Green Buildings – 21CV485: Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF COST EFFECTIVE

CONSTRUCTION
Introduction to Green Buildings

The development at a very rapid pace, we are loading our atmosphere with thousands of tonnes of CO2
every year. To offset this CO2, more trees need to be planted and only planting of trees are not enough.
Research and studies show that the Buildings have significant amount of contribution in polluting the
environment. The verge at which we have brought Mother Nature in our blind run of development is
extremely critical and needs a complete green solution, which is ‘Green Building’.

Green buildings, also known as sustainable buildings or eco-friendly buildings, are structures designed
and constructed with a focus on reducing their environmental impact and promoting sustainability. In the
field of civil engineering, green buildings incorporate various strategies and technologies to achieve
energy efficiency, water conservation, improved indoor air quality, and the use of environmentally
friendly materials. Here are some key aspects of green buildings in civil engineering:

1. Energy Efficiency: Green buildings aim to minimize energy consumption through efficient building
design, insulation, and the use of energy-efficient systems and appliances. This includes utilizing natural
lighting, implementing efficient HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) systems, and
employing renewable energy sources such as solar panels or wind turbines.

2. Water Conservation: Green buildings prioritize water conservation by incorporating technologies like
low-flow fixtures, rainwater harvesting systems, and efficient irrigation systems. These measures help
reduce water consumption and mitigate the strain on local water resources.

3. Sustainable Materials: Civil engineers play a crucial role in selecting sustainable materials for
construction. This involves using recycled or renewable materials, considering life cycle assessments to
evaluate environmental impacts, and utilizing materials with low embodied energy.

4. Waste Management: Green buildings focus on reducing waste generation and promoting recycling and
proper waste management practices. Civil engineers can implement strategies such as on-site waste
sorting and recycling facilities, as well as incorporating construction techniques that minimize waste
generation.

5. Indoor Environmental Quality: Green buildings prioritize occupant health and comfort by ensuring
good indoor air quality through proper ventilation systems, minimizing the use of volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), and designing spaces that promote natural daylighting and views.

6. Site Selection and Land Use: Civil engineers consider sustainable site selection and land use planning
for green buildings. This involves factors such as proximity to public transportation, access to amenities,
protection of natural habitats, and minimizing disturbance to existing ecosystems.

7. Life Cycle Assessment: Green building design involves considering the entire life cycle of a building,
from construction to operation and eventual demolition. Civil engineers analyze the environmental
impacts of various design choices and construction methods to optimize sustainability throughout the
building's life span.

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Green buildings in civil engineering aim to create environmentally responsible structures that minimize
resource consumption, reduce environmental impacts, and provide healthier and more comfortable spaces
for occupants. These sustainable practices contribute to a more sustainable built environment and help
mitigate the effects of climate change.

Limitations

While green buildings offer numerous environmental and social benefits, there are also some limitations
and challenges associated with their implementation. Few limitations are listed below:

1. Cost: One of the primary challenges of green buildings is the initial cost of construction. Implementing
sustainable technologies, materials, and design features often comes with a higher upfront cost compared
to conventional building practices. While green buildings can lead to long-term cost savings through
reduced energy and water consumption, the initial investment can be a barrier for some developers and
homeowners.

2. Limited Availability of Sustainable Materials: Finding and sourcing sustainable materials can be
challenging, particularly in certain regions or for specific building types. The availability of eco-friendly
materials may be limited, leading to higher costs or compromises in design and construction.

3. Complex Design and Construction Process: Green buildings often require a more complex design and
construction process. Integrating sustainable features such as energy-efficient systems, renewable energy
sources, and water management systems requires additional expertise and coordination among architects,
engineers, and contractors. This complexity can potentially lead to delays or cost overruns during
construction.

4. Performance Variability: Green buildings heavily rely on the proper design, installation, and operation
of sustainable systems and technologies. If these systems are not installed or maintained correctly, their
performance may not meet expectations, leading to reduced energy efficiency or other issues. Regular
monitoring and maintenance are essential to ensure optimal performance.

5. Lack of Awareness and Education: Despite growing awareness about sustainability, there is still a lack
of knowledge and understanding about green building practices among stakeholders such as developers,
architects, contractors, and homeowners. This can hinder the widespread adoption of sustainable building
techniques and technologies.

6. Adaptability and Retrofitting Challenges: Retrofitting existing buildings to meet green building
standards can be challenging. It may require significant modifications and investments to improve energy
efficiency, water conservation, and indoor environmental quality. The constraints of existing structures
and infrastructure can limit the extent to which green building practices can be implemented.

7. Limited Regulatory Requirements: While some regions have regulations and incentives in place to
promote green building practices, many areas lack comprehensive policies or mandatory standards for
sustainable construction. Without strong regulatory frameworks, the adoption of green building practices
may be slower or less widespread.

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Uses of different types of materials and their availability

The production of building materials leads to two types of environmental/ health related problems

1) Firstly, building material can lead to a local environmental impact either in the form of
pollution/health hazard or in the depletion of natural resources.

2) Secondly, building materials production using fossil fuel energies can cause global environmental
problems like global warming.

STONE AND LATERITE BLOCKS

Stone is a natural, solid, and durable material that is formed through geological processes. It is composed
of minerals and can be found in various types, including granite, limestone, marble, sandstone, slate, and
many others. Stones have been used by humans for thousands of years due to their strength, versatility,
and aesthetic appeal.

Three types of stones are available for construction of wall such as Igneous rock- ex: Granite and Basalt,
Sedimentary rock – ex: Limestone and Sand stone and Metamorphic cock – ex: Gneiss and Marble

1) All stones have a good compressive strength which is often more than adequate for wall
construction.

2) Granite shows the highest strength and it is also known for its durability.

3) Fine grained stones are stronger than coarse grained stones.

4) Sandstone and Basalt are less durable although they do not deteriorate in time spans of the order a
couple of centuries.

5) Sand stone temples built in Aihole and Pattadakal in 6th and 8th centuries show sign of erosion.

6) Basalt used in Gol Gumbaz and Ibrahim Rouza in Bijapur in the 16th century is showing
considerable deterioration.

7) However, these stones may be considered alright for normal buildings where a life span of
200years

Laterite blocks

Laterite blocks are building materials made from laterite, which is a type of soil rich in iron and
aluminum. Laterite is formed through weathering processes in tropical and subtropical regions, typically
in areas with high rainfall and warm temperatures. Laterite blocks are widely used in construction,
particularly in regions where laterite soil is abundant.

The process of making laterite blocks involves excavating laterite soil, mixing it with cement or other
stabilizing agents, and compacting it into block shapes. The blocks are then allowed to dry and harden,
forming a solid and durable construction material. The color of laterite blocks can vary, ranging from red
to brown, depending on the mineral content and iron oxidation levels in the soil.

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1) Laterite, which is found in the coastal district of Karnataka, is an interesting building material. It
is soft when excavated but hardness, on drying and the hardening is irreversible. It has been used
for centuries

2) Bidar district, which has pockets of laterite, Laterite is quite durable, since it has been used
extensively in Bidar fort.

3) Laterite, is not a very strong material. An early study showed that Khozikode laterite gave an
average strength of 1.7 MPa. Recent study gave a compressive strength in the range of 1.04 to
3.47 MPa.

4) Out of 13 locations studied, 11 locations showed strength below 2.5MPa.

5) Laterite blocks from Calicut, tested, gave an average compressive strength of 3.8 MPa.

6) These studies show that Laterite strength can be sometimes much lower than what is specified by
BIS Code of practice which says that the average strength must be 3.5MPa.

7) When Laterite blocks of thickness of more than, 190mm is used, it is possible to use blocks of
strength 2.0-2.5 MPa. It is desirable to avoid blocks of strength much lower than 2.0MPa.

8) Sustainability: Laterite blocks are made from natural materials, reducing the environmental
impact associated with other construction materials. Laterite soil is often sourced from surface
excavations, minimizing the need for extensive mining operations.

9) Thermal insulation: Laterite blocks have good thermal insulation properties, helping to maintain
comfortable temperatures inside buildings. They have a high heat capacity, which means they can
absorb and release heat slowly, reducing the need for excessive air conditioning or heating.

10) Durability: Laterite blocks are known for their strength and durability. Once properly cured and
hardened, they can withstand harsh weather conditions, erosion, and wear, making them suitable
for long-lasting structures.

Limitations

 Construction techniques: The use of laterite blocks may require specific construction techniques
and expertise to ensure proper compaction, curing, and structural stability. Improper handling or
inadequate curing can affect the strength and durability of the blocks.
 Moisture susceptibility: Laterite blocks are susceptible to moisture absorption, especially if not
adequately protected. Proper waterproofing measures should be implemented to prevent water
infiltration and damage to the blocks.

BURNT BRICKS

Burnt bricks, also known as fired bricks, are a type of construction material made by firing clay or shale
in a kiln at high temperatures. They have been used for centuries in various civilizations and are still
commonly used today in many parts of the world.

