the junction Casting designs often cannot be ideal because
is even larger than the one for the L section. the casting must be designed to do a certain
The larger circles in both of the junctions job. Everything should be done, however, to
predict the location of a hot spot, which will give the casting a section having a gradual
be unsound unless special precautions are taper, so that the best possible conditions for
taken. Figure 23b shows similar junctions solidification can be obtained. A detailed
with the progress of solidification indicated discussion of a good casting design cannot be
by the shaded areas. These sketches were given here, but a few examples are given of
made from actual laboratory studies of the design features which can be of help to the
solidification of the junctions. The location of molder and patternmaker in making a better
the small white area in each case indicates the casting.
location of the hot spot. These small spots are
within the large circles inscribed at the A casting having a tubular section joining a
junctions as shown in figure 23a. flat base is shown in figure 28. As originally

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The joining of two walls may result in an L, designed, the tubular section had a heavier
V, X, or T-shaped junction. If small fillets and wall than the plate. Redesigning eliminated
rounded corners are used in the L or V-type the heavy section in the casting. A hub
junction, a heavy section will be formed. casting is shown in figure 29. The inscribed
Radii should be used so that the thickness in circle shows the heavy section which would
the junction will be the same as that in the be difficult to feed and would probably cause
adjoining walls. This is shown in figure 24. a shrinkage defect. A cross section of the
The area within the dashed line shows the same casting is shown in figure 30 as it was
amount of metal which should be eliminated redesigned to eliminate the heavy section and
to avoid hot spots. The wall thickness at the make the casting more adaptable to
junction can be reduced further by using radii directional solidification.
which will produce a junction thinner than
the adjoining sections. Such junctions would Many times, a casting can be designed to
be used only if they were permit easier molding as well as to improve
the feeding. The bracket shown in figure 31 is
such a casting. The original design did not
have

18

the shaded areas shown. This not only made 3. Abrupt changes in adjoining sections
the making of the mold difficult, but also should never be allowed. (See figures 17 and
resulted in heavy sections in the casting with 20.)
the possibilities of shrinkage defects. By
padding the area as shown by the shaded 4. Heavy sections should not be located so
portions, the pattern was easier to draw and that feeding must take place through thin
feeding of the lugs was simplified. sections.

Another example of good casting design is 5. Use ribs to avoid warpage or to add
shown in figure 32. Note that the thin stiffness. Ribbed construction can often be
sections are connected to the heavy sections used to replace a heavier section.
which are located so that they may be easily
fed. 6. Where junctions produce thick sections of
metal (hot spots), use cores or other methods
SUMMARY to eliminate the heavy section (figures 23, 24,
25, 26, and 27, "Wall Junctions," page 22).
A few general rules can be made to assist the
foundryman in producing a better casting. It 7. A casting should be made as simple as
must be remembered that in many cases, possible. The use of cores should be kept to a
these rules cannot be followed to the letter. minimum. If a casting is complicated,
There also may be a conflict between rules. consider the use of several simpler castings
In such a case, a compromise must be made which can be welded together.
which will best suit the casting desired.
8. Avoid junctions of several walls or sections
1. The casting thickness, weight, and size at one point.
should be kept as small as possible,
consistent with proper casting performance. 9. Bosses, lugs, and pads should not be used
(See "Strength Requirements," page 19, and unless absolutely necessary.
figure 15.)

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2. All sections should be tapered so that they 10. Allow for shrinkage and machine finish
are thickest near the risers. Sections should in dimensional tolerances. (Chapter 3,
never be tapered so that thick sections are far "Patternmaking," Table 4, page 27, Table 5,
from the risers. If proper tapering is page 28.)
impossible, the section should have uniform
thickness. (See "Section Thickness," page 20,
and figures 17 and 22.)

19

Figure 15. Effect of section size on physical properties.

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Figure 16. Use of fillets.

452605 0-58-3

20

Figure 17. Blending of thin and heavy sections.

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Figure 18. Wheel design.

21

Figure 19. Recommended wheel designs.

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Figure 20. Transitions in section size.

Figure 21. Simple Directional solidification. Figure 22. Taper as an aid to directional
solidification.

22

Figure 26. Various treatments for a T

Figure 23. Hot spot location by the method of junction.
inscribed circles.

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Figure 24. Reduction of cross section in L

and V junctions.

Figure 27. Coring to reduce section in a rib

junction.

Figure 25. Reduction of cross section in an X

junction. Figure 28. Removal of heavy section by
redesign.

23

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Figure 29. Hub cross section - heavy section.

Figure 30. Hub cross section - improved

design. Figure 31. Bracket casting.

Figure 32. Aluminum yoke casting.

24

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This page is blank.

25

Chapter III
PATTERNMAKING

section on 'Maintenance, Care, and Repair" in

FUNCTIONS OF THE PATTERN this chapter.

A pattern is used to form the mold cavity into Mounted Patterns. Patterns fastened
which molten metal is poured to produce a permanently to a flat board, called a match
casting. As such, it is a tool in the hands of plate, are known as mounted patterns.
the foundryman. A great deal of success in
producing a good casting depends on the The main advantage of the mounted pattern
quality and design of the pattern. For over the loose pattern is that it is easier to use
example, a pattern that does not have the and store. For these reasons, a mounted
proper draft is difficult to draw from the sand pattern is generally warranted when several
without breaking the mold. of the castings (say, five or more) are to be
made during one "run" or when the casting is
The design of the casting itself, as well as made at frequent intervals.
that of the pattern, must be taken into
consideration to make molding less difficult. Another advantage of the mounted pattern is
The casting design should be as simple as that a pattern of the gating system also can be
possible, since it will determine the ease with mounted on the match plate. This practice of
which a pattern can be drawn from the mold, molding the gating system eliminates the
the number of loose pieces required in the loose sand that often results when gates are
pattern, and the number of cores needed. hand cut. As a result, the castings produced
usually are better than those produced with
TYPES OF PATTERNS the loose patterns.

There are three main types of patterns: loose Core Boxes. Core boxes are actually negative
patterns, mounted patterns, and core boxes. patterns. When looking at a pattern, one sees
the casting in its actual shape. A core box on
Loose Patterns. The majority of molds made the other hand shows the cavity which will be
aboard repair ships are made with loose created by the core. Core boxes are used not
patterns, since castings required are usually only to make cores for holes in castings but
few in number and not too often repeated. A also to make parts of a mold. In some cases, a
loose pattern is the wood counterpart of the pattern cannot be made so that it can be
casting, with the proper allowance in drawn. In such a case, the part of the casting
dimensions for contraction and machining. A which would hinder drawing is made as a
typical loose pattern is shown in figure 33. A core that can be placed in the mold after the
loose pattern may be made in one piece or it pattern proper has been withdrawn. The
may be split into the cope and drag pieces to making and proper use of cores is described
make molding easier. A split pattern is shown in Chapter 6, "Making Cores."
in figure 34.
PATTERN MATERIALS
A loose pattern has the disadvantage of
requiring a follow board or a false cope to The most commonly used material for
make the parting line, or hand cutting the patterns is wood, because it is easy to work

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parting line. The different steps used to make with and is readily available. Mahogany,
molds from loose patterns are described in white pine, and sugar pine are acceptable
Chapter 5, "Making Molds." materials. Select kiln-dried white or sugar
pine is most widely used because it is easily
The original casting or the broken parts of a worked and is generally free of warping and
casting which have been put together may be cracking.
used in an emergency as a loose pattern. In
such a case, the part to be used as a pattern For pattern work, it is essential that the wood
must be built up to allow for the contraction has a low moisture content, 5 to 6 percent if
of the cast metal and prevent the new casting possible, in order to avoid warping and
from being too small. A material known as shrinking of the finished pattern.
"Celastic" (see allowance list), supplied in
sheets, can be applied to the metal part. When Metal patterns are usually used as mounted
Celastic dries, it will adhere firmly and form patterns, with the gating included in the
a hard surface which may be sandpapered or pattern. Their use is warranted only when a
sawed like wood. For directions on the use of large number of castings must be made.
Celastic, see the Mounted metal

26

patterns are difficult to make and require In general, the length of a core print should
special skills. The one distinct advantage of aequal or slightly exceed its diameter or width.
metal pattern is that it does not warp on When a core has prints in the cope, the cope
storage and when removed from storage, no prints should provide a "closing clearance" so
preparation other than cleaning is necessary as to avoid the possibility of crushing sand
before use. from the cope when closing the mold. This
clearance, however, should not be excessive,
A material which maybe used for an as the core will shift under pressure from the
emergency pattern, when only a small molten metal. If it is possible for a core to be
number of castings are required and there is set "upside down" or "wrong end to," locating
not sufficient time to make a wooden pattern, or indexing lugs (tell-tales) should be
is plaster or gypsum cement. Gypsum cement provided to prevent this.
is made from gypsum rock, finely ground and
heated to high temperatures. When mixed A good practice for constructing core prints is
with water, it forms a plastic mass which can shown in figure 35. It results in castings with
be molded, shaped, or cast. Plaster patterns fewer fins at the parting line. Fins tend to
have the disadvantage of being very fragile produce cracks, and require extra time to
and require careful handling, therefore, it is clean off the casting. Larger core prints
recommended for use only in an emergency. provide better core location and support in
the mold. In addition, they reduce the
PATTERN LAYOUT tendency for cracks to form in the cored
openings from core fins.
The process of actually laying out a pattern
comes under the work of the patternmaker. The location, size, and type of vent holes, to
The various parts of proper pattern layout are allow gases to escape, should be indicated on
discussed briefly here to provide the molder the core prints and in the core box by means
with information which may prove useful in of strips or projections, or by some other
determining any nonconformity between the appropriate means.
casting and the original drawing.

