AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

MODULE 5 - LIVESTOCK AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

5.1 Genetics

5.2 Breeding

5.3 Biotechnology
 5. 1 GENETICS
Genetics - the study of how the characteristics of the parents are passed on to their
offspring.

● Characteristics such as skin/coat colour, eye colour, height, taste, etc. pass on
from parents to their offspring.
● Living organisms such as plants, animals and humans bear resemblance to each
other because they are able to pass on their characteristics (traits) from parents
to offspring (young ones).

Definitions of terms as used in genetics

(a) Gene – a ‘basic unit of heredity’, which determines the presence or absence of
certain characteristics in organisms or
- a functional unit of heredity, which carries information from one
generation to the next.
- a DNA molecule on a chromosome in the nucleus of a cell.

● Each gene controls specific characteristics in a body.

E.g. – A gene for skin colour, blood group, body size, height, etc.
The same gene may be in different forms e.g. a gene for height will be
responsible for shortness or tallness in an organism.
● Usually genes are denoted by letters e.g. a gene for skin colour could be B
for black or b for white.

(b) Allele – this is an alternative form of a gene.

or
- a pair of genes controlling the same characteristic (e.g. skin colour) but not
necessarily producing the same effects (e.g. black or white).

● Different forms of the same gene e.g. one allele for skin colour produces
black skin colour (B) and another allele produces white colour (b). Therefore,
B and b are alleles because they are alternative forms of the gene for skin
colour.
● An allele can be written as follows: BB or Bb or bb.

(c) Chromosomes – thread-like structures (found in a cell nucleus) that carry genes.

● Chromosomes appear at cell division and carry genes on themselves. They

are long molecules of DNA (Deoxy-Ribonucleic Acid) - the protein
substance that carries the hereditary information/instructions.
● In body (somatic) cells chromosomes appear in pairs and it’s called a diploid
(2n) condition.

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● In gametes or sex cells chromosomes appear as individuals and this is called
a haploid (n) condition.

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The diagram below shows a pair of chromosomes, showing corresponding pairs of
genes.

(d) Homozygous – this is having a pair of identical / same genes controlling a

given character. (Homo means same).
Example: pure black = BB
Pure white = bb
This will breed true for this character. It is a pure breed.

(e) Heterozygous – this is having a pair of different genes for any one character.
(Hetero means different) E.g. Black = Bb.
This will not breed true.

(f) Dominance – this is the ability of a gene of an allele to express itself in the
phenotype in the presence of an alternative form of that gene.
● This happens in a heterozygous condition.

E.g. In allele with Bb for fur colour in a black mouse (where B=black and
b=white), black (B) is dominant over white (b) hence the mouse is black.
● Therefore, when two genes are present in an organism, the one, which
produces observable characteristics, is said to be dominant.

(g) Recessive – This is for a gene which, in the presence of its opposing gene, is
not expressed in the phenotype.

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 ● Recessive genes are expressed only if they are in a homozygous state,
e.g. bb
● In the example above of the black mouse (Bb), the white colour (b) is
not shown on the fur but it is there in the genotype. Therefore, the white
colour (b) would be recessive to black (B).

(h) Co-dominance –when both alleles are expressed in the phenotype for a
heterozygous condition.

● Both genes show themselves equally in the phenotype. That is neither of

the two contrasting allelomorphic genes is dominant.

● Example 1: The inheritance of human blood groups IA, IB, and IO shows
co-dominance. For example crossing a parent of blood group IA with
another parent of blood group IB would produce all offspring with blood
group IAIB.

● Example 2: a cross between a plant with red flowers and another one
with white flowers which results in plants with pink/roan flowers shows
co-dominance because pink is an intermediate colour between red and
white.

Distinguish/differentiate between phenotype and genotype

Phenotype Genotype
This is the outward appearance of an This is the genetic makeup (or
organism. E.g. colour of skin. constitution) of an organism.
That is all the different genes present
whether expressed or not.
Example, one genotype can be BB and
the other Bb or even bb.
Influenced by both environment and Influenced by genes only
genes.

DESCRIBE MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS CELL DIVISION

In living organisms, cells divide to give rise to reproductive cells (gametes) for
reproduction. The cells also divide to increase in number as the organism grows
bigger – i.e. for growth.
There are two types of cellular divisions: mitosis and meiosis.