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Manufacturing Process: Burnt bricks are made by shaping clay or shale into rectangular forms and then
drying them in the sun or in a controlled environment. The dried bricks are then fired in a kiln at
temperatures ranging from 900 to 1,200 degrees Celsius. This firing process causes the clay minerals to
vitrify, resulting in a hardened and durable brick.

Dimension of the burnt brick is 190 x 90 x 90 mm.

Three types of burnt bricks may be mentioned in today’s Indian context namely

1) Country Bricks

2) Table Mould Bricks

3) Wire Cut Bricks

Country Bricks

• Country bricks are made using a simple four sided mould.

• These bricks are moulded by the ‘Soft Mud’ process whose soil has a high moisture content
facilitating easier pressing.

• The moulding is done on level ground and the wet brick is left on the ground to dry.

• After drying the bricks are stacked in a clamp and burnt using fire wood or paddy husk.

Table Moulded Bricks

• Five sided mould is used to shape a relatively stiffer mud in to brick

• The use of lesser moisture at the time of moulding leads to an improved shape and strength for
the brick.

• The wet brick is released by turning the mould upside down on a level platform.

• These bricks generally have frog on one of the bedding faces.

• These bricks are then dried in shade and then burnt in a continuous kiln known as the Bull’s
Trench Kiln.

• New simpler kiln has been developed in recent years, this may be called as a clamp kiln

• The table mould brick is generally much stronger than the country brick. Strength ranges from
3.5MPa to 7.0 MPa is quite common for such bricks.

• Recently, a new type of mould was developed at ASTRA. For the table mould brick. This mould
has four sides with a removable plate in the position of the 5th side.

• The plate sits at the bottom of the mould but cannot be taken out through the bottom because of
stopper in the corners.

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• After moulding the brick, the mould may be turned upside down on a platform and it may be
taken out while pressing on the removable plates.

• The plates remain on the wet bricks to be taken out subsequently. This mo
mould
uld has been tested
recently and lead to bricks of strength of bricks of strength 4.5 MPa.

Wire Cut Brick

• The wire cut brick is produced by a more mechanised operation.

• The selected soil is pugged adequately and then extruded into a continuous slab of clay
cla

• This slab is then sliced by a wire frame into a number of bricks.

• After drying, the bricks are burnt in a Hoffman’s kiln.

Hoffman’s kiln

Bull’s Trench Kiln

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• A good wire cut brick retains a good shape and often has strengths in the range of 10.0 MPa to
20.0 Mpa.

• It is a very expensive brick.

• It must be pointed out that a wire cut brick of 10.0MPa strength can be conveniently used for load
bearing masonry going up to 5 storeys without using RC frames.

• This may be quite cost effective compared to framed construction.

CONCRETE BLOCKS: Hallow/Solid

Concrete blocks, also known as concrete masonry units (CMUs), are precast construction materials made
from a mixture of cement, aggregate (such as sand or gravel), and water. The concrete block has been in
use in India for nearly 3 decades. Concrete offers a flexibility in production which is not there in brick
manufacture. Brick manufacture is stopped in monsoon while concrete blocks making can be carried out
throughout the year. The investment needed by the way if land and capital is much less for concrete block
manufacture compared to brick making.

Ambalavannan carried out tests in 1992 and had obtained a strength of 2.8 to 5.4 MPa for blocks of size
390x200x190mm but the commercially available blocks in the market have shown less strength than the
study. This may be due to the use of excess amount of quarry dust which contains more amount of silt
like fines. The BIS prescribes a minimum of 2.0MPa for concrete block. The hollow can be deceptive by
looks but can have low strengths.

It must also be mentioned that there are good manufacturers who produce good quality of block having a
strength of 7.4MPa. Such blocks can be cost effective and since hollow block is having lower densities it
is having advantage in construction of 3 to 4 storeys.

The use of solid concrete block is also common. The Rajasthan Avas Vikas Sansthan has come up with a
simple machine to make solid concrete blocks. It is relatively easy to achieve desirable strength like
4.0MPa to 5.0MPa with a solid block. However, the density of such block will be high and may not be
suites for more than 2 storeyed construction.

Manufacturing Process: Concrete blocks are produced by pouring a mixture of cement, aggregate, and
water into molds and allowing it to cure and harden. The molds can have different sizes and shapes,
resulting in various types of concrete blocks, including standard blocks, hollow blocks, interlocking
blocks, and decorative blocks.

Types of Concrete Blocks

• Standard Blocks: These are solid, rectangular blocks used for general construction purposes.

• Hollow Blocks: These blocks have hollow cores, which make them lighter and provide better
insulation properties.

• Interlocking Blocks: These blocks have unique shapes that allow them to fit together without the
need for mortar, enabling quick and easy construction.

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• Decorative Blocks: These blocks come in different patterns and textures, often used for aesthetic
purposes in architectural designs.

The dimension of the concrete blocks will be 8 in. (203 mm) by 16 in. (406 mm), available in nominal
thicknesses of 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16 in. (102, 152, 203, 254, 305, 356, and 406 mm).

STABILIZED MUD BLOCKS (SMB)

The technology of stabilized soils for wall construction has been known in India for more than 5 decades.
Dept. of Civil Engineering & ASTRA (Application of Science and Technology for Rural Areas) at IISC
Bangalore, since 1975 has led to a maturing of SMB technology. Today probably more than 15000
buildings in 8 states of India using the SMB technology.

Concept

1) When the Soils are compressed using external energy, the density of the soil reaches a value of a
moisture content known as the optimum moisture content (OMC)

2) The value of OMC and the maximum density depends on the energy input during compaction.

3) The process of mechanical compression can lead to densification and strengthening of the soil.

4) If soil also stabilized against loss of strength during saturation, we can think of a stabilized mud
(soil) block where the stabilization is achieved by a combination of densification and mixing of a
stabilizing additive.

5) A variety of materials can be used for the stabilization namely: cement, lime and bitumen.

Raw Materials

The raw materials required are

1) Gravel 0-10% (20mm to 2mm)

2) Sand 40-70% (2mm to 0.02mm)

3) Silt 15-25% (0.02mm to 0.002mm)

4) Clay 8-25% (0.002mm to 0.0000 mm)

Soil consisting of clay, silt and sand is the basic raw materials. It is preferable that the clay should be non-
expansive, although expansive clays can also be stabilized using a somewhat more complex procedure. In
general soil containing 10 to 15% clay and 65.0 to 70.0% sand are satisfactory for making cement
stabilized mud blocks. Cement may be added to the tune of 6.0 to 8.0% by the weight of the appropriate
soil.

In case the soil has high clay content, sand or a sandy additive like quarry dust may be added to correct
the grading of the soil. A combination of cement and lime can be used for nonexpansive soil and with

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clay content around 15% a cement proportion of 5% and lime proportion 2% can added for stabilization.
Lime has the advantage of combining with clay in the soil and enhancing the long-term durability.

The Process

1) Sieve the soil in a 4mm sieve to remove the stones and lumps of clay and Mix sand or quarry dust
to correct the clay-sand percentage in the soil, Add cement or cement and lime in appropriate
proportion.

2) Sprinkle moisture onto the mixture and further mix thoroughly till the mixture is homogeneous
and Test for optimum moisture content by trying to make a ball of soil in the hand. If a ball can
be made without the soil sticking to the hand the moisture content is right.

3) Weight the correct amount of moist soil such that a fresh block density of 2.05 gm/cc can be
achieved. The weight depends on the volume of the finished block. In case the soil contains the
much sand and silt a density of 2.05gm/cc may not be feasible. Densities like 2.0gm/cc or
1.95gm/cc may be attempted.

4) The weighed soil is now poured into a soil compaction press like the Mardini. The block is now
pressed by operating the toggle lever, after closing the lid, the ejected block is then stacked in a
five or six block high stack for curing.

5) Sprinkling the moisture may be pursued up to 21 days to complete the block making process.

Typical Block Sizes

• The block size larger than the size of brick to achieve economy in the production of the materials.
Usual sizes are 230x190x100mm or 305x143x100mm

• Block thickness less than 100mm can be easily made, by introducing thicker plates inside the
plates. A half block size of 230x108x100mm is also sometimes useful for corner joint, door and
windows jambs, partition walls and so on.

Influence of Density And Cement Content On Block Strength

• Density and the proportion of cement added are two important parameters, which control the
strength and durability of SMB.

• The fig shows the wet compressive strength of SMB as a function of its dry density and that the
strength is very sensitive to the dry density.

• As the dry density increases from 1.75 to 1.9gm/cc the strength increases from 1.0 MPa to
2.0MPa. Thus 9% of increase in dry density leads to a doubling of the compressive strength.

• In practice, it is desirable to achieve a dry density of at least 1.85gm/cc.

• The below Table shows the influence of cement on the strength of SMB cubes of size 76mm.

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• The soil had a sand content of 65% and a clay content of 17%. As the cement percentage is
increased from 5% to 7.5% the wet compressive strength increases by about 60%

• A cement content of 6.0 to 7.0%is normally advisable for building two storied houses.

Strength Of Blocks

• The SMB technology is well suited to produce a range of block strengths at the site.

• As a rule a minimum wet compressive strength of 3.0MPa is desirable for two storeyed house
constructions.