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Parting Line. The parting line divides the Chaplets. When the design of the core is
pattern into the parts that form the cavity insuch that additional support over and above
the cope (top) and drag (bottom) of the mold. that given by the core prints is needed, it is
Whenever possible, a casting is designed so a necessary to use chaplets. These chaplets are
straight parting line can be used; that is, a pieces of metal especially designed to support
single flat surface will divide the casting into
the core. Detailed description of chaplets and
cope and drag sections. Usually, a straight their use will be found in Chapter 5, "Making
parting line is necessary if the pattern is to be
Molds." Their use is to be avoided wherever
mounted. When loose patterns are used, the possible, particularly on pressure castings. If
mold may be made easier with a straight chaplets are necessary, their location and size
parting line than with a broken parting line. should be indicated on the pattern and core
box by raised sections such as shown in
Core Prints. A core print is a projection on figure 36. This additional metal in the mold
the pattern designed to make an impression in cavity serves two main purposes; first, it
the sand for locating and anchoring the core. accurately locates the best chaplet position
and insures that the location will be
Although there are no fixed rules as to the consistently used; second, it provides an
length of core prints or how much taper they additional mass of metal to aid in the fusion
should have, practice requires that there of the chaplet, which is necessary to obtain
should be sufficient bearing surface to pressure tightness.
support the weight of the core. The following
table gives dimensions which have been Shrinkage Rules. The patternmaker uses
found successful in practical application. rules which are somewhat longer than the
numbers indicate. The size of such a rule
TABLE 3. CORE PRINT DIMENSIONS allows for shrinkage of the casting. A 1/4-
inch shrink rule, for instance, is 12 1/4-inches
Size of Core Length of Core Print long, although the markings would indicate
Up to 1 1/2-inch 2-inch core print that it is only 12 inches long.
diameter
The shrinkage rule to be used in constructing
From 2-inch to At least equal to the a pattern must be selected for the metal which
5-inch diameter diameter of core will be used in the casting. It must be
Above 5 inches in 6-inch core print remembered that the shrinkage rule will also
diameter (minimum) vary with the casting design. For example,
light and medium steel castings of simple
design and no cores require a 1/4-inch rule,

27

whereas for pipes and valves where there is a that are to be machined. Some castings do not
considerable resistance offered to the require finish since they are used in the rough
contraction of the steel by the mold and state just as they come from the final cleaning
cores, a 3/16- inch rule will be adequate. operation. Most castings are finished only on
Shrinkage allowances for various metals and certain surfaces, and no set rule can be given
mold construction are listed in table 4. as to the amount of finish to be allowed. The
finish is determined by the machine shop
Machining Allowances. The machining practice and by the size and shape of the
allowance or finish is usually made on a casting. A casting may become distorted from
pattern to provide for extra metal on the

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casting during heat treatment. This distortion stresses during the casting process or
is also a factor in determining machining surfaces, because of the lower strength of
allowance. In table 5 are listed some finish isolated volumes of sand. The draft is
allowances which may be used as a guide. dependent on the shape and size of the
casting and should at all times be ample. The
Many times, the exact finish allowances can actual draft to be used is usually determined
be found by referring to the original by consultation between the patternmaker and
blueprints of the part to be cast. the molder. Proper and improper drafts are
shown in figure 39.
Draft. Draft is the amount of taper given to
the sides of projections, pockets, and the Distortion Allowance. Many times a casting
body of the pattern so that the pattern may be is of a design which results in cooling
withdrawn from the mold without breaking stresses that cause distortion in the finished
the sand away. This also applies to core casting. The design may also be such that it
boxes. The breaking of sand due to a lack of cannot be corrected in the design. In such a
taper is shown in figure 37. The same pattern case, the experience of the molder and pattern
with correct taper is shown in figure 38. maker must be relied upon to produce a good
When a straight piece, such as the face of a casting. Distortion allowances must be made
flange or a bushing, is made, the amount of in a pattern and are usually determined by
draft is usually 1/8-inch per foot. In green experience. Recorded information on castings
sand molding, interior surfaces will require of this type is very useful in determining
more draft than the exterior surfaces distortion allowances on future work.

TABLE 4. PATTERN SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCES

Casting Alloys Pattern Dimension (inches) Type of Construction Contraction
(inches per foot)
Gray Cast Iron Up to 24 Open construction 1/8
From 25 to 48 Open construction 1/10
Over 48 Open construction 1/12
Up to 24 Cored construction 1/8
From 25 to 36 Cored construction 1/10
Over 36 Cored construction 1/12
Cast Steel Up to 24 Open construction 1/4
From 25 to 72 Open construction 3/16
Up to 18 Cored construction 1/4
From 19 to 48 Cored construction 3/16
From 49 to 66 Cored construction 5/32
Aluminum Up to 48 Open construction 5/32
49 to 72 Open construction 9/64
Up to 24 Cored construction 5/32
Over 48 Cored construction 9/64 to 1/8
From 25 to 48 Cored construction 1/8 to 1/16
Brass 3/16

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Bronze 1/8 to 1/4

28

hair, while external reinforcements can be

TABLE 5. GUIDE TO PATTERN provided by surface coating. Typical patterns
MACHINE FINISH ALLOWANCES produced in gypsum cement are shown in
figure 41. Making of a simple pattern is
Casting Alloy Pattern Bore Finish shown in figure 42.
Size (inches)
(inches) FINISHING AND COLOR CODING
Cast iron Up to 12 1/8 3/32 Shellac is usually used to fill the pores in
13 to 24 3/16 1/8 wood patterns or to seal plaster patterns. The
25 to 42 1/4 3/16 patterns are rubbed smooth to eliminate the
possibility of sand adhering to the pattern
Cast steel Up to 12 3/16 1/8
because of a rough surface. Plaster patterns
13 to 24 1/4 3/16 may be metal sprayed to produce a hard,
25 to 42 5/16 5/16 smooth surface. After the surface of the
patterns has been properly prepared, various
Brass, bronze, Up to 12 3/32 1/16
parts are painted for identification.
and aluminum 13 to 24 3/16 1/8
25 to 36 3/16 5/32 The color code used for identifying different
parts of a pattern is as follows:
A typical casting which would require
distortion allowances is a simple yoke casting 1. Surfaces to be left UNFINISHED are
shown in figure 40. Part (a) shows the casting painted BLACK.
as it was designed. The yoke made to this
2. Surfaces to be MATCHED are
design is shown in part (b) with the arms
painted RED.
widened out. The arrows indicate the
direction of the cooling stresses which 3. Seats of, and for, LOOSE PIECES
produced contraction in the cross member. are marked by RED STRIPES on a
Part (c) shows the pattern as made with YELLOW BACKGROUND.
distortion allowances, and part (d) shows the
finished part. In part (d) the arrows again 4. CORE PRINTS and SEATS for
show the direction of the cooling stresses LOOSE CORE PRINTS are painted
which were used to produce a straight yoke. YELLOW.
MAKING THE PATTERN 5. STOPOFFS are indicated by
DIAGONAL BLACK STRIPES on a
Skilled patternmakers are available aboard YELLOW BASE.
repair ships to make patterns. Construction of
patterns, therefore, is not discussed in detail
in this manual. Detailed information on MAINTENANCE, CARE, AND REPAIR
patternmaking can be found in the
patternmaker' manuals aboard ship. The patterns normally made aboard repair
ships are used for a few castings and then
If broken parts are to be used as a pattern, they must be stored. It is important that
extreme care must be taken to insure proper storage space be provided which is as free of

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alignment of the parts when they are joined moisture as possible. This precaution will
or placed for molding. The surfaces should be maintain the patterns in good condition and
as smooth as possible and the size of the prevent warping and cracking. The storage of
casting should be increased wherever patterns should be in properly constructed
necessary to compensate for contraction. The racks wherever possible. This will keep
use of Celastic for this purpose is described pattern damage down to a minimum.
in the section on "Maintenance, Care, and
Repair." A record should be kept of all patterns which
are on hand. These records should contain a
For applications where the quantity of complete description of the pattern, pattern
castings required is small and the designs are numbers, class of ship, size of part, and
quite simple, gypsum cement can be used as drawing and piece number. Such records are
pattern material with success. See Pattern useful in locating a pattern for future use.
Materials. They may also be used to provide a pattern
for a similar casting which may be required.
One disadvantage in the use of this material Time can be saved by slightly altering a
is that it is fragile and is likely to be damaged pattern already on hand or using the pattern
in handling, molding, and storage. Internal as designed and making alterations in the
support can be provided through the use of machining operations. Any permanent pattern
arbors, rods, wire frames, intermixed changes, no matter how

29

small, should be noted on the pattern record, Another simple method that can be used in
and if possible on the blueprint of the casting. cases where a small pattern of solid wood
construction with no cores is to be used
Many times a core box has to be repaired or consists in weighing the patterns and
altered slightly. Sheet lead or sheet brass of multiplying this figure by the following:
varying thicknesses may be used. Celastic For steel 17.0
may also be used to repair a pattern or core
box. Minor repairs to the pattern or core box For cast iron 16.5
may easily be made by a molder, but any For bronze 18.5
repair of a major nature should be by a For aluminum 5.0
pattern-maker. After any repair is made, the
pattern should be checked to make sure that it
To this figure, the weights of heads and gates
conforms to the drawing. A periodic check of
are added.
patterns or core boxes and minor repair of
them will go a long way toward keeping the Caution must be used in following this
patterns in good usable condition and prevent practice; if the pattern is not of solid
major repairs later. construction or if it is not made of white pine,
an erroneous answer will be obtained. Sugar
Directions for Applying Celastic. pine and mahogany have a greater density
and a lower factor must be used to calculate
1. Clean the surface where it is to be
the casting weights. Where neither of these
applied.
methods is possible, it is necessary to break
2. Cut pieces to the size required or a down the design into simple sections--such as
number of pieces to cover the required rounds, squares, and plates--and calculate the
area. weight of each section by determining its

