PART 12

ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Handbook of Industrial Robotics, Second Edition. Edited by Shimon Y. Nof

Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 10.1002/9780470172506.gloss, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470172506.gloss by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [14/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY
José A. Ceroni
Shimon Y. Nof
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana

INTRODUCTION
This section provides a comprehensive list of terms that are relevant to the field of in-
dustrial robotics. It augments and revises the robotics terminology from the first edition
of this Handbook, which was originally prepared by Joseph Jablonowski and Jack W.
Posey. The definitions of the terms reflect their meaning in the field of robotics.
Almost all the terms and definitions come from the material covered in the Handbook.
Of the 530 terms compiled for the Handbook’s first edition, 82 were deleted or revised,
and 371 new terms were added for a total of 819 terms. This increase reflects the expan-
sion and maturing of the robotics field. The contribution of new terms from each of the
10 areas of the Handbook was according to the list in Table 1.

Table 1
Area New Terms
Added
1 Development of Industrial Robotics 20
2 Mechanical Design 48
3 Control and Intelligence 41
4 Programming and Intelligence 38
5 Organizational and Economic Aspects 27
6 Applications: Planning Techniques 27
7 Applications: Design and Integration 36
8 Robotics in Processes 24
9 Robotics in Operations 26
10 Robotics in Various Applications 29
From multiple areas 55
Total new terms 371
Terms reviewed or updated from the first edition 448
Total terms in the Robotics Terminology 819

This terminology is not intended to be an exhaustive, final word on the vocabulary of

the field of robotics; rather, it is a reflection of the importance the authors have placed
on various theories, practices, and equipment in the field.

ROBOTIC TERMS

Accommodation, Active: A control technique that integrates information from sensors

with the robot’s motion in order to respond to felt forces. Used to stop a robot when

Handbook of Industrial Robotics, Second Edition. Edited by Shimon Y. Nof 1261

Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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1262 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

forces reach set levels, in guiding tasks like edge tracing and insertion, and to provide
the robot with a capability to compensate for errors in the positioning and orientation of
a workpiece.
Accommodation, Passive: The capability of a manipulator to correct for residual po-
sitioning errors through the sensing of reaction forces and torques as sensed by a com-
pliant wrist. No sensors, actuators, or controls are involved.
Accuracy:
1. The quality, state, or degree of conformance to a recognized standard or specifi-
cation.
2. The ability of a robot to position its end-effector at a programmed location in
space. Accuracy is characterized by the difference between the position to which
the robot tool-point automatically goes and the originally taught position, partic-
ularly at nominal load and normal operating temperature.
Compare with Repeatability.
Actuator: A motor or transducer that converts electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic energy
into power for motion or reaction.
Adaptive Arc Welding System: An arc welding system consisting of an off-line pro-
gramming system and a real-time controller. The off-line programming system allows the
planning of the entire automated welding process, the real-time controller provides the
system with the capability for implementing the welding plans and dealing with the
anomalies that may arise during their execution.
Adaptive Control: A control method used to achieve near-optimum performance by
continuously and automatically adjusting control parameters in response to measured pro-
cess variables. Its operation is in the conventional manner of a machine tool or robot with
two additional components:
1. At least one sensor which is able to measure working conditions; and
2. A computer algorithm which processes the sensor information and sends suitable
signals to correct the operation of the conventional system.
Adaptive Network Based Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS): A fuzzy inference sys-
tem tuned with a backpropagation algorithm based on some collection of input–output
data. This setup allows fuzzy systems to learn. ANFIS are highly specialized for speed
and cannot accept all the customization options that basic fuzzy inference systems allow.
Adaptive Robot: A robot equipped with one or more external sensors, interfaced with
other machines and communicating with other computers. This type of robot could exhibit
aspects of intelligent behavior, considerably beyond unaided human capabilities, by de-
tecting, measuring, and analyzing data about its environment and using both passive and
active means for interaction. Sensory data could include signals from electromagnetic
spectrum, acoustic signals, measurements of temperature, pressure, and humidity, mea-
surements of physical and chemical properties of materials, detection of contaminants,
and electrical signals (see also Responsive Robots).
Adaptive System: A robotic system with adaptive control capability having:
1. At least one sensor which is able to measure the working conditions; and
2. A computer algorithm which processes the sensor information and sends suitable
signals to correct the operations of the conventional system.
Agent: A computing hardware and / or software-based system that has the following
properties:
1. Autonomy: Agents operate without the direct intervention of humans or others,
and have certain control over their actions and internal state.
2. Social ability: Agents interact with other agents (and possibly humans) via some
agent-communication language.
3. Reflexivity: Agents perceive their environment, which may be the physical world,
a user via a graphical user interface, a collection of other agents, the Internet, or
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1263