• A cement percentage of 6 to 7% and a sand content of 65% and a clay content of 15% is usually
sufficient to achieve a minimum strength of 3.0MPa

• Using higher percentage of cement, wet compressive strength in the range of 4.0 to 7.0MPa can
easily achieved.

• A block with 7.0MPa strength can be easily comfortably recommended for four storeyed load
bearing masonry.

The Dissemination Of SMB Technology

This technology is now well demonstrated in several states of India, namely: Karnataka, Tamilnadu,
Gujarat, Orissa, Meghalaya, Himachal Pradesh and Andra Pradesh.

LIME POSZOLANA CEMENT

Engineers and the general public often have the impression that use of lime in building construction is a
retrograde step and that it can never compete with a modern material like Portland. This impression is
perhaps correct, as long as one is thinking of concretes with strengths in excess of 15.0MPa. However, it
must be observed that nearly half the cement in a building is used for low strength applications like
plasters and mortars where the strength requirement if often as low as 3.0MPa. Portland cement is
certainly not the best material if one looks at the requirements of a mortar that it should be preferably
slow setting and have high level of plasticity and flow.

Although BIS includes mixing of cement and lime in mortars, it is never used in practice due to the
inherent prejudices against lime. It is necessary here to emphasize that addition of lime to cement mortars,
slows down the initial setting of cement. Such mortars can be used effectively over a much longer time
after addition of water. Cement between brick and the bonding of brick and mortar are very much
improved by addition of lime. It is hence necessary to recognize the inherent value of lime in the
preparation of building mortars.

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Raw Materials

Lime Stone

There is also an organic source of lime stone in the form of shell lime which is usually available in coastal
areas. All the three sources of lime stone are used for building purposes. The ‘Kankar’ variety of lime
stone usually displays hydraulic properties after burning.

The requirements for the use of lime for building purposes may be obtained by codes/specifications.

IS:712-1973 : Specifications for Building Limes

IS:1514-1959 : Methods of sampling and test for quick lime and hydrated lime.

IS:6932-1973 : Methods of tests for building limes.

Two types of mortars can be prepared by using lime namely:

1) Lime Mortar

2) Lime-Pozzolona Mortar

Lime mortars are of two kinds

1) Fat lime mortar

When the lime stone is of high level of purity the resulting lime is fat lime and fat lime when
mixed the sand leads to fat lime mortar. This type of mortar does not need moisture for setting; it sets by
absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere.

2) Hydraulic lime mortar

When the lime stone has clay impurities, the burning process leads to hydraulic lime which is
actually a mixture of calcium oxide and burnt clay. This type of lime sets in the presence of moisture and
the calcium hydroxide reacts with the amorphous silica and alumina present in burnt clay. In this case, the
lime-sand mixture has to be cured by keeping in moist for at least 28 days. In general, hydraulic lime
mortars have better strength than fat lime mortars.

The following chemical reactions take place in the processing of lime stone for mortars.

1. Burning of lime stone CaCO3 → CaO+CO3 ↑

2. Slacking of quick lime CaO +H2O→ Ca(OH)2 + Heat

3. Setting of fat lime Ca(OH)2 +CO2 → CaCO3 +H2O

The burning of limestone to produce quicklime (CaO) is generally carried out in vertical shaft kilns using
either firewood or coal as fuel at a Temperature of the order of 900-1000 ⁰C are needed to release CO 2
from lime stone. Thus, a ton of lime stone, when burnt will give 740kg of Ca(OH) 2 , if there are no
impurities.

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Fig. Shows lime kiln design for small rural appli

application

POZZOLANA

Pozzolana is a material which consists essentially of amorphous silica or a mixture of amorphous silica
and alumina. This is not cementitious by itself, but forms cementitious compounds when it combines with
calcium hydroxide at ambientt temperature in the presence of moisture. A mixture of finely ground
calcium hydroxide and pozzolana is hence known as lime lime- pozzolana cement.

There are many ways in which pozzolana can be produced. The following sources of pozzolana are
commonly used.

1. Powdered burnt clay (commonly known as ‘Surkhi’ in India)

2. Fly ash.

3. Rice husk ash

POWDERED BURNT CLAY

• It is made either by artificially burning clay in a kiln or by selecting wastes of burnt clay materials
like bricks, tiles, and pottery.

• When clay is burnt

rnt in a kiln for the purpose of making pozzolona, it is desirable to select a soil
with high proportion of clay. If the clay occurs along with large amounts of sand, the sand may be
removed by sieving to obtain high clay soil.

• This is necessary since sand is a diluent and does not react with lime in the manner in which
pozzolona does.

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• The high clay soil may now be made into thin briquettes. The wet clay may be spread on level
ground to a thickness of 2.5cms and then sliced into thin cakes of sizes 10cms x 10cms x 2.5cms.

• These cakes may now be dried and then charged into the kiln with alternate layers of firewood.
Usually the firewood used could be around 10% of the weight of the clay, With the amount of
firewood, a temperature of about 700⁰C can be expected.

• The burnt clay may now be pulverized to about 90µ size particles. Ball mills are usually used for
the purpose. This pozzolona can store in bags indefinitely without any loss of its reactivity.

Fly Ash

Fly ash as pozzolona is ultimately obtained from thermal power plant which used pulverized coal in
the fuel.

• The fine particles of coal, which are collected in electrostatic precipitators, are known as fly ash.
They contain significant amount of amorphous silica and alumina.

• Thermal power plants also produce significant amounts of coal ash in the form of pond ash and
bottom ash. These types of ashes are generally not good as pozzolona.

• Fly ash is a waste product and may be considered as a zero-thermal energy material, unlike burnt
clay which needs specific energy inputs.

Rice Husk Ash

Rice husk ash is a natural source of silica. Normally rice husk contains about 20% silica and the
rest of it is combustible material. This silica is amorphous and if the husk is burnt under controlled
conditions a highly pozzolonic ash can be produced. The below figures show two typical arrangements
for burning rice husk.

Honeycomb Kiln

It is an annular honey comb brick structure is erected and a closely spaced mesh is placed at a height
of 20cms above the ground.

• Alternate layers of rice husk and clay are placed in the kiln such that the husk is about 30 to 40%
by weight of the clay.

• The width of the clay layers should about 15cms less than the width of husk to permit easy air
movement through the bed of husk.

• The stack is now set fire to from below and the entire mass burns out over one or two days.

• The end product is a mixture of burnt clay and rice husk, this may be ground in a ball mill to
obtain fine pozzolona.

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• Combination pozzolona, is obtained fro

fromm this process, which is a mixture of burnt clay and rice
husk ash, and This technique has the advantage of producing a relatively large quantity of
pozzolona.

• It must be noted that the national availability of rice husk ash is around 2.0 million tonnes of
combination pozzolona can be generated to the country.

Rice Husk Burner

It is known as the tube in basket burner and It has an annular mesh enclosure in which rice husk is stacked
and set fire from bottom. The entire mass burns over several hours with central opening acting as a
chimney.

 Copper tube carrying water may be inserted in the bed of husk to generate hot water from the
burning husk. This technique also leads to good quality pozzolona.

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THE PROCESS LIME - POZZOLONA CEMENT

It is an intimate mixture of lime and pozzolona will set in the presence of water, forming calcium
silicate and calcium aluminates compounds.

• In the traditional lime Surkhi mortar, slaked lime and brick powder is mixed and ground in the
presence of moisture in bullock driven mortar mills and the ground moist mixture is then directly
used in construction.

• In the modern context, power-driven pan mills are used to grind the mortar.

• Unlike Portland cement, which is already a complete cementitious product, lime pozzolona
cement needs an additional step of mixing lime pozzolona. The efficiency of the lime pozzolona
cements depends on the intimacy of the mixing of lime and pozzolona.

• The traditional process of lime Surkhi mortar involved wet grinding of lime and Surkhi mixture.
According to the studies made in KRS Dam site, it was found that the mortar strength reaches a
maximum when the duration of grinding in 35 minutes. Grinding for longer or shorter durations
leads to lower strengths.

• However, in the context of modern construction wet grinding may be considered to be an

inconvenient procedure, since this needs deployment of diesel engine or electric energy at the site
for mortar mixing. It would be ideal if wet grinding can be avoided.

Two alternative techniques have been explored at Dept. of Civil Engineering IISc Bengaluru

a) Dry blending of lime and pozzolona

b) Wet blending of lime and pozzolona

Dry Blending of Lime and Pozzolona

In this technique, the slaked lime and pozzolona should be separately processed as dry
powders. The pozzolona may be dry ground in fineness of 90µ. The two powders may now be blended in
a ball mill for duration of about 1 hr.

• In this technique, the size reduction of lime and pozzolona is carried out first and mixing the two
is carried subsequently.

• This mixture is then added to sand and after thorough dry mixing. Water is added to complete the
preparation of mortars.

• This procedure also means that the dry mixture of lime and pozzolona may have to be stored in
bags.

• This also leads to the question of shelf life of lime pozzolona mixture. It was found that lime
pozzolona mixture will lose strength rapidly on storage.

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• Stored in gunny bags or LDPE bags, the day’s strength shows a 60%reduction after 21days of
storage.