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3. Immerse the Celastic in the solvent volume in cubic inches, multiplying this
(methyl ethyl ketone) until it becomes figure by the following weights per cubic
very pliable and sticky. In this state, it inch, and then obtaining the total:
can be applied to the pattern and will
shape very easily, even on irregular Pounds per
contours, by pressure from the fingers. cubic inch
Cast steel 0.284
4. After the solvent has evaporated, the
Celastic will adhere firmly to the Aluminum 0.098
pattern and the outer surface will be Cast iron 0.260
relatively hard. It may then be sanded Compositions G and M 0.317
and lacquered to a smooth surface.
Manganese bronze 0.303

WARNING: Celastic shrinks in thickness This method is demonstrated in the case of

after dipping and drying, and proper the designs shown in figures 43 and 44.
allowance must be made. If a greater
thickness is desired on any surface, one or In table 6 are areas and volumes for
more pieces may be applied to the original calculating weights of castings. This table
layer of the Celastic. Two small metal pans shows the various shapes and formulas which
should be available for submerging the are useful in calculating casting weights.
Celastic; any solvent left in the pan may be
returned to the bottle. SUMMARY

CALCULATION OF CASTING WEIGHT Making a pattern is the job of a skilled

patternmaker, but a knowledge of the factors
The calculation of casting weights is involved in patternmaking is useful to the
important in the operation of any foundry. For molder. Many times a defective casting can
that reason, some information on the methods be traced to not enough draft, improper
and practices used is given. parting line, or insufficient core prints. A
molder who is able to recognize a defect
It is obviously quite simple to calculate the caused by improper pattern work or a pattern
weight required to pour a casting if the requiring repair can save himself a lot of time
defective part is to be used as a pattern, or if by having the pattern corrected.
it is on hand. Since risers and gates are
usually round (and should be) in their cross The factors discussed in this chapter are not
section, it is easy to calculate their weight and intended to supply all the answers relating to
add it to the weight of the casting. patternmaking. The molder should use this
information to guide him in maintaining his
patterns and recognizing when they are in
need of attention.

30

AREAS AND VOLUMES FOR CALCULATING WEIGHTS OF CASTINGS

Rectangle and Parallelogram

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Area = ab

Triangle

Area = 1/2 cd.

Area = SQRT(s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)) when
s= 1/2(a + b + c)
Example: a = 3", b = 4", c = 5"
s = (3" + 4" + 5")/2 = 6"
Area = SQRT(6 (6-3) (6-4) (6-5)) = 6 sq. in.

Regular Polygons

n = Number of sides, s= Length of one side, r= Inside radius

Area = 1/2 nsr

Number Area
of Sides
5 1.72047 s2 = 3.63273 r2
6 2.59809 s2 = 3.46408 r2
7 3.63395 s2 = 3.37099 r2
8 4.82847 s2 = 3.31368 r2
9 6.18181 s2 = 3.27574 r2
10 7.69416 s2 = 3.24922 r2
11 9.36570 s2 = 3.22987 r2
12 11.19616 s2 = 3.21539 r2

Trapezium

Area = 1/2 [a (e + d) bd + ce]

Example: a = 10", b = 3", c = 5", d = 6", e = 8"
Area = 1/2 [10 (8 + 6) + (3 X 6) + (5 X 8)] = 99 sq. in.

Square

The diagonal of a square = A X 1.414

The side of a square inscribed in a given circle is: B X .707.

31

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Circle

θ (the Greek letter Theta) = angle included between radii

π (pi) = 3.1416, D = Diameter, R = Radius, C = Chord.
h = Height of Arc, L = Length of Arc.
Circumference = πD = 2πR = 2 SQRT(π X Area)
Diameter = 2 R = Circumference / π = 2 SQRT(Area/π)
Radius = 1/2 D = Circumference / 2 π = SQRT(Area/π)
Radius = ((c/2)2 + h2)/2h
Area = 1/4 π D2 = 0.7854 D2 = π R2
Chord = 2 SQRT(h (D - h)) = 2R X sine 1/2θ
Height of Arc, h = R - SQRT(R2-(C/2)2)
Length of Arc, L = θ/360 x 2 π R = 0.0174533 Rθ
1/2 θ (in degrees) = 28.6479 L/R
Sine(1/2 θ) = (C/2) / R

Sector of a Circle

Area = 1/2 LR
Example: L = 10.472", R = 5"
Area = 10.472/2 x 5 = 26.180 sq. in.
or Area = π R2 X θ/360 = 0.0087266 R2θ
Example: R = 5", θ = 120°
Area = 3.1416 X 52 X 120/360 = 26.180 sq. in.

Segment of a Circle

Area = πR2 X θ/360 - C(R - h)/2

Example: R = 5", θ = 120°, C = 8.66", h = 2.5"
Area = 3.1416 X 52 X 120/360 - (8.66(5 - 2.5))/2 = 15.355 sq. in.
Length of arc L = 0.0174533 R θ
Area = 1/2 [LR-C (R-h)]
Example: R = 5", C = 8.66", h = 2.5", θ = 120°
L = 0.0174533 X 5 X 120 = 10.472"
Area = 1/2[(10.472 X 5) - 8.66(5 - 2.5)] = 15.355 sq. in.

32

Circular Ring

Area = 0.7854 (D2-d2), or 0.7854 (D-d)(D+d)

Example: D = 10", d = 3"
Area = 0.7854 (102 - 32) = 71.4714 sq. in.

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Spandrel

Area = 0.2146 R2 = 0.1073 C2

Example: R = 3
Area = 0.2146 X 32 = 1.9314

Parabolic Segment

Area = 2/3 sh
Example: s = 3, h = 4
Area = 2/3 X 3 X 4 = 8

Ellipse

Area Tab = πab = 3.1416 ab

Example: a = 3, b = 4
Area = 3.1416 X 3 X 4 = 37.6992

Irregular Figures

Area may be found as follows:

Divide the figure into equal spaces as shown by the lines
in the figure.
(1) Add lengths of dotted lines.
(2) Divide sum by number of spaces.
(3) Multiply result by "A."

33

Ring of Circular Cross Section

Area of Surface = 4 π2Rr = 39.4784 Rr

Area of Surface = π2 Dd = 9.8696 Dd
Volume = 2 π2 Rr2 = 19.7392 Rr2
Volume = 1/4 π2 Dd2 = 2.4674 Dd2

Sphere

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Surface = 4 π r2 = 12.5664 r2 = π d2
Volume = 4/3 π r3 = 4.1888 r3
Volume = 1/6 π d3 = 0.5236 d3

Segment of a Sphere

Spherical Surface = 2 π rh = 1/4 π(c2 + 4h2) = 0.7854 (c2 + 4h2)

Total Surface = 1/4π (c2 + 8 rh) = 0.7854 (c2 + 8 rh)
Volume = 1/3 π h2 (3 r - h) = 1.0472 h2 (3 r - h)
or
Volume = 1/24 πh (3c2 + 4h2) = 0.1309 h (3c2 + 4h2)

Sector of a Sphere

Total Surface = 1/2πr (4 h + c) = 1.5708 r (4 h + c)

Volume = 2/3 πr2h = 2.0944 r2h

Cylinder

Cylindrical Surface = π dh = 2 πrh = 6.2832 rh

Total Surface = 2 π r (r + h) = 6.2832 (r + h)
Volume = π r2h = 1/4 πd2h = 0 7854 d2h

34

Pyramid

A = area of base
P = perimeter of base
Lateral Area = 1/2 Ps
Volume = 1/3Ah

Frustum of a Pyramid

A = area of base
a = area of top
m = area of midsection
P = perimeter of base
p = perimeter of top
Lateral Area = 1/2s (P + p)
Volume = 1/3h (a + A + SQRT(aA)

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Volume = 16h (A + a + 4m)

Cone

Conical Area = πrs = πr SQRT(r2 + h2)

Volume =1/3 π r2h = 1.0472 r2h = 0.2618 d2h

Frustum of a Cone

A = area of base
a = area of top
m = area of midsection
R = D / 2; r = d / 2
Area of Conical Surface = 1/2 πs (D + d) = 1.5708 s (D+d)
Volume = 1/3 h (R2 + Rr + r2) = 1.0472 h (R2 + Rr + r2)
Volume = 1/12 h (D2 + Dd + d2) = 0.2618 h (D2 + Dd + d2)
Volume = 1/3h (a + A + SQRT(aA)) = 1/6 h (a + A + 4m)

35

Figure 33. One piece pattern.

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Figure 34. Split pattern.

452605 0-58-4

36

Figure 35. Core print construction.

Figure 37. Mold broken due to a lack of taper.

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Figure 38. Clean pattern draw with correct

taper.

Figure 36. Chaplet location with pads.

Figure 39. Pattern draft.

37

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Figure 40. Distortion allowance in a simple

yoke pattern.

Figure 43. Calculating casting weight.

Figure 41. Plaster patterns and core boxes.

Figure 42. Making a simple plaster pattern.

Figure 44. Calculating casting weight.

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This page is blank.