perhaps all these combined, and react in a timely fashion to changes that occur
in this environment.
4. Proactiveness: Agents do not simply act in response to their environment, but are
able to exhibit goal-directed behavior by taking the initiative.
The importance of computer agents is their ability to perform complex intelligent activities
in a highly distributed global environment with the advantages of synergy and in parallel
to their human users.
Air Jet Sensor: A sensor, located on the dispenser nozzle of a dispensing system, that
uses an air jet to detect any break in bead application.
Air Motor: A device that converts pneumatic pressure and flow into continuous rotary
or reciprocating motion.
AL: A research-oriented motion language developed by the Stanford University Arti-
ficial Intelligence Laboratory, designed primarily to deal with robot positions and veloc-
ities. AL’s features include joint interpolated motion, force sensing and application,
changeable tools, and vision verification. It is based on the ALGOL language.
Algorithm: A set of specific rules for the solution of a problem in a finite number of
steps.
AML (A Manufacturing Language): An interactive, structured robot programming
language developed by IBM and capable of handling many operations, including inter-
facing and data processing, that go beyond the programming of robot motions. Command
categories include robot motion and sensor commands. AML supports joint interpolated
motion and force sensing.
Analog Control: Control signals that are processed through analog means. Analog con-
trol can be electronic, hydraulic, or pneumatic.
Android: A robot that resembles a human being.
Angular Heading Changes: Changes in the path direction of a mobile robot. In mul-
tiwheeled systems it is caused when two or more wheels are actively driven with the
others idling.
Anthropomorphic Robot: Also known as a jointed-arm robot. A robot with all rotary
joints and motions similar to a person’s arm.
Arm: An interconnected set of of links and powered joints comprising a manipulator
which support or move a wrist, hand, or end-effector.
Arm Joint Accuracy (AJA): One of the Robot Motion Economy measures. It measures
the accuracy of the robot arm during motion. In point-to-point tasks the accuracy is
important at the end of the motion, while in continuous path tasks accuracy is an important
measure throughout the motion.
Arm Joint Load (AJL): One of the Robot Motion Economy measures. It estimates the
load to which the arm is subjected during task motions.
Arm Joint Utilization (AJU): One of the Robot Motion Economy measures. It is cal-
culated based on the total weighted movement of all joints during the task performance
and is based on the kinematics of robot motions. Motions of joints closer to the robot
base are weighted more heavily to reflect relatively higher wear.
Articulated Robot: A robot arm which contains at least two consecutive revolute joints
acting around parallel axes resembling human arm motion. The work envelope is formed
by partial cylinders or spheres. The two basic type of articulated robots, vertical and
horizontal, are sometimes called anthropomorphic because of the resemblance to the mo-
tions of the human arm.
Artificial Intelligence (AI): The ability of a machine system to perceive anticipated or
unanticipated new conditions, decide what actions must be performed under the condi-
tions, and plan the actions accordingly. The main areas of application are knowledge-
based systems, computer sensory systems, and machine learning.
Artificial Muscles: A chemical compound designed to emulate the behavior of biolog-
ical muscles. The compounds contract and expand by the application of positive electrical
charges. Expected applications range from noiseless and quiet propulsion systems to hu-
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1264 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