• Important to note that the blended dry mixture of lime and pozzolona should not be stored for
more than 14 days if the strength reduction is to be less than 10%.

• The poor shelf life of pozzolona mixture is probably one reason why this approach alternative
cement has not succeeded.

Wet Blending
ending of Lime and Pozzolona

• In this approach, the pozzolona has to be produced and ground to 90µ fineness and stored in
gunny bags or woven LDPE bags.

• The pozzolona can be stored indefinitely.

• Slaked lime may be freshly produced by slaking quick lime at the site.

• The slaked lime and the well ground pozzolona may now be mixed in a simple drum or hand
mixing concrete mixture in the presence of water.

• After blending the two for about 20 minutes, the lime pozzolona slurry now be poured over sand
and mixed thoroughly
oroughly to get the lime pozzolona mortars

PROPERTIES AND USES

Strength of Mortars with Burnt Clay and Combination Pozzolona Number of studies was carried out to
determine the typical strengths of lime
lime-pozzolona
pozzolona mortars using burnt clay and combination pozzolona.
p
Typical results of burnt clay pozzolona based mortars are shown in table below

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• The listed proportions indicate proportion by weight. It can be seen that the 28 days strengths of
most of the mortars are above the BIS codal requirement of 3.0 MP
MPa.

• It must be noted that bulk density of lime

lime–burnt
burnt clay mixture is quite low and hence the
mortar proportions by volume are quite rich when compared to the usual cement mortar
proportions

• This means that greater proportion of lime

lime-pozzolona cement has to
o be used to achieve
satisfactory mortar strengths.

• It is seen that when the burnt clay and rice husk are separately produced adequate rice husk ash
can be added to provide good strength.

• When rice husk is used to burn the clay, the process become more eco economical
nomical but the strengths
are moderate. It must be noted that 6 months strengths are substantially high.

• A clay rice-husk
husk ratio of 1:0:6 is ideal from the point of view of strength and economy.

Fly Ash as Pozzolona

Fly ash is collected from electrostati

electrostaticc precipitator in thermal power stations which use pulverized
coal as the fuel. When exceedingly fine coal particles are burnt, the residence times are low and the ash
containing silica and alumina is quite amorphous.

This ash, which is very fine in term

termss of particle size, is hence quite reactive and is an excellent
pozzolona. There are also types of fly ash which are coarse and not very reactive. The grain size
distributions of two samples of fly ash from Raichur and Neyveli are shown in figure below.

• It can be seen that the Raichur fly ash is very fine and 30% of the particles are finer than 2µ. The
Neyveli ash is rather coarse and most of the particles are coarser than 25µ.

• The characteristics of fly ash as pozzolona were studied using these two sam
samples
ples and making lime
pozzolona mortar cube of 5cm size.

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• The lime fly ash mixtures were ground in a ball mill and Accelerating additive like plaster of
Paris, gypsum was sometimes added.

• The tests show that lime-fly-ash mortars are eminently suitable for construction with the 180 day
strengths in excess of 10.0MPa. Leaner mortars could be used because of high strength of 1:3
cement-sand proportions.

• The Raichur fly ash, with its fine particulars is exceedingly good as pozzolona while Neyveli fly
ash is very much inferior.

GYPSUM BOARD

Gypsum board, also known as drywall or plasterboard, is a building material used for interior
walls and ceilings in residential and commercial construction. It is made from a core of gypsum plaster,
which is sandwiched between two layers of paper. The gypsum core provides the board with fire
resistance and sound insulation properties.

Uses of gypsum board:

• Installation: Gypsum board is relatively easy to install and is available in large sheets. It can be
cut to size, screwed or nailed to the framing, and finished with joint compound and tape to create
a smooth surface.

• Fire resistance: Gypsum board has excellent fire-resistant properties due to the presence of water
molecules within its structure. This makes it a common choice for fire-rated walls and ceilings,
providing a barrier against the spread of flames.

• Sound insulation: The dense gypsum core helps reduce sound transmission through walls and
ceilings, making it suitable for applications where soundproofing is important, such as recording
studios or theater rooms.

• Versatility: Gypsum board can be used for a variety of applications, including partition walls,
suspended ceilings, shaft walls, and exterior soffits. It can be curved to create architectural
features or used in combination with other materials to achieve specific design goals.

• Sustainability: Gypsum board is considered a sustainable building material. It is made from

natural gypsum, a non-toxic mineral, and the manufacturing process requires less energy
compared to other construction materials. It can also be recycled and reused.

• Finishing: Once installed, gypsum board can be finished with joint compound, sanded, and
painted or covered with wallpaper to achieve the desired aesthetic appearance.

It's important to note that gypsum board is not suitable for wet areas such as bathrooms or
kitchens, as it is susceptible to damage from moisture. In those areas, moisture-resistant or waterproof
materials like cement board or green board should be used instead.

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LIGHT WEIGHT BEAMS

Lightweight beams refer to structural elements that are designed to have a lower weight compared to
traditional beams while steel providing sufficient strength and load-bearing capacity. These beams are
typically made from materials such as steel, aluminum, or engineered wood products. Here are a few
common types of lightweight beams:

• Steel Beams: Steel is a popular choice for lightweight beams due to its high strength-to-weight
ratio. Various steel beam shapes, such as I-beams, H-beams, and C-beams, are available, allowing
for efficient load distribution and structural stability.

• Aluminum Beams: Aluminum beams are lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and have good strength
properties. They are commonly used in applications where weight is a significant concern, such
as aerospace and marine industries. However, aluminum beams may have lower load-bearing
capacity compared to steel beams.

• Engineered Wood Beams: Engineered wood products, such as laminated veneer lumber (LVL),
parallel strand lumber (PSL), and I-joists, are engineered to provide high strength and stiffness
while being lighter than solid wood beams. These beams are manufactured by bonding layers of
wood veneers or strands together under heat and pressure, resulting in strong and lightweight
structural members.

Advantages of Lightweight Beams:

• Reduced Weight: The primary advantage of lightweight beams is their reduced weight, which
simplifies transportation, handling, and installation. It can also lead to cost savings in terms of
labor and equipment required for installation.

• Design Flexibility: The lightweight nature of these beams allows for more flexibility in
architectural and structural design. They can span longer distances, create open and spacious
interiors, and enable innovative construction methods.

• Improved Efficiency: Lightweight beams often have optimized cross-sectional designs to

maximize strength while minimizing weight. This results in more efficient use of materials and
reduced environmental impact.

• Faster Construction: The lightweight nature of these beams makes them easier to handle and
install, potentially reducing construction time and improving overall project schedules.

• Versatility: Lightweight beams can be used in various construction applications, including

residential, commercial, and industrial projects. They can be integrated into floor systems, roof
structures, and wall assemblies, providing reliable support while minimizing overall structural
weight.

FIBRE REINFORCED CEMENT COMPOSITES

Cement concrete can be cast to any desired shape, it also possesses many desirable properties like high
compressive strength and stiffness and low thermal and electrical conductivity. But two of its

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characteristics Viz. Weak in tension and brittleness at failure have limited its use for various
applications. These limitations are overcome by adding materials strong in tension to concrete resulting in
a composite material. One of the ways this has been achieved is by placing steel bars in concrete, in
regions where concrete is subjected to tension leading to what is called as RCC. Even though the concept
of RCC has eliminated one of the major weaknesses of concrete. (Inability to resist tensile forces), it still
falls short of many more desirable properties like toughness, ductility, controlling of cracking and
energy absorption. This is basically because the reinforcement component in RCC is present in certain
pockets of the cross-section of the structural member. In order to achieve all the above- mentioned
properties it is essential to distribute the reinforcement uniformly throughout the c/s. Such a way of
reinforcing the brittle concrete matrix is possible by adding to the constituents of the concrete mix, short
fibres of small diameter that are either metallic or non-metallic. This new material with improved
mechanical properties is called “FIBRE REINFORCED CEMENT COMPOSITE” (FRC).

• The concept of reinforcing a brittle matrix with discrete fibres is an age-old practice. For
example: fibres made of straw or horse hair were used to improve the properties of bricks for
thousands of years.

• The modern day use of fibres in concrete started in early 1960’s. In the initial years only straight
steel fibres were used and improvements in fractures toughness and ductility were reported.

• Some of the major problems encountered during the early periods were difficulty in mixing and
workability particularly when longer fibres were used at higher volume.

• Use of longer fibres resulted in segregation of the constituents of the mix and also lumping of
fibres in certain regions and bridging between aggregates causing voids. This is called as balling
in the fibre reinforced concrete.

• With the advent of deformed fibres and water reducing admixtures like super plasticisers some of
the above-mentioned problems were overcome.

• The performance of a composite material depends on the properties of matrix and the fibres and
the strength of the bond between the two.

Materials

Fibre reinforced cement composite is a two-phase material consisting of matrix which is reinforced with
randomly oriented small fibres to improve the mechanical properties of the matrix.