39

Chapter IV
SANDS FOR MOLDS AND CORES

The principal molding material used in long period of time, having a wide working
foundries is silica sand. Silica sand is readily range for moisture, and permitting easier
available, low in cost, and possesses patching and finishing of molds. One
properties that enable it to withstand the disadvantage of natural sand is that its
effects of molten metals. properties vary and are not so consistent as
desired. Additions of bentonite are sometimes
The primary function of any molding made to natural sands. Such a sand is called
material is to maintain the shape of the "semisynthetic."
casting cavity until the molten metal is
poured and until the casting solidifies. The SYNTHETIC SANDS
properties of silica sand that make it useful as
a molding material are its refractoriness and Sands that fall under the designation of
its ability to be formed into complicated "synthetic" sands are not actually synthesized
shapes easily. Its refractoriness enables it to from the various elements. They are made by
withstand the intense heat from molten mixing together the various individual
metals. Its ability to be formed into shapes is materials that make up a molding sand. (See
attained by the action of naturally occurring glossary, Synthetic Sand.) A more
clay (clay that is quarried with the sand) or appropriate name would be "compounded"
added clay, additional binders, and water. The sands. However, the name synthetic has
binder maintains the sand in place until the become established in the foundry industry,
casting is poured and solidified. through usage, to designate a sand of this
type.
The three major parts of a molding sand are:
(1) the sand grains, which provide the Synthetic sands consist of a naturally
necessary refractory properties; (2) the occurring sand with a very low clay content,
bonding material, which may be a naturally or a washed sand (all of the natural clay
occurring clay in the sand or an added removed), and an added binder, such as
material such as bentonite or cereal; and (3) bentonite. Synthetic sands have the following
water, which makes possible the bonding of advantages over naturally bonded sands: (1)
the sand grains by the binder to make the more uniform grain size, (2) higher
sand a useful molding material. refractoriness, (3) mold with less moisture,
(4) require less binder, (5) the various
MOLDING SANDS properties are more easily controlled, and (6)
less storage space is required, since the sand
Because storage space aboard repair ships is can be used for many different types of
limited, it is to the molder's advantage to castings.
stock only a few types of foundry sands.
From this point of view, the use of an all- ALL-PURPOSE SANDS
purpose sand is advantageous in that only one
facility for new sand is required for all of the Sands that are used for a variety of casting
metals cast aboard ship. Many times, it may sizes and types of metals are called "all-
be impossible to obtain the all-purpose sand purpose" sands. In commercial practice,
required, and a locally available sand will different sands are used to cast different

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have to be used. In such instances, the metals and different sizes of castings of the
various properties of the substitute sand will same metal, but in a shipboard foundry, the
have to be determined before the sand is used limitation of storage space makes the practice
in the foundry. All of the sand properties of maintaining many special sands
discussed in the section, "Sand Properties," impossible. A synthetic sand used as a base
apply to natural sands as well as to synthetic for an all-purpose sand has the requirements
and all-purpose sands. for a molding sand for shipboard use.
Naturally, some advantages will have to be
NATURAL SANDS sacrificed in using one sand for making all
types of castings. The major factor that will
Natural sands contain only the clay that is be sacrificed in this respect is that of surface
already associated with them when mined. finish. However, the principal purpose of a
Such a sand is often used as it is received, shipboard foundry is to produce serviceable
with only moisture added to obtain the castings. Surface finish is often not a major
desired properties. Albany sand is a typical requirement. As an example, a coarse-grained
example of a natural sand. A naturally sand suitable for steel castings will produce
bonded sand has the advantages of rough surface finishes on lighter nonferrous
maintaining its moisture content for a castings made in the same sand. This is a
minor disadvantage for an all-purpose sand
when compared to its advantages for repair-
ship use.

40

Shape of the Sand Grains. There are two

SAND PROPERTIES primary shapes of sand grains, angular and
rounded. There are many degrees of
There are a great many properties of sand roundness or angularity between the two
which are of interest to the production extremes. Angular grains can be compared to
foundry-man. Among the most important are: crushed stone. There are sharp edges and
(1) green permeability, (2) green strength, (3) corners on the grains. The rounded sand
dry strength, (4) moisture content, (5) clay grains have the appearance of beach pebbles
content, and (6) grain fineness. These will be that have been rounded by the action of the
discussed in greater detail. The other sea. Sharp angular sand grains cannot pack
properties include hot strength, sintering together as closely as rounded sand grains.
point, deformation, and collapsibility. The six As a result, sand with angular grains have a
properties selected as most important are higher permeability than sands with rounded
those with which repair-ship molders should grains. The effect of grain shape on the
be most familiar. These are also the permeability of molding sand is shown in
properties that can be determined by the use figure 47. (The word "sharp," incidentally,
of the sand-test equipment aboard ship. when applied to molding sands has nothing to
do with grain shape. A sharp sand is simply a
GREEN PERMEABILITY sand very low in Clay content.)
Green permeability is that property of a Binder. The amount and type of binder also
molding sand that permits the passage of air, have an effect on the permeability of foundry
gases, or steam through the sand. The sand. The effect of increasing amounts of
openings between the sand grains in a mold bentonite on permeability is shown in figure
give sand its permeability. There are four

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factors that control the permeability of 48. The permeabilities are shown for
foundry sand: (1) fineness of the sand grains, moisture contents of 2 and 4 percent. With 2
(2) shape of the sand grains, (3) the amount percent moisture, the sand shows a rapid
and type of binder, and (4) the moisture decrease in permeability with increased
content. Permeability is expressed as a bentonite content. Sands containing 4 percent
number that increases with an increasing moisture show a fairly constant permeability
openness of the sand. after 4 percent bentonite is reached. This type
of information indicates that 4 percent of
Grain Fineness. Grain fineness is an moisture in this particular sand would
indication of the grain size of the sands. It is produce the best permeability over a range of
expressed as a number that tells a molder if bentonite contents. The type of binder also
he has a fine sand, made up largely of very affects permeability, as shown in figure 49.
small sand grains, or a coarse sand, composed
mainly of large sand grains. A detailed Moisture Content. The effect of moisture
description of grain-fineness number is given content on permeability was shown in figures
under "Methods for Testing Sands," in this 46 and 47. Low permeability at very low
chapter. moisture content is caused by the dry clay
particles filling the spaces between the sand
The general effect of grain size on grains. Figures 46 and 47 both show an
permeability is shown by figure 45. Data for increase in permeability to a maximum value,
this curve were obtained by screening a given and then a decrease with further additions of
sand through a series of test screens and then water. The increase in permeability is
making a permeability test on the sand produced when the moisture causes the clay
retained on each screen. The permeability of particles to agglomerate or stick together.
the coarse sand is very high. As the sand This action is similar to the addition of water
grains become smaller, the permeability to dust to form a firm piece of soil. When
decreases rapidly. This decrease is due to the water is added in excess of the amount to
smaller voids or openings between the produce this sticking together, the excess
individual sand grains for the fine sand. water begins to fill in the holes between the
Coarse sand grains have the same general sand grains and as a result, the permeability
size relation to fine sand grains as basketballs goes down. This action is similar to the
have to marbles. addition of water to a firm soil to produce
mud.
The permeabilities of four typical foundry
sands, ranging from coarse to fine, are shown GREEN STRENGTH
in figure 46. The numbers shown on the
graph are the grain-fineness numbers. The Green strength is the strength of molding
coarse sand, having a greater amount of large sand just after it has been tempered. (Refer to
sand grains and large voids between the glossary, "temper.") It is the strength which is
grains, has a high permeability. The other required for the handling of the sand during
sands, having a greater amount of small sand the molding operation and, if a mold is
grains and small voids, have lower poured soon after it is completed, it is the
permeabilities. strength which must maintain the shape of the
mold.

41

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Green strength is expressed as the number of When cereal and dextrine are added to
pounds per square inch required to crush a bentonite, the bonded mixtures give a higher
standard specimen. The same factors that dry strength. For more information on the
control permeability also control the green behavior of different binders, see the next
strength of foundry sand. They are ( 1) grain section.
fineness, (2) shape of the sand grains, (3) the
amount and type of binder, and (4) the BINDERS
moisture content. Mulling practice or mixing
practice also affect the green strength of sand. Binders are the materials added to molding
This is discussed in detail in the section on sands to hold the individual sand grains
"Mixing." together to provide a usable molding
material.
Grain Fineness. The smaller the size of the
sand grains in a given amount of molding Green strength, dry strength, and
sand, the greater will be the area of contact permeability are the properties of the sand
between the many grains. As a result, the which are directly affected by the amount and
green strength of the finer sand is high. A type of binder. The change in permeability
coarse sand, on the other hand, will have a with a change in bentonite content is shown
much smaller contact area for the same in figure 48. Figure 49 shows the effect of
amount of sand, and the green strength is bentonite and fire clay on permeability.
lower. This is illustrated in figure 50. The
The change in green strength with a change
green strength increases as the sand changes
in the bentonite content is shown in figures
from a coarse sand to a fine sand. Figure 51
53 and 55. In figure 55, it can be seen that for
shows the variation in green strength for four
any given amount of bentonite, there is not a
different sands. The sand with the highest
large change in green strength with a change
fineness number (108) is the finest sand and
in the moisture content. If the moisture
has the highest green strength for a given
content is maintained at a given value, the
moisture content. The other sands become
green strength can be changed over a
progressively weaker as they become coarser.
considerable range by adjusting the amount
Grain Shape. The area of contact between of bentonite. Figure 54 shows the effect of
the sand grains is also affected by the shape fire clay and bentonite on green strength.
of the grains. Round grains pack together This shows the advantage of bentonite over
much more closely than sharp, angular grains fire clay as a binder. The green strength due
and, as a result, have a stronger bond than the to fire clay decreases rapidly with increased
angular sand. A comparison of the green moisture, while the green strength due to
strengths of round and angular sands is made bentonite decreases much less for the same
in figure 52. moisture contents.