man implants reducing the rejection of organ transplants. Another variety are the muscle
wires made from titanium alloy that contract when electricity is passed through them and
can lift thousands of times their own weight.
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN): A complementing approach of neural networks
and artificial intelligence which is based on serial processing through layers of symbol
manipulation. It is also referred to as connectionism or parallel distributed processing.
The main applications of ANN are pattern recognition, planning, and control.
Assembly (Robotic): Robot manipulation of components resulting in a finished assem-
bled product. Presently available simple robots can be used for simple assembly opera-
tions, such as mating two parts together. However, for more complex assembly operations
robots require better control and intelligence for achieving the required positioning ac-
curacy and sensory feedback. Examples of typical applications include the insertion of
light bulbs into instrument panels, the assembly of computer hard drives, the insertion or
placement of components on printed circuit boards, the assembly of small electric motors,
and furniture assembly.
Assembly Constraints: Logical conditions that determine the set of all feasible assem-
bly sequences for a given product. Assembly constraints can be of two types: geometric
precedence constraints (those arising from the part geometry) and process constraints
(those arising from assembly process issues).
Assembly Planner: A system for automating robot programming. The assembly planner
examines a computer-assisted design database to produce task-level program. A task plan-
ner then creates a robot-level program from the task-level program.
Assembly Sequencing: The determination of one or more sequences in which the parts
can be put together to guarantee a feasible assembly.
Asynchronous Program Control: A type of robot program control structure that allows
the execution of event-driven steps of a program. Typical events can be hardware errors,
program function key interrupts, or sensors exceeding specified ranges.
Atlantis: A hybrid behavior-based robot control architecture developed at NASA’s Jet
Propulsion Laboratory and consisting of a three-layer architecture. The reactive layer is
a behavior-based system. At the other end of this hybrid system is a deliberative layer
which plans and maintains world models. The intervening interface layer, referred to as
the sequencer, controls sequences of reactivity and deliberation. In addition, the sequencer
is used to handle cognizant failures, i.e., self-recognition when deliberation is necessary
due to a failure to achieve the system’s goals by reactive methods alone.
Atomic Force Microscope (AFM): A device for mapping surface atomic structure by
measuring the force acting on the tip of a sharply pointed wire or other object that is
moved over the surface.
Attended Program Verification (APV): A special mode of robot operation designed
to confirm that a robot’s programmed path and process performance are consistent with
expectations is defined by the new standard. This is a testing mode when the robot is
allowed to move at full-programmed speed, which presumably exceeds the slow speed
velocity limits.
Automated Storage / Retrieval System (AS / RS): Automated warehouses where parts
stored in bins are retrieved by automated equipment (usually a stacker crane) and deliv-
ered to different collection and distribution points. A computer-based system keeps track
of how many items are stored in which bins and controls the system that selects the
desired bin.
Automatically Guided Vehicle (AGV): Also known as robot cart. Wire- or rail-guided
carts used to transport raw materials, tools, finished parts, and in-process parts over rel-
atively great distances and through variable, programmable routes. The parts are usually
loaded on pallets.
Automation: Automatically controlled operation of an apparatus, process, or system by
mechanical or electronic devices that replace human observation, effort, and decision.
Autonomous Robot: A robot with some degree of autonomy.
Autonomous Robot Architecture (AURA): The first robot control architecture to
merge classical artificial intelligence planning techniques with behavior-based control for
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1265

robot navigation. AURA partitions the navigational task into two phases, planning and
execution.
Autonomy: The capability of an entity to create and control the execution of its own
plans and / or strategies. For instance, in mobile robots the ability of the robot for deter-
mining the trajectory to reach a specific location or pose.
AUTOPASS: An experimental task-oriented robot programming language developed by
IBM, by which a manufacturing task to be accomplished is described. In a task-oriented
language such as AUTOPASS the robot must recognize various high-level, real-world
terms. AUTOPASS supports parallel processing, can interface with complex sensory sys-
tems, and permits the use of multiple manipulators. It is a PL / I-based language.
Axis: A traveled path in space, usually referred to as a linear direction of travel in any
three dimensions. In Cartesian coordinate systems, labels of X, Y, and Z are commonly
used to depict axis directions relative to Earth. X refers to a directional plane or line
parallel to Earth. Y refers to a directional plane or line that is parallel to Earth and
perpendicular to X. Z refers to a directional plane or line that is vertical to and perpen-
dicular to the Earth’s surface.
Axis, Prismatic: Also known as translational axis. An assembly between two rigid
members in a mechanism enabling one to have a linear motion relative to and in contact
with the other.
Axis, Rotational: Also known as rotatory axis. An assembly connecting two rigid mem-
bers in a mechanism which enables one to rotate in relation to the other around a fixed
axis.