Matrix Material

The matrix generally consists of Portland cement, aggregate and admixtures and can be any of the
following.

a) Plain Portland cement

b) Cement with additive such as soil, fly ash or condensed silica fume.

c) Mortar containing cement and fine aggregate

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d) Concrete containing cement, fine and coarse aggregate.

Water is added to the concrete mix for hydration of cement and for moulding of the concrete to the
desired shape. It is very well established that the compressive strength of the concrete depends up on
the water cement ratio in the mix.

• W/c ratio of 0.28 is sufficient for the hydration process, to obtain a plastic workable mixture, a
minimum w/c ratio of 0.6 is needed. Addition of fibres to the concrete reduces the workability. In
order to keep the w/c ratio within reasonable limits of not affecting the compressive strength but
to still achieve workability, water reducing admixtures have become an integral part of fibre
reinforced composites.

• In addition to water reducing admixtures, mineral admixtures like fly-ash and silica fume are also
added to the matrix.

• Fly ash is used to improve workability, reduce the heat of hydration, economy and to
enhance permeability characteristics of the matrix.

• Silica fume is added mainly to achieve high strength matrix.

Reinforcing Material

The reinforcement is in the form of short fibres of small diameter distributed throughout the matrix. The
fibres can be broadly classified as:

1. Metallic fibres

2. Polymeric fibres

3. Mineral fibres

4. Natural fibres

By its very definition reinforcement is supposed to induce an increase in strength in the reinforced
material (i.e. matrix).

In order to be effective in concrete matrix, the fibres must have the following properties.

• Tensile strength significantly higher than that of concrete

• Bond strength with concrete matrix preferably of same order as or higher than the tensile strength
of matrix.

• The elastic modulus in tension to be significantly higher than that of concrete.

• The poison’s ratio and the coefficient of thermal expansion preferably be of the same order as that
of matrix.

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Metallic Fibres

Metallic fibres are either made out of carbon steel or stainless steel. The tensil
tensilee strength ranges from
345MPa to 1380MPa. The modulus of elasticity is about 200GPa.

• The fibres c/s may be circular, rectangular, crescent shaped or irregular. Most common steel
fibres are round in c/s with dia ranging from 0.4mm to 0.8mm and a length ranging
rang from 25mm
to 60mm.

• Their aspect ratio is generally less than 100 with common range of 40 to 80.

The below figure shows some of the fibres types of different shapes used in practice.

a) Round and straight steel fibres

b) In order to the bond strength, the ffibres have been indented.

c) Crimped

d) Hooked at the ends

e) Enlarged at the ends

f) Fibres are produced from wires that have been shaved down in the steel wool making process and
such fibres have a crescent shaped c/s.

g) Fibres have irregular surface with crescent sha

shaped c/s.

Polymeric Fibres

Polymeric fibres are by products of petrochemical and textile industries. The fibres types have been
explored for use in cement based matrices are Acrylic, Aramid, Nylon, Polyester, Polyethylene and

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Polypropylene. Even though these fibres have reasonably high tensile strength, the modulus of elasticity
of most of them is quite low (except aramid).

• Fibres that contain at least 85% by weight of Acrylonitrile are classified as acrylic fibres.

• Nylon was one of the first of the polymer fibres to be included in cement based matrices.

• When used in small volumes (<1% volume fraction of composite) it has been found to reduce the
flexural strength of the composite.

• Compared with other polymeric fibres, Aramid fibres have higher tensile strength and modulus of
elasticity and hence they can enhance the mechanical properties like tensile and bending strength
of the composite.

• The primary limitation for their use in concrete is high cost compared to other fibres.

Mineral Fibres

Glass fibres are the predominately used mineral fibre. Glass fibre is silica based glass compounds that
contain several metals oxides which can be tailored to manufacture different types of glass

• These fibres relatively high tensile strength and modulus of elasticity compared to polymeric
fibres.

• Furthermore, they are quite economical and hence are the most commonly used fibres for
structural applications.

• In the initial stages borosilicate glass fibres (E- glass) and soda-lime-silica glass fibres (A-glass)
were employed to reinforce cement-based composites.

• Since both E-glass and A-glass fibres were found to lose their strength property in the alkaline
environment of cement based composites (pH ≥12.5), the need for alkali resistant fibres resulted
in the development of alkali resistant glass (AR glass)

Natural Fibres

Since in many parts of world manmade fibres like steel or polymer fibres are not available, attempts have
been made to incorporate naturally occurring fibres extracted from plants in cement based composites.

• A unique aspect of these fibres is the low energy needed for their extraction. A major problem in
the use of these fibres in cement/concrete matrix is that they disintegrate in the alkaline
environment and hence durability of the composite is a matter of concern.

• Since these fibres are economical, attempts have made to overcome the problem of durability
either by use of admixtures in concrete to reduce its alkalinity or by protecting fibres by some
special treatment.

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Some of the natural fibres used in Portland cement composite are akwara, bamboo, coconut (coir), jute,
sisal, sugarcane bagasse, wood and elephant gross. Even though these fibres are sufficiently strong in
tension, their modulus of elasticity is quite low.

• Akwara fibre is extracted from a vegetable plant stem, which is grown in large quantities in
Nigeria. They are found to be durable in the alkaline environment and dimensionally stable under
alternate wetting and drying conditions.

• Bamboo fibres have tendency to absorb water, which adversely affects the bonding between fibre
and the matrix during the curing stage.

• Fibres extracted from the coconut are called as coir. Coir fibres are short in length and are found
to be sensitive to moisture change.

• Sisal fibres are extracted from the leaves of Agave sisalana and it primarily consists of
hemicellulose, lignin and pectin. Sisal fibres even though relatively strong, are not durable in
alkaline environment.

• Elephant grass fibres are extracted from elephant grass stems, which grows up to a height of 3m.
The stems are packed with tough sharp fibres bonded together with lignin. Extraction of elephant
grass fibres is difficult but they are stable under varying moisture conditions and alkali resistant.

• Wood fibres constitute a major portion of natural fibres used in concrete. These fibres have high
tensile strength and young’s modulus and process of extraction is very well developed. The
process of extracting fibres from wood is called pulping and the process can be mechanical,
chemical or semi-chemical.

Carbon Fibres

Carbon fibres are the most expensive of all the fibres discussed till now. This is due to the increased cost
of their manufacturing process as well as the increased cost of raw materials required for their
manufacture. Carbon fibres have high strength and modulus comparable to that of steel fibres. They
are relatively inert to alkaline environment and their specific gravity is about 1.9. Hence they are used to
make special products requiring high tensile and flexure strengths and light in weight.

• Current manufacturing technologies use polyacrylonitrile (PAN), rayon (regenerated cellulose)

and pitch as starting materials, PAN based carbon fibres have good properties but are high in cost.

• Pitch based carbon fibres are more economical but their mechanical properties are poorer than
PAN based carbon fibres but still higher than polymeric and neutral fibres.

• PAN based carbon fibres have a modulus and tensile strength of 300GPa and 5200MPa
respectively; whereas pitch based carbon fibres have a modulus and strength of 160GPa and
1400GPa respectively.

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FIBRE REINFORCED (PLASTICS) POLYMER COMPOSITES

Introduction

Human endeavour towards continuous improvement in quality of life resulted in a host of new materials
and technologies. In fact, the 'various stages in the progress of mankind is characterized according to
dominant material of the period viz. stone age, bronze age, iron age etc.

It May be appropriate to call the present era as the plastic age. The concept of combining two different
materials having different properties to obtain a material possessing far superior properties than the
individual materials is not new. The need for materials that are strong, lightweight, corrosion and
chemical resistant and permeable to electromagnetic radiations has led to the advent of fibre
reinforced polymer (FRP) composites.

In the initial years, FRP composites were predominantly used in aerospace applications, but in the last
two decades civil/structural engineers and architects have realized the potential of FRP composites in
building industry.

In the previous topic, we have discussed the concept of reinforcing the brittle cement based matrix with
small diameter fibres. In cement based composites only limited amount (volume) of reinforcing fibres (up
to 5% volume fraction) can be used. This is basically due to limitations in the flow characteristics of
cement-based matrices, which is essential to completely wet and impregnate all the fibres in the matrix.

In view of good flow characteristics of the polymers, its use as matrix enables incorporation of large
volume (up to 70%) of reinforcing fibres in the composite. This has resulted in the development of a large
number of products using FRP composites. In this portion various materials used in the production of
FRP composites and their properties, manufacturing techniques and applications are discussed.

Materials

The fibre-reinforced polymer composite is a two-phase material consisting of polymer matrix reinforced
with small diameter fibres which are either continuous or discontinuous and oriented uni-directionally or
randomly.

Matrix Materials

The matrix in a composite performs the following functions;

a) It glues the bundles of fibres together and helps in distributing the external load to all the fibres.

b) It protects the fibres from adverse environmental effects and prevents the buckling of fibres under
compressive forces, and

c) It protects the fibres from mechanical abrasion.

Polymers, also called as Resins are employed as matrix material in FRP composites. The
polymers are classified into two types.

1) Thermo-set polymers

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2) Thermoplastic polymers

Polymers (in Greek: poly+meros meaning many parts) are large organic compounds
com
formed by the joining together of many small molecules to form a large molecule by a process called as
polymerization. The simple compounds from which polymers are made are called as monomers.