The effects of blending western and southern

Binder. Green strength is affected directly by
the amount of binder which is added. The bentonite on the green strength and dry
strength of a sand with an AFS Fineness
more binder used, the higher will be the green
strength, as shown in figure 53. The type ofNumber of 50 to 60 are shown in figure 56.
There is a rather uniform decrease in dry
binder used (clay, cereal, dextrine, or rosin)
also affects the green strength of molding strength with a changeover from western to
southern bentonite. The green strength
sand. The effect of bentonite and fireclay on
the green strength is shown in figure 54. increases slightly from 100 percent western
bentonite through the various mixtures and
Moisture Content. The effect of moisture on then increases rapidly as the 100 percent
green strength is similar to its effect on southern bentonite bond is used. This shows
permeability. The green strength increases the difference in properties that result from

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with the first additions of water, reaches a the use of the two different bentonites, or
maximum strength, and then starts to mixtures of the two bentonites. The low dry
decrease. This is illustrated in figures 47 and strength of southern bentonite is especially
53. advantageous when a sand mixture having
good collapsibility is required, for instance,
DRY STRENGTH when casting alloys that are apt to hot tear
easily.
The dry strength of sand mixtures is generally
affected in the same way as green strength by Other binders (such as cereal, dextrine, and
grain fineness, grain shape, and moisture rosin) are often used as additives to augment
content. Different binders, however, can or modify the clay binders. The cereal
affect dry strength and green strength binders are wheat and corn flours. A
differently. For example, in comparison with cornflour binder slightly improves the green
western bentonite, southern bentonite strength and makes a decided improvement in
produces a high green strength and a low dry the dry strength. Wheat-flour, on the other
strength. Southern bentonite is widely used hand, contributes very little to green strength,
for its low dry strength and the resulting easy but improves the collapsibility of a sand. It is
shakeout of castings. important to realize that the effects of all
cereal

42

binders are not the same in influencing the each other. This interdependence of
properties of molding sands. Dextrine binders properties must be kept in mind constantly,
are a form of sugar and produce a much especially when trying to determine the cause
higher dry strength than do cereal binders. of casting defects due to sand. The apparently
However, dextrines also cause a reduction in obvious cause of a defect may not be the
the green strength of the sand mixture. actual factor causing that defect, and in many
Molasses can be used as a substitute for cases it is a combination of sand properties
dextrine, but its influence on sand properties that leads to a defect.
is not so great as that of dextrine. Rosin
binders are commercial byproducts that are REBUILDING OF SANDS
used principally as core binders or in sand
mixes for dry sand molds. A rosin-bonded The binder in foundry sands is burned out by
sand has a very hard surface when baked, but the heat of the molten metal. As a result, the
has the disadvantage that it absorbs moisture green strength of the sand becomes lower and
on standing. Because of this characteristic, the permeability decreases as the sand is
molds and cores made with rosin-bonded reused. The permeability decreases because
sands should be used as soon after baking as of the increase in fines in the sand. The use of
possible. sand-testing equipment periodically to
measure these properties of molding sands
GRAIN FINENESS enables the molder to make appropriate
additions to the sand before it has
The effect of fineness of a foundry sand is deteriorated to the point where it must be
discussed under the various other properties. discarded. If a continuous check is made,
Briefly, a fine sand will have a higher corrections can be made by the addition of
strength and lower permeability, for a given small amounts of binder, and more uniform
moisture and binder content, than will a day-to-day properties can be maintained.
coarse sand.

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OTHER PROPERTIES Additions of new binder may be as little as

one-third to one-half percent of the sand by
In a molding sand, hot strength and weight if additions are made frequently and
collapsibility are two properties which are are made as shown necessary by test
important to the foundryman. Hot strength is information. The actual amount of binder
the strength that a molding sand has when it required will depend on the type of binder
is at the pouring temperature of the various and on the manner in which it is added. The
molten metals. Hot strength is necessary in a effect of fire clay and bentonite as binders is
sand mixture to retain the shape of the mold shown in figures 49 and 54. Note that the fire
before solidification of the metal starts. Hot clay gives a much weaker bond than
strength should not be confused with retained bentonite, and would require a larger addition
strength, which is the strength of molding to attain the same strength as a bentonite-
sand after it has been heated and permitted to bonded sand.
cool to room temperature. Collapsibility is
the property that permits a sand mold or core MIXING
to crumble when it is subjected to the forces
exerted by a contracting casting. The When rebonding sands, the use of a muller is
determination of hot strength and necessary to obtain the maximum benefits. A
collapsibility is impossible with the sand- much larger percentage of binder is required
testing equipment aboard ship, but general if the sand is mixed manually with a shovel.
determinations of these properties can be
made by observation. The two properties of Mulling Sand. To obtain the maximum
hot strength and collapsibility go hand in properties from a molding sand, a muller
hand, and one cannot be discussed without should be used for the mixing of all foundry
the other. The ideal foundry sand would have sands. It is especially important that core
a high hot strength and good collapsibility, sands and facing sands be mixed in a muller,
but this combination is difficult to attain, but the mixing of all sands in a muller
except through very close control of sand provides a more uniform day-to-day
processing. The hot strength and operation. The use of a muller to mix and
collapsibility of the sand can be checked by rebond sands is essential to good sand
observing the condition of the sand when control, and shows up in the production of
shaking out a casting. If the sand is difficult better castings.
to remove from deep pockets, then the sand
The literature supplied with the mullers
lacks adequate collapsibility. A hot tear in a
aboard repair ships should be consulted for
casting is an indication of too high a hot
proper operating instructions. The best results
strength, and also a lack of collapsibility.
are obtained by mixing the dry sand and dry
In this discussion of sand properties, it is bond for at least one minute. This operation
obvious that all of the various factors distributes the bond evenly throughout the
affecting the properties of molding sand are sand. A part of the temper water is then
dependent on added, the

43

sand mixed for a suitable period of time, the

balance of the temper water added, and ALL-PURPOSE SAND
mixing completed. The total mixing time
after the water additions should be The all-purpose sand that is used in Navy
foundries is a "compounded" or "synthetic"

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approximately as shown in table 7. sand that has been developed by the Naval
Research Laboratory. A wide range of
TABLE 7. MIXING TIMES USED IN properties can be attained in the molding sand
SOME OF THE COMMON TYPES OF with a minimum of bonding materials such as
MULLER MIXERS bentonite, cornstarch, and dextrine. Sand
properties for an all-purpose sand having an
Type of Size Mixing Mixing AFS Fineness Number of 63 are discussed in
Mixer of Time Time for the following section. Properties of sands
Batch, for Backing having higher or lower AFS Fineness
cu ft Facing Sand, Numbers (finer or coarser sands) will
Sand, minutes generally vary as described in the section on
Minutes Sand Properties. (See figures 45, 46, 50, and
Clearfield 4 5 3 51.)
Mulbaro 3 5 3 PROPERTIES OF A 63 AFS FINENESS
Simpson 5 1/2 5 3 NUMBER SAND
Speedmullor 3 1/2 1
The principal properties (green strength,
permeability, and dry strength) of a 63 AFS
A mixing time longer than those listed in Fineness sand are shown in figures 58 and 59.
table 7 does not increase the green strength. This graphical method of presenting the
This is shown in figure 57. It is good practice information is used so that the interrelation of
to make a series of tests for green strength the various properties can be easily seen.
after various mulling times to determine the
time needed to attain the maximum green The relationships between green compressive
strength. strength, moisture content, bentonite content,
and permeability are shown in figure 58. The
Mulling of sand distributes the clay and other green strength of the sand increases with
binders over the individual sand grains by a increased amounts of bentonite. Notice that
kneading and smearing action. Such for each bentonite content, there is a rapid
distribution of the binder is impossible to increase in green strength with the first
achieve by manual operation, no matter how additions of moisture, and then a gradual
thoroughly it is done. In addition to decrease in green strength as the moisture
distributing the binder uniformly, the mulled content is increased. The broken lines in
sands require a smaller amount of binder than figure 58 show the various permeabilities that
does a hand-mixed sand. The increased are obtained for the various bentonite and
amount of binder required in a hand-mixed moisture contents.
sand also results in a lower permeability than
in a mulled sand of the same green strength. The relationships between green compressive
strength, moisture content, bentonite content,
Manual Mixing. Situations may arise when and dry strength are shown in figure 59. In
mulling of sand is impossible and manual figure 59, the broken lines show the dry
mixing of the sand will have to be done. strengths that are obtained with the various
When such mixing is necessary, it should be bentonite and moisture contents. Figures 58
done preferably the day before the sand is to and 59 provide information on the direction
be used. in which changes can be made to correct the
sand properties, and also give information on
The binder should be added to the sand heap
the particular combinations of binder and
in small amounts in the dry condition and
moisture to use in a new mix to obtain certain
mixed thoroughly after each addition. After
desired properties.
the binder has been added and dry mixing

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completed, the temper water should be added As an example, assume that a sand was
a little at a time with a sprinkling can while prepared with 4 percent bentonite and 4
the sand is being mixed. On completion of percent moisture, and that it had a green
the mixing operation, the sand should be compressive strength of 4.5 p.s.i. and a
passed through a three or four-mesh riddle permeability of 95. Assume that this sand is
and permitted to stand (or temper) for at least found to be unsatisfactory because the green
a few hours. Preferably, a hand-mixed sand strength is too low, and it is desired to
should be covered with wet burlap bags and increase the green strength without changing
permitted to stand overnight. the permeability. Reference to figure 58
shows that this change could be made by
increasing the bentonite content to 5 percent