B-Splines: Curves defined by a set of control points. It is used to represent the robot’s
end-effector trajectories that account for system dynamics and actuator limitations.
Backlash: The free play in a power transmission system, such as a gear train, resulting
in a characteristic form of hysteresis.
Backlighting: Position of the light source in a vision system. The light source is placed
behind the object of which the image is about to be acquired.
Backward Reasoning: A strategy for searching the rule base in an expert system that
acts like a problem solver by beginning with a hypothesis and seeking out more infor-
mation until the hypothesis is either proved or disproved.
Bang-Bang Control: A binary control system which rapidly changes from one mode
or state to the other. In motion systems this applies to direction only. Bang-bang control
is often mechanically actuated, hence the name.
Bang-Bang Robot: A robot in which motions are controlled by driving each axis or
degree of freedom against a mechanical limit stop.
Base: The platform or structure to which a robot arm is attached; the end of a kinematic
chain of arm links and joints, opposite to that which grasps or processes external objects.
Batching: The operation of a robotic system such that tasks of one family of operations,
called a batch, are performed together. Batching is required when a system cannot easily
perform a variety of tasks in random order. Different setups may be required for different
families of tasks. Batching reduces the number of setups by performing one family of
tasks, followed by another batch from another family, and so on.
Baud: The unit of measure of signalling speed in data communications. Baud is equal
to the number of bits of signal events per second.
Behavioral Controller: A reactive, behavior-based control system, emphasizing the im-
portance of tightly coupling sensing and action without the use of intervening represen-
tations or world models. A simple behavioral controller may include three primitive
behaviors: avoiding obstacles, moving towards a perceived goal, and remaining on a path.
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1266 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

The coordination process determines the aggregate overt action of the robot by selecting
or combining the individual behavioral outputs in a meaningful way.
Bidding Mechanism: A real-time technique for allocating the resources of a Multi-
Robot System to competing jobs arriving to the system.
Blackboard Systems: Domain-specific problem-solving systems that exploit the black-
board architecture and exhibit a characteristically incremental and opportunistic problem-
solving style. The blackboard architecture has three defining features: a global database
called the blackboard, independent knowledge sources that generate solution elements on
the blackboard, and a scheduler to control knowledge source activity.
Blob: A cluster of adjacent pixels of the same nature (gray level, or color in binary
image, etc.) which usually represents an object or region in the field of view.
Bus Interface: A network topology linking a number of computers by a single circuit
with all messages broadcast to the entire network.
Business Process Reengineering (BPR): See Process Reengineering

Cable Drive: Also known as tendon drive. The transmission of mechanical power from
an actuator to a remote mechanism via a flexible cable and pulleys.
CAD Solid Modeler: A software interface part of the Computer-Aided Design system
which allows the user to build a database, with a valid and complete geometric description
of the robot and its environment. This CAD database includes the models of the robot
links and all the objects in the cell environment: machines, fixtures, feeders, grippers,
parts, etc.
CAD / CAM: An acronym for Computer-Aided Design and Computer-Aided Manufac-
turing.
CAD / CAM Coupling: The integration of manufacturing capabilities and constraints
(CAM) into the design process (CAD).
Calibration: The procedures used in determining actual values which describe the ge-
ometric dimensions and mechanical characteristics of a robot or multibody structure. A
robot calibration system must consist of appropriate robot modeling techniques, accurate
measurement equipment, and reliable model parameter determination methods. For prac-
tical improvement of a robot’s absolute accuracy, error compensation methods are required
which use calibration results.
Camera Coordinate Frame: A coordinate system assigned to the camera in a robotics
vision system.
Canny’s Edge Operator: Operator for line feature extraction from vision stereo images.
Capacitive Proximity Switch: Proximity sensor utilizing the dielectric property of the
material to be sensed to alter the capacitance field set up by the sensor. The sensor can
be used to detect objects constructed of nonconductive material, allowing the robot to
detect the presence or absence of objects made of wood, paper, or plastic.
Cartesian Path Tracking: The travel of the hand or end-effector of a manipulator in
a path described by Cartesian coordinates. The manipulator joint displacements can be
determined by means of an inverse Jacobian transformation.
Cartesian Robot: See Rectangular Robot.
Cartesian Space: See Rectangular Robot.
Cell Formation: See Group Technology.
Cellular Robotic System: A hybrid layout organization in which robots and machining
centers are grouped into work centers called cells, that process parts with similar shapes
or processing requirements.
Center: A manufacturing unit consisting of two or more cells and the material transport
and storage buffers that interconnect them.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1267