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Mitosis – this is nuclear cell division that results in a diploid (2n) number of
chromosomes in all daughter cells.
This happens in all body (somatic) cells and the chromosome number is
maintained during cell division.
Example – a human body cell has 46 chromosomes, and during cell division the
resulting daughter cell will have 46 chromosomes as well.

Meiosis – This is nuclear cell division which results in a haploid (n) number of
chromosomes.

Meiosis takes place when cells divide to produce gametes and the
chromosome number is halved.

Example Each human sperm cell contains 23 chromosomes and each human
ovum has 23 chromosomes. When the sperm and the ovum fuse at
fertilization the diploid number of 46 (23+23) chromosomes is produces. This
number will be present in all cells of the offspring, which develops from the
zygote.

Describe the differences between mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
Same chromosome number maintained in Half number of chromosomes in daughter
daughter cells. Leads to diploid number cells. Leads to haploid number (n) of
(2n) of chromosomes. chromosomes.
Two daughter cells produced Four daughter cells produced

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Daughter cells do not divide any further. Daughter cells further divide.
Undergoes a single stage of cell division Undergoes two stages of cell division.
Daughter cells are identical to parent cell. Daughter cells different from parent cell.
For repair/replacement of cells. For formation of sex cells.

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SIMPLE GENETIC CROSSES

(a) Heterozygous and homozygous recessive (1 : 1 ratio)

A Red (R) Brahman bull is mated with a White (r) Brahman cow. It was earlier found
that the bull is heterozygous red (Rr) and the cow is homozygous white (rr). After
mating the progeny colour ratio can be predicted as follows:-

Parents R r

r Rr rr

r Rr rr

F1 genotype: Rr Rr rr rr
F1 phenotype: red red white white
Genotype ratio 2 Rr : 2rr
1 : 1
Phenotypic ratio is 2 Reds : 2 Whites
1 : 1

(b) Cross between two heterozygous gametes (3 : 1)

Two wrinkled (W) heterozygous green pea seeds were sown and allowed to cross
pollinate. The seeds were earlier on produced by crossing with smooth (w) seeds.
The progeny ratio can be predicted as follows:-

Parents W w

W WW Ww

w Ww ww

F1 genotype: WW Ww Ww ww
F2 phenotype: Wrinkled smooth Wrinkled smooth
Phenotype ratio: 3 wrinkled : 1 smooth

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VARIATION IN TERMS OF GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Variation refers to the differences in the observable (seen) characteristics on organisms

of the same species.
Offspring of the same parents may differ slightly from each other and from their parents.
Therefore no two individuals of the same species are the same.

There are two types of variation: continuous and discontinuous variation.

Continuous variation – exists in characteristics with intermediate forms between two
extremes. E.g. height, skin colour, hair colour, etc.
Discontinuous variation – exists in characteristics that have no intermediate forms.
E.g. human blood groups, sex

Variation can be due to genetic/heritable factors or environmental factors.

(a) Variation due to genetic/heritable factors

● Those variations which can be inherited are controlled by genes. They are genetic or
heritable variations. Example black skin in a cat is an inherited characteristic.
● For example all domestic cats belong to the same species. Therefore they can
interbreed, but there are many variations (differences) in size, coat colour, eye
colour, fur length, etc.
● The degree to which each genetic material expresses itself varies on every
organism. For example, no two organisms are identical, even though their genetic
make-up is the same.

Sources of genetic variation

(i) independent/random assortment of chromosomes.
(ii) New combination of genes from cross breeding.
(iii) Mutations
(iv) Meiosis and new combinations of characteristics.
(v) Crossing over leading to new combination of genes.
(vi) Natural selection/evolution
(vii) Artificial selection

(b) Variation due to environmental factors

● There are also variations (differences) which are not heritable, but determined by
factors in the environment of the organism.
● Examples

✔ A kitten which gets insufficient food will not grow to the same size as its litter
mates.
✔ A cat with a skin disease may have bald patches in its coat.

✔ Maize plants provided with all necessities for plant growth will grow faster and
better than those lacking one or more of such plant necessities.

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● These conditions are not heritable but they are caused by environmental effects. In
addition, the environment has an effect on the genetic expression. It may favour on
not favour.
Therefore, the phenotype of an organism is a result of the combination or interaction
between the environment and its genetic make-up.
Thus, Phenotype = Genotype + Environment

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 5. 2 BREEDING
Breeding is reproducing young ones by taking those with desirable characteristics (traits)
to reproduce the next generation. This is done primarily to improve their performance.