Both thermo-set
set and thermoplastic polymers are long cchained
hained molecules. The polymers
in which their long molecular chains are interconnected with chemical bonds or cross links forming a
rigid three-dimensional
dimensional structures are called as thermo
thermo-set polymers.

In the case of thermoplastic polymers their long molec

molecular
ular chains are not chemically interconnected and
are held in place by weak secondary bonds like Vander Walls bonds

• Thermo-sets
sets are generally liquid resins, which are heat activated (or cured) to achieve cross-
cross
linking of the molecular chains.

• Thermoplasticss are solids, which have to be melted by heating, moulded to the desired shape and
cooled. Because of their differing chemical structure, the thermosets and thermoplastics have
unique properties.

• Thermo-sets
sets are more rigid than thermoplastics due to their cross linked chemical structure and
cannot be re melted by heating, whereas thermoplastics can be re melted by heating.

• Thermo-set
set polymers have good thermal stability and chemical resistance. They also exhibit
reduced creep and stress relaxation compared to thermoplastics. Thermo-sets sets have short shelf life
after mixing with curing agents (catalysts) and low strain to failure and impact strength.

• Thermoplastic polymers on the other hand have high impact strength, fracture resistance and
strain to failure.

• The below figure shows the schematic representation of thermoplastic and thermosetting
polymers.

• ypical examples of thermoplastic resins are polycarbonates, nylon, polyethylene, polypropylenes

and polystyrenes.

The most commonly used thermo-set

set polyme
polymers are

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1) Polyester Resins

2) Vinyl Ester Resins

3) Epoxy Resins

Polyester Resins

These are formed by condensation polymerization of a diacid with dialcohol. By the

elimination of water between the acids and alcohols, ester linkages are formed. The resulting molecular
chain of alternate acid and alcohol molecules is collectively called polyester resin. The cross-linking
occurs by the addition polymerization reaction. A molecule that readily produces free radicals initiates the
cross-linking reaction. Polyester resins are the cheapest resins suitable for making FRP composites for
civil engineering applications.

• Styrene (reactive diluents) is added to the resulting polymeric liquids to reduce its viscosity.

• The Orthophthalic resins have low thermal stability and chemical resistance, whereas the
Isophthalic resins have better chemical and thermal resistance.

• The properties of polyester resins depend strongly on the cross-link density like for example
increasing the density of cross-links, improve the elastic modulus, glass transition temperature
and thermal stability but reduces the strain at failure and impact energy.

Vinyl Ester Resins

• These resins are derived from the reaction of Bisphenol A diglycidyl ether with acrylic or
methacrylic acid.

• Vinyl esters are classified separately from polyesters due to their enhanced mechanical properties.

• They offer excellent physical strength and in general, posses much better impact and thermal
shock resistance than polyester resins.

• A unique characteristic of vinyl ester is that it contains a number of OH (hydroxyl) groups along
its length, which can form physical bonds with similar groups on glass fibre surface resulting in
excellent wet-out and good adhesion with glass fibres.

Epoxy Resins

These resins are generally manufactured by reacting epichlorohydrin with bisphenol A.

Varying the proportions of the two reactants forms different resins. Epoxies possess many desirable
properties like excellent adhesion, strength, low shrinkage, corrosion protection and processing
versatility. These resins are expensive compared to polyesters.

Fillers And Other Additives

Fillers are added to thermo-set polymeric matrices for one or more of the following reasons:

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1. Reduce cost

2. Increase stiffness (modulus)

3. Reduce mold shrinkage

4. Control viscosity

5. Produce smoother surface

• The most common filler for polyester and vinyl ester resins is calcium carbonate, which is used to
reduce cost as well as mold shrinkage.

• Other materials employed as fillers are clay, mica and glass micro-spheres.

• Even though fillers increase modulus they reduce strength and impact resistance of the cured
resin.

• In addition to fillers, colorants, flame-retardants and ultra violet absorbers are also added to the
resins.

Reinforcing Fibres

Reinforcements in the form of fibres, particles or whiskers are used with resin systems to improve the
mechanical properties of the resins and to produce usable products. By far the most important fibre used
with polyester and epoxy resins is glass fibre which is available in a variety of forms like rovings, woven
rovings, cloths and random chopped fibre mats.

In recent years high strength carbon fibres and polyaramid fibres have found increasing use in the
manufacture of composite materials for a variety of applications. Natural fibres such as jute and sisal have
also been used to reinforce thermosetting resins.

Applications

FRP composites have found application in various branches of engineering and technology. During the
initial years it was predominantly used in aerospace structures due to its light weight and high strength
where cost was not the governing factor. With the passage of time its application spread to other areas of
engineering. Due to its corrosion resistant property it is used in chemical industries. It is also used in
making sports equipment like tennis racket, fishing and pole-vaulting rods and baseball bats. It is also
used in bio medical engineering for making prosthesis. Pultruded FRP rods have been used as
reinforcement in concrete. FRP sheets have also been used for repair and retrofit of concrete structures.
FRP composites will find newer applications in future in all spheres of life.

BAMBOO

Bamboo is indeed a popular alternative building material with numerous benefits. It has been used for
construction purposes in many parts of the world for centuries due to its strength, versatility, and
sustainability. Here are some key advantages of bamboo as a building material:

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• Sustainable and Renewable: Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with some
species capable of growing several feet in just a day. It is a highly renewable resource as it
reaches maturity within 3 to 5 years, while trees take much longer. Harvesting bamboo does not
require replanting as it regenerates from its existing root system, making it an eco-friendly choice.

• Strength and Durability: Bamboo has a high strength-to-weight ratio, making it remarkably strong
and resilient. It possesses greater tensile strength than many traditional construction materials
like wood and concrete. It can withstand heavy loads and is even used in some regions for
earthquake-resistant structures.

• Lightweight and Flexible: Bamboo is lighter than most building materials, making it easier to
transport and work with. Its flexibility allows it to be bent and shaped, offering architectural
versatility and creative design possibilities.

• Cost-effective: Bamboo is typically more affordable than conventional building materials such as
steel, concrete, or timber. This makes it an attractive option, particularly in economically
constrained areas or for sustainable construction projects with budget limitations.

• Carbon Sequestration: Bamboo is an excellent carbon dioxide absorber, sequestering more carbon
and producing more oxygen than most trees. This characteristic makes it beneficial for combating
climate change and reducing carbon footprints.

• Aesthetically Pleasing: Bamboo's natural beauty and warm appearance add aesthetic value to
structures. Its unique texture and grain patterns lend a distinct visual appeal that can enhance
architectural designs.

• Versatility: Bamboo can be used for a wide range of construction purposes, including structural
elements like beams, columns, and flooring, as well as for walls, roofing, furniture, and
decorative accents. It can also be used in combination with other materials to create hybrid
structures.

• Cultural Significance: Bamboo has deep cultural significance in many societies, particularly in
Asia, where it is associated with traditions, craftsmanship, and architectural heritage. Its use can
help preserve cultural identity and promote sustainable practices.

While bamboo has numerous benefits, it's essential to consider certain factors when using it as a building
material. Proper treatment and preservation techniques are necessary to protect bamboo against decay,
insect infestation, and moisture damage. Additionally, building codes and regulations may vary
depending on the region, so it's important to ensure compliance with local standards when using bamboo
in construction.

AVAILABILITY OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS FOR COST EFFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION

LAMINATED VENEER LUMBER: LVL provides a consistent, high-performance alternative to solid

lumber structural systems. It is lighter and stronger than traditional alternatives, faster and easier to install,
enhances productivity, and reduces forming costs. They are in composite nature, it is much less likely to
warp, twist, bow, or shrink.

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AUTOCLAVED AERATED CONCRETE: AAC is a lightweight, precast, foam concrete building

material suitable for producing concrete masonry units like blocks. It has improved thermal efficiency
superior fire resistance. It also helps to reduce the solid waste during the use, it’s lightweight and larger.
Excellent material for soundproofing and acoustic insulation.

CARDBOARD: During this lockdown, people have changed their perspective on how various materials
can be used in different ways. It is inexpensive, recyclable beds from cardboard coated with a protective
waterproof substance that enables it to be cleaned quickly and easily. It’s strong and weighs up to 300kg,
yet lightweight to lift.

LIGHT TRANSMIT CONCRETE: These are materials that help in transmitting light which acts as a
translucent material. It transmits light to about 20m thickness. This could be used in giving natural light.
It’s a combination of fiber optics and concrete. The blocks can also include embedded heat-isolation.

SELF-HEALING CONCRETE: Concrete can withstand compressive forces very well but not tensile
forces. It’s a bio-concrete, created just like regular concrete, but with extra ‘healing agents’ mixed in. The
healing bacteria would be intact throughout mixing and in case of cracks the water seeps in and dissolves
and activates biological limestone to heal the cracks eventually.

BAMBOO: This material is known from the Asian times and was mainly used in rural areas. Now, its use
in different areas but especially areas which are earthquake-prone as they have great strength and also is
fire resistant. Before choosing a bamboo it’s very important to treat it with a good amount of chemicals so
it is prevented from termites.