Centralized Control: Control exercised over an extensive and complex system from a
single controller.
Chain Drive: The transmission of power via chain and mating-toothed sprocket wheels.
Chain Robot Arm: A robot arm designed especially for use as a monoarticulate chain
manipulator. Special design considerations include a cross-sectional profile no larger than
that of the chain links, a fail-safe return to a straightened position, high-powered DC or
AC servo motors, and continuous gas cooling of the drives. Actual and planned appli-
cations include repair and inspection of nuclear reactors and active liquor tanks housed
in concrete cells.
Chebyshev Travel: Motion of the robot arm simultaneously in the X and Y directions
of the robot’s workspace coordinate system.
Chip Mounter: A robotic device employed for the high-speed automatic mounting of
surface-mount type electronic components into integrated circuit boards. Modern high-
speed chip mounters utilize high-speed vision assistance achieving mounting cycles of
0.15 sec / chip.
CIM / Robotics: The integration of various technologies and functional areas of the
organization to produce an entirely integrated manufacturing organization. The motivation
for CIM / Robotics has been based on the perceived need for manufacturing industry to
respond to changes more rapidly than in the past. CIM / robotics promises many benefits,
including increased machine utilization, reduced work-in-process inventory, increased pro-
ductivity of working capital, reduced number of machine tools, reduced labor costs, re-
duced lead times, more consistent product quality, less floorspace, and reduced set-up
costs.
Circle Point Analysis: A class of robot calibration methods where each joint is iden-
tified as a screw, i.e., as a line in space. From knowledge of all of the joint screws, the
robot’s kinematic parameters can be extracted directly.
Circular Interpolation: A robot programming feature which allows a robot to follow
a circular path through three points it is taught.
Class I Testing: Robot testing procedure requiring no specific parameter optimization
in the robot’s operation.
Class II Testing: Robot testing procedure in which the robot operates under optimum
cycle time conditions.
Class III Testing: Robot testing procedure in which the robot operates under optimum
repeatability conditions.
Class IV Testing: Robot testing procedure that allows the optimization of robot per-
formance characteristics beyond those covered by testing classes II and III.
Closed-Loop Control: The use of a feedback loop to measure and compare actual
system performance with desired performance. This strategy allows the robot control to
make any necessary adjustments.
Coating (Robotic): Robot manipulation of a coating tool, e.g., a spray gun, to apply
some material, such as paint, varnish, stain, or plastic powder, to the surface of either a
stationary or a moving part. These coatings are applied to a wide variety of parts, in-
cluding automotive body panels, appliances, and furniture. Other uses include applying
resin and chopped glass fiber to molds for producing glass-reinforced plastic parts and
spraying epoxy resin between layers of graphite broadgoods in the production of advanced
composites. The benefits of robotic coating are higher product quality through more uni-
form application of material, reduced costs by eliminating human labor and reducing
waste coating material, and reduced exposure of humans to toxic materials.
Cobot: A robot that is designed specifically to collaborate with humans. It is typically
a safe, mechanically passive robotic device that is intended for direct physical contact
with a human operator. The operator supplies the power for motions, while the cobot
responds with software-controlled movements.
Cognitive Functions: A group of mental processes that involve acquisition, coding,
storing, manipulation, and recall of spatial and other information.
Collaboration: The active participation and work of the sub-systems towards accom-
plishing collaborative integration. It can be characterized as mandatory, optional, or con-
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1268 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