Importance of breeding
● To increase yield of product (e.g. milk/meat/eggs)

● To achieve good quality animals. This leads to fast growth rate and improves quality
of product.
● To develop resistance against certain diseases and pests.

● To develop new breeds and cultivars.

● To maintain pure breeds/lines for desirable traits.

● To develop resistance against certain climatic conditions (e.g. drought, cold/frost,

heat, etc).

1. Cross-breeding
This is mating of two different breeds of the same species.
It is done to combine good characteristics of both parents in the offspring.
The offspring produced are heterozygous and are called hybrids.
The main aim is to obtain hybrid vigour which includes:-
● Increased/ fast growth rate

● Increased resistance to parasites and diseases

● Increased resistance to drought

● increased fertility in animals

Advantages Disadvantages
(a) New breeds can be developed (a) Expensive system since it uses
(b) Increases hybrid vigour/heterosis different bulls/males
(b) Requires high technical skills
(c) Offspring do not breed true to type
(are not pure)

2. Inbreeding
This involves mating closely related animals to retain desirable characteristics.
The main aim of inbreeding is to obtain a uniform population (homozygosity) of animals

Advantages and disadvantages of inbreeding

Advantages Disadvantages
(a) Concentrates good qualities in the (a) Undesirable traits may become
offspring established in the population

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(b) Leads to a uniform population (b) It may reduce quality and
(c) Exposes undesirable characteristics performance (vigour) in animals
(traits) (c) It may produce deformed animals
(inbreeding depression)

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3. Selection
The process of choosing the best individuals to serve as parents in a breeding program.
Those organisms, should appear physically, physiologically and behaviorally better
adapted to the environment, survive and reproduce.

Selection could be natural or artificial.

● Natural selection – this is based on the principle of the fittest.
As the population increases in size, certain environmental factors become limiting,
e.g. food availability in animals and light in the case of plants.
This produces competition for resources between members of the population.
Those organisms exhibiting characteristics, which give them a competitive
advantage, will obtain the resource, survive and reproduce.

● Artificial selection – based on observation of physical characteristics and use of

carefully kept records for traits such as:-
o skin colour, temperament, conformity, mothering ability, milk production, etc.

Example: seed selection is the simplest method of crop improvement where seeds
from high yielding parents are kept for future planting the poor ones can be eaten

4. Upgrading
A form of cross breeding that involves crossing superior purebred males with inferior
females of a certain breed.
The aim is to increase the percentage of genes from the superior individual to the
offspring as the generation progresses, hence improving the quality of the offspring.
E.g. purebred Tuli bulls crossed with Tswana cows; where the first, second, third and
fourth offspring are crossed with purebred Tuli bulls. (See the diagram below)

Advantages of upgrading
(i) It results in hybrid vigour (heterosis)
(ii) It results in fast growth

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 (iii) It increases desirable traits
Upgrading results showing the concentration of superior traits across generations

Generation % of superior breed % of superior breed % of superior

genes on male genes on female genes in offspring
parents parents
F1 100 0 50
F2 100 50 75
F3 100 75 87.5
F4 100 87.5 93.75
F5 100 93.75 96.8
F6 100 96.8 98.44
F7 100 98.44 99.22

5. Hybridization in plants and animals

● Hybridization is the crossing of parents that differ genetically.

● A plant/animal is bred with a plant/animal from different stock. This is also called
cross breeding.
● It is frequently practiced in agriculture to produce stronger, healthier plants with
desirable characteristics.
● Animal breeders also use the process to create new breeds or to try to breed out
unwanted characteristics (traits) such as hip dysplasia in some pure bred dogs.
Dysplasia is characterized by abnormal growth of the cells of a certain tissue and
may be indicative of cancer in some areas.
● A hybrid is an offspring from parents that differ in genetically determined traits, e.g.
crossing a donkey and horse to produce a mule.
● Reasons for creating hybrids:-

✔ Increasing genetic diversity.

✔ Formation of new plant species.