STRAW ROOFING: It’s a material which has been used since ancient times. They are easily available,
lightweight which makes it easy to transport. They absorb heat easily as it minimizes the heat loss and
provides a pleasant indoor climate. This material also reduces labor costs.

NATURAL STONE: As we all know a man-made product such as a cast of stone and concrete is readily
available, but natural stone is a completely natural product that has been extracted from the ground and is
processed. They aren’t just used in the facades of the building but also slabs for kitchen, storage spaces,
etc. they are excellent insulators. Once invested it will last forever.

CORRUGATED IRON: They are relatively lightweight, portable, and adaptable that is used as a
traditional form of construction. They are frequently used in the roofing system, for the walls and the
prefabricated buildings especially. All metals corrode but, here the main aim was to slow down the
process. It is one of the cheapest and the lightest material to transport.

WOOD: It is a natural material, which makes it readily available and is economically feasible. This
provides good insulation from the cold, they can be fabricated into different shapes and sizes. It is
environmentally friendly which makes it sustainable.

HEMPCRETE: It’s bio-composite material, a mixture of hemp hulls and lime, sand which is used in
construction and insulations. They lack in brittleness compared to concrete and consequently do not need
expansion joints.

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RAMMED EARTH: It’s a Chinese technique of constructing walls, foundations, floors, etc. It’s a
sustainable building method. It adapts easily to all the local climate; they usually generate very little
waste. They are lightweight and can be easily transported, and also have a low manufacturing impact.

PREFABRICATED PANELS: It is a structure which has been fabricated at the offsite location. They
are usually constructed as a column, beam, slab, or just as panels. They are easily available and easy to
transport as they are lightweight. They could locally adapt to any climate.

ALGAE CURTAINS: It’s a modern-day construction where our planet is soon going to run out of
renewable energy. It is a sustainable building material that helps in cleaning the air and absorbs the
carbon dioxide and the pollutants present in the air. It also helps with the façade of the building.

GLASS FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE: It’s a composite material produced by a cementitious

matrix with alkali-resistant glass fiber. It can be molded into different shapes and sizes which helps in the
making of futuristic designs. It has great strength and is also lightweight.

CONCRETE SHEETS: These sheets are readily available in the market so it’s very quick to install. It’s
a stylish option in making the façade pleasing. They are durable, weatherproofing quality, and fireproof.
They are usually secure and stable.

STONE CLADDING: These are options which are opted when the client wants a pleasing look but at
the same time has a budget. It can be rustic or modern and can mimic different types of stone finishes. It
comes in different thicknesses.

RECLAIMED TIMBER: They are one of the cheapest materials but at the same time trendy as well.
They are more durable and dried out. They are also environmentally friendly. Each shape is unique and
irregular in shape.

TRADITIONAL BRICK: They are popular as they last longer. It is fireproof and also stands down to
any weather condition. They are available in different sizes. They are durable and sturdy. They also make
the place look aesthetically pleasing.

WASTE MATERIALS: Creative builders use everything starting from the cigarette butts to plastic
bottles and rubble to build in homes. They have tried and incorporated various other waste materials
which can be developed eventually with technologies.

RECYCLING OF BUILDING MATERIALS

All systems recycle the biosphere is a network of continually recycling materials and information in
alternating cycles of convergence and divergence. As materials converge or become more concentrated
they gain in quality, increasing their potential to drive useful work in proportion to their concentrations
relative to the environment. As their potentials are used, materials diverge or become more dispersed in
the landscape, only to be concentrated again at another time and place. Fitting the patterns of humanity to
these material cycling pathways has become paramount in importance as our numbers and influence on
the biosphere increases.

The energy performance of buildings (the EPBD) requires several different measures to achieve prudent
and rational use of energy resources and to reduce the environmental impact of the energy use for

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buildings. This is to be accomplished by increased energy efficiency in both new and existing buildings.
A basic requirement for measures is the existence of a general framework for a methodology of
calculation of the total energy performance of buildings.

Reusing materials includes following benefits:

• Reduces the demand for new resources

• Cuts costs related to the production and transportation of new materials and

• Eliminates the need to send waste to landfill sites

Sustainable design and construction, or “green building,” is a holistic approach that minimizes
environmental impact, reduces maintenance, and creates a more desirable workspace for the building
occupants. Green building focuses on siting issues, energy and water efficiency, recycled content
building materials, minimizing local and global environmental effects caused by buildings, and
indoor environmental quality. The goal is to transform the market of public funded construction, so that
all projects will be designed and constructed reflecting green building principles. The requirements
include;

• General framework for a methodology of calculation of the integrated performance of buildings.

• Setting of minimum energy standards in new and existing buildings.

• Energy certification of buildings

• Inspection and assessment of heating and cooling installations.

Incorporating reusable/recyclable/biodegradable building materials in project can reduce waste, pollution,

and energy use. Some examples of reusable / recyclable/ biodegradable building materials include:

• Wood (reusable/recyclable/biodegradable)

• Earthen Materials (reusable/biodegradable)

• Steel, Aluminium, Iron, Copper (reusable/recyclable)

• Bricks (reusable/recyclable)

• Concrete (may be crushed and recycled)

• Gypsum/Drywall (recyclable, sometimes biodegradable)

• Straw Bale Insulation (biodegradable)

• Wool Carpet (biodegradable)

• Linoleum Flooring (biodegradable)

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BRICKS

Recycling bricks is a common practice in the construction industry and offers several benefits, including
waste reduction, resource conservation, and cost savings. Here's how brick recycling works:

1. Salvaging Bricks: During demolition or renovation projects, bricks can be carefully removed
from existing structures without significant damage. Salvaging bricks involves carefully
dismantling the walls or structures and preserving the bricks for reuse.

2. Cleaning and Sorting: Once salvaged, the bricks need to be cleaned and sorted. The cleaning
process involves removing mortar or any other debris from the bricks. This can be done manually
or by using specialized equipment. Sorting involves categorizing the bricks based on their size,
shape, color, or other characteristics.

3. Quality Assessment: After cleaning and sorting, the salvaged bricks undergo a quality
assessment. Damaged or cracked bricks may be discarded, while bricks in good condition are
retained for reuse.

4. Storage and Distribution: The salvaged and cleaned bricks are stored in an organized manner for
future use. They can be stored on-site or transported to a recycling facility or a brickyard. These
bricks can then be sold or donated to contractors, builders, or individuals for new construction
projects.

5. Reuse in Construction: Recycled bricks can be used in a variety of construction applications.

They can be employed for new walls, pathways, landscaping, or even interior design elements.
When reused, recycled bricks provide a rustic and aesthetic appeal to the structures while
reducing the demand for new brick production.

Benefits of Brick Recycling:

• Waste Reduction: Recycling bricks diverts waste from landfills, reducing the burden on waste
management systems and promoting a more sustainable construction industry.

• Resource Conservation: By reusing bricks, the need for new brick production and the associated
extraction of raw materials, such as clay and sand, is reduced. This helps conserve natural
resources and reduces energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions associated with brick
manufacturing.

• Cost Savings: Recycled bricks are often more cost-effective compared to new bricks. They can be
obtained at a lower price or even for free, resulting in cost savings for construction projects.

• Aesthetic Appeal: Reused bricks can add character and charm to new construction projects. They
often have a weathered and textured appearance that can enhance the visual appeal of buildings
and landscapes.

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CONCRETE

• Concrete recycling is a common and beneficial practice in the construction industry. It involves
the process of reusing crushed or demolished concrete as a raw material for new construction
projects. Here's how concrete recycling works:

• 1. Concrete Demolition or Waste Collection: During construction or demolition activities,

concrete waste is generated in the form of old structures, slabs, sidewalks, or concrete debris.
This waste is collected and transported to a recycling facility.

• 2. Crushing and Screening: At the recycling facility, the collected concrete waste is crushed using
specialized equipment, such as crushers and impactors. The crushing process breaks down the
concrete into smaller pieces, known as recycled concrete aggregate (RCA). Additionally, any
steel reinforcement or contaminants present in the concrete are separated during this stage.

• 3. Sorting and Size Classification: The crushed concrete is then sorted and classified based on
size. Different sizes of recycled concrete aggregate can be produced to meet specific construction
requirements. The aggregate may be categorized as coarse, fine, or a blend of both.

• 4. Quality Assessment: The quality of the recycled concrete aggregate is assessed to ensure it
meets industry standards and project specifications. This assessment includes evaluating the
strength, durability, and other relevant properties of the recycled material.

• 5. Incorporation in New Construction: The recycled concrete aggregate is ready to be used in new
construction projects. It can be used as a substitute for natural aggregates in various applications,
including road base, backfill, foundations, and concrete production. Recycled concrete can
also be used as fill material or for landscaping purposes.

Benefits of Concrete Recycling:

1. Waste Reduction: Concrete recycling reduces the amount of concrete waste sent to landfills, helping to
conserve landfill space and reduce the environmental impact of waste disposal.