44

and reducing the moisture content to 3 not be taken to mean that there is a sharp
percent. This new combination of bentonite separation between the properties of the
and moisture contents would provide a sand different classes of sands. There will be some
that has a green strength of 7 p.s.i., with the overlapping of the indicated areas because of
permeability still at 95. From figure 59, it can differences in sand-grain distributions within
be seen that this change in moisture and sands having the same fineness numbers.
binder contents will probably cause a
decrease in dry strength of only 10 p.s.i., It is recommended that a test series (such as
reducing the dry strength from 110 to 100 that required to produce the information for
p.s.i. figures 58 and 59) be made on each new
shipment of sand before it is used in the
As a second example, assume that a sand was foundry. Conducting such a series of tests and
prepared with 4 percent bentonite and 4.5 putting the information in graphical form
percent moisture. This sand would probably would be a useful and informative way of
have a green compressive strength of 4.5 p. s. conducting shipboard instruction periods. The
permeability of 90, and a dry strength of 120 information is developed by making a series
p.s.i. Assume that this sand is found to cause of sand mixtures having different bentonite
difficulties in shake-out or to cause hot (or other binder) contents and different
tearing in the casting. This would indicate moisture contents. As an example, a series of
that the dry strength might possibly be too 2 percent bentonite sand mixes with 1/2, 1, 2,
high. References to figure 59 shows that by 3, 4, 5, and 6 percent moisture can be tested
keeping the bentonite content at 4 percent, for green strength, permeability, and dry
but decreasing the moisture content to 3 strength. A second series of sand mixes
percent, the dry strength will be decreased to containing 3 percent of bentonite and the
approximately 90 p.s.i. This change in same moisture contents can be tested to
moisture would produce only a small increase obtain the same properties. This procedure is
in the green strength from 4.5 to 5 p.s.i., and then repeated for the remaining bentonite
increase the permeability from 85 to 105. contents. The final information is then plotted
to produce graphs similar to those shown in
When referring to these figures, it must be figures 58 and 59.
remembered that only bentonite was
considered as a binder. Other materials can When a new shipment of sand is received
also be added as binders to improve green aboard ship, a few spot tests can be made to
strength or dry strength. The effects of these determine how the new lot of sand compares

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other binders were discussed in the section on with the previous lot. If the properties are
binders. reasonably close, the charts developed for the
previous sand may be used for the new sand.
Another word of caution on figures 58 and However, if there is a significant difference in
59. These figures should not be used as an the physical properties, a complete series of
indication of properties for all other sands tests should be conducted on the new lot of
that may have a similar fineness number and sand to develop a complete picture of the
the same type of binder. Figures 58 and 59 properties of the new sand.
were based on information obtained from a
particular sand, and are used here mainly to MOLDING SAND MIXES
show a method of presenting sand-property
information in a condensed and usable form. Listed in the following tables are various
examples of sand mixes that may be used as a
The green compressive strength of sands of starting point in preparing all-purpose sand
the various grain class numbers that are to be for use aboard repair ships.
used in shipboard foundries will vary
generally as shown in figure 60. This figure
should

TABLE 8. SAND MIXES FOR GRAY IRON CASTINGS

Sand Materials, percent by weight Properties Casting
Type Grain Fineness Sand Bentonite Cereal Other Water Green Perme- Weight,
Class Number Strength ability lb
p.s.i.
Green 4 70-100 89.4 5.3 5.3 2.8 8.3 110 1-30
Fireclay
4 70-100 94.0 4.1 0.2 1.7 4.4- 10.2 76 150-800
Sea 5.5
Coal
Skin 4 70-100 45.5
dried
3 100-140 45.5 3. 9 0.6 4.5 3.5- 8. 0 70-80 60 and
4.0 over

45

TABLE 9. SAND MIXES FOR STEEL CASTINGS

Sand Materials, percent by weight Properties Casting
Type Grain Fineness Sand Bentonite Cereal Other Water Green Perme- Weight,
Class Number Strength ability lb
p.s.i.
Green 5 50-70 94.0 5.0 1.0 3.0 7.5 - 9.0 120 to 500
Facing 4.0
Sand

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Green Used 97.5 1.8 0.7 2.5- 5.0 - 7.0 120 to 500
Backing heap 3.5
Sand
Skin 5 50-70 95.5 3.0 1.5 4.0-4.5 5.5 - 6.5 90-120 100 and
dried over

TABLE 10. SAND MIX FOR ALUMINUM CASTINGS

Sand Materials, percent by weight Properties Casting

Type Grain Fineness Sand Bentonite Cereal Other Water Green Perme- Weight,
Class Number Strength ability lb
p.s.i.
Green 4 70-100 95.0 5.0 5.0--5.5 5.0-10.0 50-100 to 200
97.0 3.0

TABLE 11. SAND MIXES FOR COPPER-BASE ALLOYS

Sand Materials, percent by weight Properties

Casting
Type Grain Fineness Sand Bentonite Cereal Other Water Green Perme- Weight,
Class Number Strength ability lb
p.s.i.
Green 4 70-100 95.0 4. 0 1.0 4.0 6.0 - 7.0 60-70 to 2000
3 100-140 20.0 4.0 7.0-12.0 30-50 to 2000
Used 75.0 5.0
heap
4 70-100 80.0 4.0 1. 0 15.0 5.5 7.0-12.0 40-80 Special
Silica purpose
Flour

The sand mixes given in the preceding tables 2. Bake rapidly and thoroughly.
are given only as a guide. The properties
obtained with the all-purpose sands aboard 3. Produce as little gas as possible when
ship will probably vary somewhat from those molten metal comes in contact with the core.
listed.
4. Be sufficiently permeable to permit the
CORES easy escape of gases formed during pouring.

Cores used aboard repair ships are usually 5. Have hardness sufficient to resist the
baked sand cores. Other types (such as green eroding action of flowing molten metal.
sand cores) have limited use and are not
discussed here. Baked sand cores should have 6. Have surface properties which will prevent
the following properties: metal penetration.

1. Hold their shape before and during the

baking period.

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46

7. Be resistant to the heat contained in the 500°F., they will be much weaker. Continuing
metal at its pouring temperature. the baking of the cores to the point where the
bonding material decomposes must be
8. Have hot strength that is sufficient to avoided, as this causes the cores to lose
withstand the weight of the molten metal at strength.
the pouring temperature and during the
beginning stages of solidification. The size of the core must be considered in
drying. The outer surface of a core will bake
9. Have good collapsibility so the core won't readily and will be the first part to develop
cause hot tears or cracks in the casting. maximum strength. If the temperature is
maintained, the inside will continue to bake
10. Absorb a minimum amount of moisture if until it finally reaches maximum strength, but
the mold is required to stand a considerable by that time, the outer surface of a large core
period of time before pouring. This also holds may be overbaked and low in strength. The
true if storage of cores is necessary. tendency for this to happen in large cores can
be partly overcome by filling the center of the
11. Retain its strength properties during core with highly permeable material with a
storage and withstand breakage during low moisture and bond content, by the use of
handling. well-perforated core plates, and by using low
baking temperatures. It is not only a matter of
CORE PROPERTIES
heating the center of the core, but also of
In addition to the special properties listed in supplying it with oxygen. Thus, there is need
the preceding section, the properties for free circulation of air around and through
discussed for molding sands in the section the core while baking.
"Sand Properties," also apply to core sands.
The most skillful and careful preparation of
There are three major factors which influence metal and mold can easily be canceled by
the properties of cores. They are (1) baking careless technique, and the necessity for
time and temperature, (2) type of core binder, proper baking cannot be overemphasized. If
and (3) collapsibility. cores are not properly baked, the following is
likely to happen to the casting:
Baking Time and Temperature. The best
combination of baking time and temperature 1. Excessive stress, possibly cracks,
varies with: (1) the type of binder used, (2) caused by the core continuing to bake
the ratio of oil to sand, and (3) the type of from the heat of the metal, thus
core ovens used. Figure 61 shows the increasing in strength at the time the
dependence of the baked strength on baking metal is freezing and contracting.
time and temperature. It will be noted that the
same strength was attained in one hour when 2. Unsoundness caused by core gases
baking at 450°F., as was attained in six hours not baked out.
at a baking temperature of 300°F. It is always
good practice to make a series of tests on the 3. Entrapped dirt due to eroded or
effect of baking time and temperature on the spalled sand caused by low strength in
baked strength of cores before using a new the core.
core mix. Such information will provide the
shortest baking time to obtain a given
When overbaked, the loss of strength of the

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strength for that mix. This type of core results in excessive breakage in handling
investigation will also provide information on or during casting, and cutting or eroding of
the baking characteristics of a core oven. the core surface.

In the baking of oil sand cores, two things To establish a full appreciation of the
occur. First, the moisture is driven off. problems of drying cores, a series of 3-inch,
Following this, the temperature rises, causing 5-inch, and 8-inch cube cores should be made
drying and partial oxidation of the oil. In this without rods and baked at temperatures of
way, the strength of the core is developed. 400°F., 425°F., 450°F., 475°F., and 500°F. for
varying predetermined times. After being
For proper baking of oil-sand cores, a taken out of the oven and cooled, they should
uniform temperature is desired. This be cut open with a saw to determine the
temperature should not be over 500°F. nor extent to which they are baked. This simple
under 375°F. If linseed-oil cores are baked at test will aid in determining the proper times
a moderate temperature of 375°F. or 400°F., and temperatures to use for various cores in a
they will be quite strong. If the same cores given oven and under given atmospheric
are baked quickly at conditions.