current, and it can occur internally (among sub-systems of the same system) or externally
(among sub-systems of different systems). An important function of collaborative inte-
gration is to overcome conflicts among the sub-systems.
Collapsible Frame Structure: A mobile robot system that uses almost its entire
structural system in an active fashion to reconfigure itself. An example of this type of
robot is Houdini, a robot developed for the Department of Energy as an internal tank
cleanup system that would remotely access hazardous (or petrochemical) waste-storage
tanks through a 24-inch diameter opening in the collapsed position, and then open up to
a full 8-foot by 6-foot footprint and carry a manipulator arm with exchangeable end-
effector tooling and articulated plow.
Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA): A distributed object tech-
nology defined by the Object Management Group (OMG). CORBA is the standard ar-
chitecture for developing object-oriented applications that would run across a diversity of
multivendor products and operating environments.
Complex Joint: An assembly between two closely related rigid members enabling one
member to rotate in relation to the other around a mobile axis.
Compliance: A feature of a robot which allows for mechanical float in the tooling in
relation to the robot tool mounting plate. This feature enables the correction of misalign-
ment errors encountered when parts are mated during assembly operations or loaded into
tight-fitting fixture or periphery equipment.
Compliant Assembly: The deliberate placement of a known, engineered, and relatively
large compliance into tooling in order to avoid wedging and jamming during rigid part
assembly.
Compliant Motion: The motion required of a robot when in contact with a surface
because of uncertainty in the world model and the inherent inaccuracy of a robot.
Compliant Support: In rigid part assembly, compliant support provides both lateral
and angular compliance for at least one of the mating parts.
Computer Integrated Manufacturing—Open Systems Architecture (CIMOSA): A
European proposal for an open system architecture for Computer-Integrated Manufactur-
ing. CIMOSA provides a reference architecture to help particular enterprises build their
own architecture, describing four aspects of the enterprise (function, information, re-
source, and organization) at three modeling levels (requirements definition, design spec-
ification, and implementation description). The enterprise model provides semantic
unification of concepts shared in the CIM system. Alternative reference architectures are
the Purdue Enterprise Reference Architecture (PERA), developed at Purdue University in
Indiana, and the GRAI-GIM architecture, developed at the University of Bordeaux,
France.
Computer Numerical Control (CNC): A numerical control system with a dedicated
mini- or micro-computer which performs the functions of data processing and control.
Computer Vision: Also known as machine vision. The use of computers or other elec-
tronic hardware to acquire, interpret, and process visual information. It involves the use
of visual sensors to create an electronic or numerical analog of a visual scene, and com-
puter processing to extract intelligence from this representation. Examples of applications
have been in inspection, measurement of critical dimensions, parts sorting and presenta-
tion, visual servoing for manipulator motions, and automatic assembly.
Computer-Aided Design (CAD): The use of an interactive-terminal workstation, usu-
ally with graphics capability, to automate the design of products. CAD includes functions
like drafting and parts fitup.
Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE): Engineering analysis performed at a computer
terminal with information from a CAD database. It includes mass property analysis, finite
element analysis, and kinematics.
Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM): Working from a product design likely to
exist in a CAD database, CAM encompasses the computer-based technologies that phys-
ically produce the product, including part-program preparation, process planning, tool
design, process analysis, and part processing by numerically controlled machines.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1269