2. Resource Conservation: By recycling concrete, the demand for natural aggregates, such as gravel and
sand, is reduced. This conserves natural resources and reduces the need for extraction, minimizing the
environmental impact associated with aggregate mining.

3. Energy and Emissions Savings: The process of recycling concrete consumes less energy compared to
the production of new concrete from virgin materials. It also reduces greenhouse gas emissions associated
with quarrying and transporting aggregates.

4. Cost Savings: Recycled concrete aggregates are often more cost-effective compared to virgin
aggregates, resulting in cost savings for construction projects. Using recycled concrete can reduce the
overall project costs, including material acquisition and waste disposal expenses.

5. Sustainable Construction: Concrete recycling supports sustainable construction practices by promoting

the circular economy, minimizing waste, and conserving resources.

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STEEL

Steel recycling is a well-established and highly efficient practice in the construction industry. Steel is one
of the most commonly recycled materials globally due to its high recyclability. Here's how steel recycling
in the context of building materials typically works:

1. Collection: Steel waste from construction sites, demolition projects, or manufacturing processes is
collected and separated. This may include steel beams, columns, reinforcement bars (rebar), pipes, or
other steel components.

2. Transportation: The collected steel waste is then transported to recycling facilities or scrap yards. These
facilities are equipped with specialized equipment for processing and recycling steel.

3. Sorting and Shredding: At the recycling facility, the steel waste is sorted based on its composition and
size. Magnetic sorting techniques are often used to separate ferrous (magnetic) steel from non-ferrous
metals. Shredding equipment is then employed to break down the steel into smaller pieces, making it
easier to process further.

4. Melting and Purification: The shredded steel is melted in large furnaces, typically in an electric arc
furnace or basic oxygen furnace. This process involves subjecting the steel to high temperatures to melt it
down. Any impurities or contaminants are removed during the purification process.

5. Solidification and Shaping: Once the steel is purified, it is solidified and shaped into new steel
products. This can be done through casting, rolling, or other manufacturing processes. The recycled steel
can be used to produce various construction materials, such as beams, rebars, plates, or sheets.

6 Distribution and Reuse: The recycled steel products are then distributed to construction companies,
manufacturers, or other users who incorporate them into new construction projects. Recycled steel is
commonly used in the construction industry for structural components, reinforcement, and other
applications.

Benefits of Steel Recycling:

1. Resource Conservation: Steel recycling helps conserve natural resources by reducing the need for
mining iron ore and extracting new steel. It significantly reduces energy consumption, water usage, and
carbon emissions associated with steel production from virgin materials.

2. Waste Reduction: Recycling steel prevents steel waste from ending up in landfills, reducing the
environmental impact and conserving landfill space.

3. Cost Savings: Using recycled steel can provide cost savings for construction projects. Recycled steel
products are often more affordable compared to new steel, which can help reduce overall construction
expenses.

4. Energy and Emissions Savings: Steel recycling requires significantly less energy and emits fewer
greenhouse gases compared to primary steel production. Recycling steel helps mitigate climate change by
reducing the carbon footprint of the construction industry.

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5. Circular Economy: Steel recycling supports the principles of a circular economy by closing the loop on
the steel production process. It promotes the reuse of materials and minimizes waste generation.

PLASTICS

Plastic recycling in the context of building materials is an emerging practice aimed at reducing waste and
promoting sustainability in the construction industry. While plastics have traditionally presented
challenges in recycling due to their diverse compositions, there are efforts to recycle specific types of
plastics used in construction. Here's an overview of plastics recycling in building materials:

1. Plastic Waste Collection: Plastic waste generated from construction sites, such as packaging materials,
plastic sheets, pipes, or fixtures, is collected separately for recycling. It's important to segregate and
separate different types of plastics to ensure effective recycling.

2. Sorting and Cleaning: The collected plastic waste undergoes sorting and cleaning processes. Plastics
are sorted by type, such as polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), or others.
Contaminants like dirt, debris, or non-plastic materials are removed through washing and other cleaning
methods.

3. Shredding and Granulating: The sorted and cleaned plastics are shredded into small pieces or
granulated into plastic flakes or pellets. This process facilitates further processing and manufacturing.

4. Recycling and Manufacturing: The shredded or granulated plastics can be processed into various
building materials. Some common examples include:

- Plastic Lumber: Plastic lumber, made from recycled plastics, can be used as an alternative to
traditional wood in applications like decking, fencing, or outdoor furniture. These recycled plastic lumber
products offer durability, low maintenance, and resistance to rot and pests.

- Plastic Roofing Tiles: Recycled plastics can be transformed into roofing tiles that mimic the
appearance of traditional materials like clay or concrete tiles. These plastic tiles are lightweight, durable,
and can provide good insulation properties.

- Insulation Materials: Certain types of plastics can be recycled into insulation materials used in
buildings. These materials can offer thermal and acoustic insulation properties.

- Recycled Plastic Panels: Plastic panels made from recycled materials can be used for interior finishes,
wall cladding, or partition walls. These panels are lightweight, easy to install, and offer design versatility.

5. Certification and Standards: It's important to ensure that recycled plastic building materials meet
relevant certification and quality standards to ensure their performance and safety in construction
applications. Standards vary depending on the country or region.

Benefits of Plastic Recycling in Building Materials:

1. Waste Reduction: Recycling plastics in building materials diverts plastic waste from landfills and
reduces environmental pollution.

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2. Resource Conservation: By recycling plastics, the demand for virgin plastics and the associated
extraction of fossil fuels are reduced, conserving natural resources.

3. Energy Savings: Recycling plastics requires less energy compared to producing plastics from virgin
materials, leading to energy savings and reduced greenhouse gas emissions.

4. Durability and Low Maintenance: Plastic building materials made from recycled plastics can offer
durability, resistance to rot, pests, and moisture, resulting in longer lifespans and reduced maintenance
requirements.

5. Design Versatility: Recycled plastic building materials can be designed and manufactured in various
shapes, sizes, and colors, offering design flexibility and customization options.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATED TO QUARRYING OF BUILDING MATERIALS

The production of building materials leads to two types of environmental/ health related problems

1) Firstly, building material can lead to a local environmental impact either in the form of
pollution/health hazard or in the depletion of natural resources.

2) Secondly, building materials production using fossil fuel energies can cause global
environmental problems like global warming.

There is a need to mitigate these two kinds of environmental problems. Some Typical problem are
discussed below.

1) STONE

• Especially granite is extensively used in building construction.

• Size stones are used for foundations and walls.

• Crushed stone aggregate is widely used for concrete manufacture.

• Considerable amount of fine granite dust is generated at the site of stone crushing.

• The stone workers inhale the fine dust and succumb to silicosis or tuberculosis

• The entrepreneurs involved in stone processing seem to be have no concern for the health of the
workers involved in such activities.

• There is a need to educate the workers about the dangers of stone dust and develop suitable filters
such that inhalation of the fine dust can be avoided

2) TOP SOIL FOR BRICK

• The top soil is used for brick making.

• It is well known that the top soil is a rich source of nutrients for trees and crops and this nutrient base is
depleted by large scale brick manufacturer.

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• The landscape is also destroyed by unorganized creation of pits which can render the land useless for
agriculture or other non – agriculture uses.

• Retaining the top soil while taking out the soil in the lower zones or by creating natural water bodies,
can largely mitigate this problem.

• In south India, the problem is less acute since there are a large number of irrigation tanks which contains
enormous of silt.

3) POLLUTION OF MARBLE DUST

The marble processing industry in Rajasthan produces large quantities of fine marble dust which can
affect the usability of agricultural land. The marble dust can be used as a resource in number of ways

a) Additive to cement to make masonry cement.

b) Source of calcium carbonate for lime / cement industry.

c) Building products like SMB, marble dust+ resin for wash basin.

4) MANGALORE TILES:

• The extensive use of firewood for making Mangalore tiles in coastal India has led to deforestation in the
coastal regions.

• It is possible to use natural gas or coal for tile burning.

• Use of imported fossil fuel is the only way to save the forest.

• Development of other alternatives to tiles is also desirable to avoid deforestation as well as fossil fuel
burning.

5) THE QUESTION OF TIMBER:

• In India, good quality timber is in short supply.

• Timber is imported from Malaysia and Australia.

• Some organization like CPWD, PWD have a tendency to ban the use of timber, because to avoid
massive deforestation.

• Attempts are made to replace timber by concrete and Ferro-cement.

• This is a good short-term strategy.

• In the long run, this approach can be counterproductive.

• It is necessary to recognize that the timber is a material which is totally based on solar energy while
cement based materials depend on fossil fuels.

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• Cement based materials cause depletion of fossil fuels and excessive carbon missions leading to global
warming.

• Use of timber also alleviates global warming since the carbon in timber is sorted for a long period.

• Thus, the timber is a very environmental friendly material, provided it can be procured without
disturbing natural forests.

The question before the civil engineer is to examine the possibility of growing timber in non-forest lands
in an ecologically sound manner.

• There is a need to avoid ‘PLANTATION ‘type of concepts wherein a single species is planted.

• There is also a tendency to think only in terms of teak wood.

• There is a need for concerted efforts by foresters and civil engineers to grow all the available
timber species.

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