Practice is necessary to determine accurately

when a core is baked properly. A practical
method is to observe the color of the

47

core. When it has turned a uniform nut and dextrine are cereal binders. Dextrine
brown, it is usually properly baked. A lighter greatly increases the strength of baked cores
color indicates insufficient baking, and a and is used in small amounts with other
darker color indicates overbaking. binders. Dextrine-bonded cores have the
disadvantage that they absorb moisture very
Type of Core Binder. The type of core easily and, therefore, should not be stored for
binder is important from the viewpoint of any length of time before being used. Corn
gas-generating properties as well as the flour is used to give the core green strength
strength the binder will develop. Figure 62 and hold it together until it is baked. The
shows the volume of core gas generated from cereal binders are used in combination with
a linseed-oil compound and an oil-pitch core oil to produce the desired strength. They
mixture. The volume generated by both is the are rarely used by themselves.
same for the first minute, but then the
generation of gas from linseed oil decreases Cereal binders have the following advantages
rapidly, while the generation of gas by the that make them very useful binder materials:
oil-pitch mixture decreases at a much lower (1) good green strength, (2) good dry bond,
rate. A core oil having gas-generating (3) effective in angular sand, (4) core oil is
characteristics similar to those of linseed oil not absorbed as in naturally bonded sands, (5)
is preferred, since core gas is generated for a quick drying, and (6) fast and complete burn
much shorter length of time and the out. Core oils are used to provide a hard
possibility of defects due to core gas is strong core after baking. They have the
lessened. following advantages over other types of
binders: (1) ability to coat the individual sand
Combinations of several binders can be used grains evenly with a reasonable amount of
to obtain a better overall combination of mixing, (2) generate a small amount of

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green strength, baked strength, and hot smoke and gas, (3) work clean in the core
strength than can be obtained with the boxes, and (4) give cores good strength.
individual binders. For example, in a sand
mixture containing core oil and cereal binder, Substitute Materials. Aboard repair ships,
the cereal binder contributes most of the the situation may arise where they standard
green strength, whereas, the core oil core materials are unavailable. In such cases,
contributes most of the baked strength. This substitute materials must be used. Substitute
is the reason for using combinations of cereal materials should be used only as an
binder with oil binders. The strength attained emergency measure. Molasses and pitch are
from a cereal-oil combination is shown in two materials which can be obtained easily
figure 63. Notice that the strength obtained for use as core materials. Molasses should be
by the combination is higher than the total mixed with water to form a thin solution
strengths of the individual binders. known as "molasses water." In this condition,
it is added to the core mix as part of the
Collapsibility. The sand-testing equipment temper water during the mulling operation.
used aboard ship does not permit the high- Pitch is seldom used alone. Used with
temperature testing of cores for collapsibility. dextrine, it imparts good strength to a core
A rule-of-thumb practice must be followed in mix. Sea coal in small amounts is used with
determining this property. Close observation pitch to prevent the pitch from rehardening
must be made in shaking out a casting to after it has cooled from the high temperatures
determine if the core mix had good caused by the molten metal.
collapsibility. A core that is still very hard
during shakeout is said to lack collapsibility. If new washed silica sand is not available,
If a crack should later be observed in the reclaimed backing sand may be used for
cored area of the casting, the core sand facing, if properly bonded. Some beach or
mixture definitely is too strong at high dune sands, relatively free from crustaceous
temperatures and the sand mix should be matter and feldspar, some fine building sands,
corrected. One remedy is to add about 2 and some natural sand deposits containing
percent of wood flour to the mixture. clay may be used. If bentonite is not
available, portland cement, fireclay, or some
CORE SAND MATERIALS natural clays may be used. The corn flour
maybe replaced with ordinary wheat flour.
Standard Materials. Core sand mixtures are Sugar or molasses will take the place of
made from clean, dry silica sands and various dextrine. Wherever substitutes must be used,
binders. The fineness of the sand is the amount of organic materials and clay
determined by the size of the core and the should be kept to a minimum and the amount
metal being poured. One important point in of good clean sand grains to a maximum.
the mixing of core sand mixtures is to have
the sand dry before any materials are added. Other Core Materials. Silica flour and wood
flour are added to core mixtures to get special
The materials used for binders are primarily properties. Silica flour is usually
corn flour, dextrine, raw linseed oil, and
commercial core oils. Corn flour

48

added to prevent metal penetration and 57. The proper mulling time should be
erosion of cores by molten metal. Silica flour determined for each mix used. In the mixing
must be used carefully and not used in of core sands, the additions are made in the

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excess. Excessive use may lead to hot tears following order with the mixer running: (1)
because of too high a hot strength. Wood sand, (2) dry ingredients, (3) run the mixture
flour is not a binder but a filler material. Its dry for a short time, (4) add liquids, and (5)
use is that of softening or weakening a core continue to mix for the desired period of
so that it has better collapsibility. time. Laboratory tests have shown that if the
core oil is added to the sand before the water
MIXING and mixed for a short period of time, more
consistent core properties will be obtained. If
Core sands should be mixed in a muller or cereal binder is used, the batch should not be
some other type of mechanical mixer to mixed too long before adding the liquids.
obtain the maximum properties from the Excessive mixing of the sand with cereal
various binders. Many of the binders are binders without the liquids will cause the
added in very small amounts, and only a batch to become sticky, and a longer length of
thorough mixing operation can distribute the time will be needed to bring the core mix to
binder uniformly throughout the sand. its proper condition.
Manual mixing with a shovel requires the
addition of much more binder to obtain the CORE SAND MIXES
desired properties, and results are not
consistent. Manual mixing of core sands is to The following tables suggest various
be discouraged. representative core mixes. They are given
primarily as a guide to obtain good core
Mulling time has the same effect on core sand mixes for work aboard repair ships.
as on molding sand, as is shown in figure

TABLE 13. CORE SAND MIXES FOR GRAY IRON CASTINGS

Sand Materials, percent by weight Use in
Type Grain Fineness Sand Bentonite Core Cereal Silica Molasses Other Water Castings
Class Number Oil Flour Water(3:1)
New 4 70-100 98.0 1.5 0.5 5.0 General
castings
TABLE 14. CORE SAND MIXES FOR STEEL CASTINGS
Sand Materials, percent by weight Use in
Type Grain Fineness Sand Bentonite Core Cereal Silica Molasses Other Water Castings
Class Number Oil Flour Water(3:1)
New 5 50-70 88.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 10.0 5.0 100 to
1000 lb
New 4 70-100 98.0 1.5 0.5 5.0 General
small
castings

TABLE 15. CORE SAND MIXES FOR ALUMINUM CASTINGS

Sand Materials, percent by weight Use in

Type Grain Fineness Sand Bentonite Core Cereal Silica Molasses Other Water Castings
Class Number Oil Flour Water(3:1)

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New 4 70-100 98.5 0.2 1.0 0.3 5.0 General

castings
New 4 70-100 99.0 0.5 0.5 5.0 Thin
sections

49

TABLE 16. CORE SAND MIXES FOR COPPER-BASE ALLOYS

Sand Materials, percent by weight Use in
Type Grain Fineness Sand Bentonite Core Cereal Silica Molasses Other Water Castings
Class Number Oil Flour Water(3:1)
New 5 50-70 95.0 1.5 0.5 4.0 100 lbs
and
over
New 4 70-100 98.0 1.5 0.5 3.5 General
purpose

TABLE 17. CORE SAND MIX FOR COPPER CASTINGS

Sand Materials, percent by weight Use in

Type Grain Fineness Sand Bentonite Core Cereal Silica Molasses Other Water Castings
Class Number Oil Flour Water(3:1)
New 4 70-100 98.0 1.7 0.3 4.0

CORE PASTE AND FILLER In most cases, the green or air-dried sand
mixtures will produce excellent casting
A very good core paste for use in joining core surfaces without use of the wash.
sections may be made from 3 percent
bentonite, 6 percent dextrine, and 91 percent In brass castings, where erosion and
silica flour. The ingredients should be mixed penetration are problems, a core wash made
dry, and water added to produce a mixture the from a silica base is satisfactory. A plumbago
consistency of soft putty. wash is useful for bronze castings. A core
wash for use with high-lead alloys and
A filler to seal the cracks between parts of the phosphor bronzes, may be made from a paste
core may be made from 3 percent bentonite, 3 of plumbago and molasses water. Such a
percent dextrine, and 94 percent silica flour. treatment should be followed by a thin
The ingredients are mixed dry, then water is coating of the regular core wash.
added to make a mixture with the consistency
of stiff putty. This material is pressed into the METHODS FOR TESTING SAND
cracks between the core sections to prevent
metal penetration. The testing of foundry sands should not be a
series of tests for obtaining a great deal of
MOLD AND CORE WASHES meaningless information. Regular sand
testing along with records of the results is the
Core and mold washes may be needed in one way of establishing the cause of casting

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some cases to prevent erosion of the sand and defects due to sand. Regular sand testing
metal penetration into the sand. The results in a day-to-day record of sand
following mix contains the same bonding properties, and indicates to the molder how
material as the molding sands, with silica the sand properties behave. Proper
flour replacing the sand, and with sodium interpretation of the results of sand tests
benzoate added to prevent the mixture from permits the molder to make corrections to the
becoming sour. sand before it is rammed up in molds, thereby
not only saving time but also preventing
Weight percent casting losses.
Silica flour 64.0
TEST-SPECIMEN PREPARATION
Bentonite 1.5
Dextrine 3.0 A sample of sand, at least one quart in
Sodium benzoate 0.2 volume, should be taken from various
Water 31.3 sections of the sand heap and from a depth of
at least six inches. The sand should be riddled
The dry material should be mixed thoroughly through a 1/4 inch mesh riddle or the size of
in a closed container. The water is then riddle used in the foundry. The same riddle
added, and the mixture stirred thoroughly. size should be used for all sand tests.
The mixture is sprayed onto the green core
Enough tempered sand is weighed out to
like paint and then baked, or it may be
make a rammed sample 2 inches high. The
brushed on the dried core or mold. It must be
proper amount of sand can be determined by
allowed to dry thoroughly in air or be baked
trial and error. The sand is then placed in the
in an oven, and should be used only when
absolutely necessary.