Computer-Assisted Surgical Execution (CASE): The use of robotics devices in the

execution of the surgical plan outlined during the surgical planning stage. The execution
control can be computer or surgeon based.
Computer-Assisted Surgical Planning (CASP): The use of an interactive computer
interface for planning the surgery procedure over the patient. It provides the surgical team
with feedback information through the simulation of the surgical procedures.
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM): The philosophy dictating that all func-
tions within a manufacturing operation be database driven and that information from
within any single database be shared by other functional groups. CIM includes major
functions of operations management (purchasing, inventory management, order entry),
design and manufacturing engineering (CAD, NC programming, CAM), manufacturing
(scheduling, fabrication, robotics, assembly, inspection, materials handling), and storage
and retrieval (inventories, incoming inspection, shipping, vendor parts). Modern CIM
covers manufacturing and service enterprise integration.
Computer-Integrated Surgery (CIS): The integration of computer-based modeling and
analysis of patient anatomy with robots, sensors, and other interface technologies into
systems that enhance the human surgeon ability to plan and carry out surgical interven-
tions.
Concurrent Engineering (CE): The integration of product design and process planning
into a common activity. It helps improve the quality of early design decisions and thereby
reduces the length and cost of the design process.
Confined Sluicing End-Effector (CSEE): A special robot’s end-effector for radioactive
waste management developed at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee. The
end-effector sucks waste out of the tank, but it also has a series of high-pressure cutting
jets for breaking up solid waste.
Connectivity Analysis: An image analysis technique used to determine whether adja-
cent pixels of the same color constitute a blob, for which various user-specified features
can be calculated. Used to separate multiple objects in a scene from each other and from
the background.
Contact Sensor: A grouping of sensors consisting of tactile, touch, and force / torque
sensors. A contact sensor is used to detect contact of the robot hand with external objects.
Continuous Path Control: A type of robot control in which the robot moves according
to a replay of closely spaced points programmed on a constant time base during teaching.
The points are first recorded as the robot is guided along a desired path, and the position
of each axis is recorded by the control unit on a constant time basis by scanning axis
encoders during the robot motion. The replay algorithm attempts to duplicate that motion.
Alternatively, a continuous path control can be accomplished by interpolation of a desired
path curve between a few taught points.
Continuous Path System: A type of robot movement in which the tool performs the
task while the axes of motion are moving. All axes of motion may move simultaneously,
each at a different velocity, in order to trace a required path or trajectory.
Control: The process of making a variable or system of variables conform to what is
desired.

1. A device to achieve such conformance automatically

2. A device by which a person may communicate commands to a machine

Control Hierarchy: A system in which higher-level control elements are used to control
lower-level ones and the results of lower-level elements are utilized as inputs by higher-
level elements. Embodied in the phrase ‘‘distributed intelligence,’’ in which processing
units (usually microprocessors) are dispersed to control individual axes of a robot.
Control Loops: Segments of control of a robot. Each control loop corresponds to a
drive unit which actuates one axis of motion of the manipulator.
Control System: The system which implements the designed control scheme, including
sensors, manual input and mode selection elements, interlocking and decision-making
circuitry, and output elements to the operating mechanism.
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1270 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Controlled Passive Devices: Operator interface using actuators that cannot impart
power to the device, but can control the way the device responds to externally applied
power. For teleoperator input devices the input power is supplied by the human operator.
By controlled passive actuation the response of the device can provide to the human a
haptic display of conditions present at the remote manipulator.
Controller: A hardware / software device that continuously measures the value of a vari-
able quantity or condition and then automatically acts on the controlled equipment to
correct any deviation from a desired preset value.
Controller Area Network (CAN): A bus network connection of the system controllers
of the devices in the robot cell. It enhances the reprogrammability of each cell component,
as well as the connectivity flexibility of further equipment in the cell.
Conveyor Tracking Robot: A robot synchronized with the movement of a conveyor.
Frequent updating of the input signal of the desired position on the conveyor is required.
Cooperation: The willingness and readiness of subsystems to share or combine their
tasks and resources as in ‘‘open systems.’’
Cooperative Behavior: Any agent behavior requiring negotiation and depending on
directed communication in order to assign particular tasks to the participants. The co-
operative behavior can be explicit: a set of interactions which involve exchanging infor-
mation or performing actions in order to benefit another agent; or implicit: actions that
are a part of the agent’s own goal-achieving behavior repertoire, but have effects in the
world that help other agents achieve their goals.
Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM): A Cartesian robotic device armed with a
probe as tool for measuring parts data (e.g., dimension, location of features, or cylindric-
ity). The probe is a transducer, or sensor, that converts physical measurements into elec-
trical signals, using various measuring systems within the probe structure.
Coordinate Transformation: In robotics, a 4 ⫻ 4 matrix used to describe the positions
and orientations of coordinate frames in space. It is a suitable data structure for the
description of the relative position and orientation between objects. Matrix multiplication
of the transformations establishes the overall relationship between objects.
Coordinated Joint Motion: Also known as coordinated axis control. Control wherein
the axes of the robot arrive at their respective endpoints simultaneously, giving a smooth
appearance to the motion.
Coordination: The means for integrating or linking together different systems whose
decisions and actions are interdependent in order to achieve common goals. Coordination
can be classified into programmed, where the activities are dictated by organizational
goals and objectives and plans are specified in advance by the organization; nonprogram-
med, where activities usually occur as a result of some emergency; and by feedback,
which combines both the programmed and nonprogrammed modes. Also, the additional
information processing performed when multiple, connected agents pursue goals that a
single agent pursuing the same goals would not perform.
Crisp Set: In Fuzzy Logic Control, a collection of distinct objects. It is defined in such
a way as to dichotomize the elements of a given universe of discourse into two groups:
members and nonmembers. This dichotomization is defined by a characteristic function.
Cybernetics: The theoretical study of control and information processes in complex
electronic, mechanical, and biological systems, considered by some as the theory of ro-
bots.
Cycle Time: The period of time from starting to finishing an operation. Cycle time is
used to determine the nominal production rate of a robotic system.
Cycle Time Chart: A graphical representation of the components of the cycle time of
a robotics operation. It resembles the graphs utilized in project scheduling.
Cylindrical Robot: Also known as cylindrical coordinate robot or columnar robot. A
robot, built around a column, that moves according to a cylindrical coordinate system in
which the position of any point is defined in terms of an angular dimension, a radial
dimension, and a height from a reference plane. The outline of a cylinder is formed by
the work envelope. Motions usually include rotation and arm extension.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1271