✔ Breeding for specific traits/characteristics (e.g. resistance to diseases and pest

infestations).
● Cross breeding produces new individuals with new mixture of genes. These new
offspring are called hybrids and can perform better than their parents.
● Hybridization is important because it increases the genetic variety (number of
different gene combinations) within a species, which is necessary for evolution to
occur. If climatic or habitat conditions change individuals with certain combinations
may be eliminated, but others with different combinations will survive.
● In agriculture, it is used to create healthier crops or new flavors, such as the tangelo,
a cross between a tangerine and a pomelo.

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● In animal breeding, hybridization is used to create new breeds or to make a breed
stronger.
● In another variation, two animals of different species within the same genus are bred
to each other. Most animals hybridized in this way, such as mules and zorses (a
horse x zebra cross), cannot reproduce naturally.

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 5. 3 BIOTECHNOLOGY
What is biotechnology?
This is an integrated application of biochemistry, molecular biology and process
technology with the objective of turning to technical use the potential of microorganism
cells, tissue cultures and parts thereof.
Or
Biotechnology is the use of biological processes for industrial and other purposes.

These especially relates to the manipulation of both plant and animal observable
characteristics to take advantage of them to improve their performance.

Biotechnology can be classified in to two main groups and these are:-

● Traditional biotechnology

● Modern biotechnology

1. Traditional biotechnology

This is the application of biotechnology without application of genetic science.

It has been practiced for centuries. For instance, farmers have long practiced
selective breeding to obtain organisms with superior genetic merits though it was a
random affair.
Examples of traditional biotechnology

i) Artificial insemination – semen of good quality bulls is introduced to

selected cows. This will produce calves of desirable traits. This will lead to
animal improvement.

ii) Embryo transfer – cows are super ovulated to produce more embryo (an
average cow produces 4 calves in its lifetime and a super ovulated cow can
be optimized to yield 25 calves per year)

iii) Production of sour milk – this involves fermentation of milk. It is caused by

different cultures of microorganisms to produce sour milk of different tastes.

iv) Production of sour porridge – this involves fermentation of sorghum or

maize meal. It is caused by different cultures of microorganisms. Porridge of
various tastes can be produced depending on the microbes responsible.

v) Brewing beer – This involves fermentation of sorghum or maize by

microbes. This happens after an extended period at different temperatures.
This will produce different tastes. Microbes will act at a suitable temperature
and produce a desirable taste.

vi) Yoghurt production – here milk is subjected to various microbial culture

solutions to produce yoghurt of different tastes.

vii) Budding, grafting, layering and others.

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 2. Modern biotechnology
It is used in conjunction with genetic engineering, which involves the manipulation of
genes or genetic composition/constitution of organisms.

What is genetic engineering?

This is the manipulation of organism at genetic level to maximize agricultural yields
and quality.

In genetic engineering, pieces of DNA are introduced into a host by means of a

carrier (vector) system to replace a gene coding for an undesirable trait.

● For example, a gene coding for broodiness in layers has been replaced with one
coding for non-broodiness. The foreign DNA becomes a permanent feature of the
host being replicated and passed on to daughter cells along with the rest of its
DNA. The donated DNA could come from another organism or it might be an
artificially synthesized gene.

Examples of modern biotechnology

(i) Herbicide resistance – plants are modified to withstand the effect of herbicide
which could otherwise kill them. E.g. a selective herbicide can be used to
control narrow leafed weeds in a cereal crop field.
(ii) Tomatoes with delayed ripening properties – this result in longer shelf lives.
(iii) Genetically engineered hormone (bovine somatotropin) is put in livestock
feed to improve milk production in lactating cows.
(iv) Genetically modified bacteria are introduced into the animal rumen to digest
poison leaf plant (mogau) into non-toxic products. The bacteria can be
mixed with animal feed or added to drinking water.
(v) A bacterium has been engineered to produce an important enzyme (rennet or
chymosin) which is used in cheese making.

Advantages of biotechnology
● Improves livestock and crop productivity

● increases a disease resistance

● improves crop tolerance to drought

● Safer and healthier environment when using bio-technics (bio-fertilizers, bio-

pesticides).
● Improved food processing methods.

● Preservation of fodder through silage making.

● Vaccine production for control/prevention of diseases.

Disadvantages of biotechnology
● there is a possibility of creation of super weeds

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● possibility of evoking allergic reactions

● new genes make microbes resistant to antibiotics

● there is a risk of genetic pollution due to cross pollination

● loss of diversity since breeding programs target particular traits

● it is very expensive

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