50

specimen tube, which rests on the specimen- Care should be taken to seat the specimen
container pedestal. The tube with the pedestal carefully in the compression head. A small
is then placed under the rammer, as shown in magnetic rider is placed on the scale against
figure 64. Care should be taken to keep the the compression head, and the arm is raised
tube upright so as not to lose any of the sand. by the motor-driven mechanism or by hand.
If hand operation is used, care must be taken
The rammer is lowered gently into the to maintain a slow and uniform speed of
specimen tube until the rammer is supported operation, since the rate of motion of the arm
by the sand. The rammer is raised slowly by affects the test results. When the specimen
the cam to the full 2-inch height, and breaks, the motor automatically reverses
permitted to fall. This is repeated until a total itself and returns to its bottom position. With
of three rams have been applied. The top of hand operation, the arm is returned manually
the rammer rod should be between the 1/32 when the specimen is seen to break. The
inch tolerance marks for control work. If the magnetic rider will remain at the position
end of the rammer rod is not within the attained by the arm when the break occurred.
tolerance, the specimen must be discarded The green compressive strength is read from
and a new test specimen made. If the the back of the rider on the appropriate scale.
specimen is of the correct height, the rammer The testing equipment must be maintained in
rod should be lifted carefully to clear the good operating condition at all times, and
specimen tube, and the specimen tube sand from the broken specimens must be

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removed from the pedestal. The type of completely removed from the equipment after
rammer supplied for shipboard use is shown each test. Pay special attention to keeping
in figure 64. grains of sand and dirt out of the bearings.
Use only dry lubricants, such as graphite, on
PERMEABILITY sand-testing equipment.

The permeability of foundry sand is DRY STRENGTH

determined by measuring the rate of flow of
air under a standard pressure through a For test specimen for determining dry
standard specimen 2 inches high by 2 inches strength is prepared as described in the
in diameter. The specimen is prepared as section "Test-Specimen Preparation." After
described in the previous section, "Test- the specimen is made and removed from the
Specimen Preparation." The equipment for stripping post, it should be placed on a flat
the permeability determination is shown in rigid plate and dried for at least two hours.
figure 65. The sand specimen, still in the Drying is done at a temperature between
tube, is placed in the mercury well with the 220°F. and 230°F. The specimen is removed
sand specimen in the top position. The air from the oven and cooled to room
chamber is raised to its proper position, temperature in a container that will prevent
released, and permitted to drop. When the moisture pickup by the dry specimen. The
water column in the manometer becomes specimen is then tested in the same manner as
steady, the permeability scale, which is on the described for obtaining green strength in the
curved part of the indicator, is rotated until section "Green Strength." The specimen
the edge of the scale is opposite the top of the should be tested as soon as it has cooled to
water column. The reading on the scale at this room temperature, and should not be
point is the permeability for control purposes. permitted to stand for any appreciable length
It is good practice to take permeability of time before testing.
readings on three different specimens from
the same lot of sand and to average the MOISTURE
readings. (The test, as described, measures
green permeability.) The moisture content of molding sands is
determined with the apparatus shown in
GREEN STRENGTH figure 67. A representative 50-gram sample
of tempered sand is placed in the -special
Green compressive strength is the property pan, which is then placed in the holder. The
most useful in foundry sand control in repair timer switch is set for 3 minutes. Setting the
ship foundries. The specimen is prepared as timer automatically starts the dryer, which
described under "Test-Specimen runs for the set time interval. After drying is
Preparation," and then stripped from the tube complete, the pan is removed and weighed.
with the stripping post. The specimen used The loss in weight multiplied by two is the
for permeability test is suitable if not percent of moisture in the tempered sand.
damaged in previous test. The sand specimen
is placed between the compression heads on CLAY CONTENT
the lower part of the test apparatus shown in
figure 66. The face of the sand specimen A representative sample is obtained from the
which was the top face when the specimen sand which is to be tested for clay content.
was rammed should be placed against the The sand is then thoroughly dried and a 50-
right-hand compression head. gram

51

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sample taken. The sample is placed in the jar carefully weighed and recorded. The grain
shown in figure 68 with 475 cc of distilled fineness number is then calculated as shown
water and 25 cc of standard sodium in table 18.
hydroxide solution. The standard sodium
hydroxide solution is made by dissolving 30 TABLE 18. CALCULATION OF GRAIN
grams of sodium hydroxide in distilled water FINENESS NUMBER
and diluting to 1000 cc. The jar containing
the sand sample and solution is assembled Size of Sample: 50 grams
with the stirrer and stirred for five minutes. Clay Content: 5.9 grams - 11.8 percent
(The assembled sand-washing equipment is Sand Grains: 44.1 grams - 88.2 percent
shown in figure 69.) The stirrer is then
removed from the jar and any adhering sand Screen Amount Multiplier Product
washed into the jar. The jar is then filled with Retained
distilled water to a depth of six inches from on Screen
the bottom of the jar. The contents of the jar Grams Percent
should be well stirred by hand and then
6 None 0.0 3 0
allowed to settle for 10 minutes. The water is
then siphoned off to a depth of 1 inch. 12 None 0.0 5 0
Distilled water is then added again to a depth 20 None 0.0 10 0
of 6 inches, the solution agitated and allowed
30 None 0.0 20 0
to settle for 10 minutes a second time. The
water is siphoned off a second time to a depth 40 0.20 0.4 30 12
of 1 inch. Water is added a third time, the 50 0.65 1.3 40 52
solution agitated and permitted to settle for a 70 1.20 2.4 50 120
5-minute period, after which the water is
siphoned off again. Distilled water is added to 100 2.25 4.5 70 315
a depth of 6 inches, the solution agitated, 140 8.55 17.1 100 1710
permitted to settle for 5 minutes, siphoned off 200 11.05 22.1 140 3094
to a depth of 1 inch, and the procedure
repeated until the solution is clear after the 270 10.90 21.8 200 4360
5-minute settling period. The glass cylinder is Pan 9.30 18.6 300 5580
then removed from the base of the jar so as to Total 44.10 88.2 15243
leave the sand in the base. The sand is dried
thoroughly in the base. The dry sand is Grain Fineness Number =
weighed. The weight lost multiplied by two is Total Product / Total Percent of Retained
the percent of AFS clay in the sand. Grain =
15243/88.2 = 173
If clay determinations are made on used sand,
the result will not be a true clay content, since A better method for comparing sands is to
sea coal and other additives will be removed compare them by the actual amounts retained
along with the clay. The determination would on each screen. A method for plotting this
then give a false value. type of information is shown in figure 70.
Two sands have been plotted for grain
GRAIN FINENESS distribution. Notice that although both sands
have the same grain fineness number, the size
Grain fineness is expressed as the grain distribution of the grains is different.
fineness number and is used to represent the
average grain size of a sand. The number is SUMMARY
useful in comparing sands. Grain fineness
numbers, however, do not tell the molder the The need for proper sand control through the

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distribution of grain sizes, and the use of sand-test equipment cannot be stressed
distribution does affect the permeability andtoo strongly. There is only one way to
potential strength of the sands. Two sands determine the properties of molding sands
may have the same grain fineness number and core sands, and that is to make tests.
and still differ widely in permeability, due to
Day-by-day testing of foundry sands provides
differences in their grain-size distribution.the molder with information which enables
Clay content and the shape of sand grains him to keep the molding sand in proper
also influence the sand properties, and may condition. The recording of these test results,
differ in sands having the same grain fineness
along with appropriate comments as to the
number. type of castings made and any defects which
may occur, can help the molder to determine
The sample for determining the grain the causes of casting defects, and point the
fineness number should be washed of all clay way toward corrective measures.
as described under "Clay Content," and
thoroughly dried. A 50-gram sample of the As a summary to the chapter on foundry
sand is then screened through a series of sand, the various factors affecting sand are
standard sieves. The sand remaining on each tabulated below with the results produced in
screen should be the sand.

452605 0-58-5

52

Molding Sand
Factor Variation Effect
Grain Sand too Permeability reduced, green strength increased. Possible defects:
fineness fine blisters, pinholes, blowholes, misruns, and scabs.
Sand too Permeability increased, green strength decreased. Possible
coarse defects: rough casting surface and metal penetration.
Binder Too much Accompanied by too little moisture, results in decreasing
binder permeability, increasing green strength. Possible defects: hot
cracks, tears, and scabs.
Too little Low green strength and high permeability. Possible defects: drops,
binder cuts, washes, dirt, and stickers.
Moisture Too high Permeability and green strength decreased. Possible defects:
content blows, scabs, cuts, washes, pin holes, rat tails, and metal
penetration.
Too low Permeability and green strength too low. Possible defects: drops,
cuts, washes, and dirty castings.

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Figure 45. Permeability as affected by the

grain size of sand.
Figure 48. Permeability as affected by the
amount of binder.

Figure 49. The effect of bentonite and

Figure 46. Permeability as affected by sand fireclay on permeability.
fineness and moisture.

Figure 50. Green strength as affected by the

Figure 47. The effect of sand grain shape on fineness of sand.
permeability.

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Figure 51. Green strengths of sands with Figure 54. The effect of bentonite and
varying fineness numbers. fireclay on green strength of foundry sand.

Figure 52. Green strength as affected by the

shape of sand grains. Figure 55. The effect of bentonite on sands
with various moisture contents.

Figure 53. Green strength as affected by

moisture and varying bentonite contents. Figure 56. The effect of western and southern
bentonite on green strength and dry strength.

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55

Figure 57. Green strength as affected by mulling time.

Figure 58. Relationship between moisture content bentonite content, green compressive
strength, and permeability for an all-purpose sand of 63 AFS fineness number.

56

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Figure 59. Relationship between moisture content, bentonite content, green compressive
strength, and dry strength for an all-purpose sand of 63 AFS fineness number.

Figure 60. General green compressive

strengths for sands of different grain class Figure 61. Strength of baked cores as affected
numbers. by baking time and baking temperatures.

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Figure 62. Core gas generated by two

different core binders.

Figure 64. Rammer used for test specimen

preparation.

Figure 63. The effect of single binders and

combined binders on the baked strength of
cores.

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Figure 65. Permeability test equipment. Figure 67. Equipment for drying sand
specimens for moisture determination.

Figure 66. Strength testing equipment.

Figure 68. Jar and stirrer for washing sand.

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Figure 69. Sand washing equipment

assembled.

Figure 70. The difference in sand grain

distribution for two foundry sands having the
same grain-fineness number.

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