DC Servo Drives: Electric motors controlled using a feedback mechanism. A transducer

feedback and a speed control form a servo loop. DC servo drives are controlled through
a voltage change; the motor runs faster if a higher voltage is applied. It consists of stator,
rotor, commutator, bearing, and housing.
Decision-Making: The process of drawing conclusions from limited information or con-
jecture.
Decision Support System: The means by which the improvements offered by opera-
tions research techniques can be translated into overall system performance.
Decoupler: A device for the containment of parts between machines in manufacturing
cells for improving flow flexibility. It reduces the time and / or functional dependency of
one machine on another within the cell. Moreover, it frees the worker or the robot from
the machines so that the worker or robot can move to other machines in the cell.
Defuzzifier: Fuzzy Logic Controller whose function is the mapping back of fuzzy val-
ues into the actual values.
Degrees of Freedom: The number of independent ways the end-effector can move. It
is defined by the number of rotational or translational axes through which motion can be
obtained. Every variable representing a degree of freedom must be specified if the physical
state of the manipulator is to be completely defined.
Deployed Robot: A manipulator that enters an otherwise sealed and prohibited zone
through an authorized path of entry in order to employ an inspection device, tool, and so
on in a predetermined task under direct or programmed control.
Depth Information and Perception: Positional data of parts extracted from vision sys-
tem stereo images. It contributes to simplify and enhance tasks such as bin picking of
parts by avoiding complex and expensive fixture and feeding mechanisms. Techniques
such as the laser-based Structured Light Imaging are utilized to extract the depth infor-
mation and generate the depth perception.
Derivative Control: A control scheme whereby the actuator drive signal is proportional
to the time derivative of the difference between the input (desired output) and the mea-
sured actual output.
Design Flexibility: See Design for Flexible Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA).
Design for Flexible Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA): The design of a product
so that it can be produced easily and economically. DFMA identifies product-design
characteristics that are inherently easy to manufacture, focuses on the design of compo-
nent parts that are relatively easy to fabricate and assemble, and integrates product design
with process planning. DFMA improves the quality of the product design and reduces
the time and cost of both product design and manufacture.
Design for Reliability: Robotics systems design strategies for increasing their reliabil-
ity. Strategies can be classified in:
1. Fault avoidance
2. Fault tolerance
3. Fault detection
4. Error recovery.

Design Process (of Robots): A multistep process beginning with a description of the
range of tasks to be performed. Several viable alternative configurations are then deter-
mined, followed by an evaluation of the configurations with respect to the sizing of
components and dynamic system performance. Based on appropriate technical and eco-
nomic criteria, a configuration is then selected. If no configuration meets the criteria, the
process may be repeated in an iterative manner until a configuration is selected.
Dexterous Manipulators: Robotic arms with the capability to move their payload with
consequently facility and quickness within the manipulator’s workspace.
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1272 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Dielectrophoresis: The ability of an uncharged material to move when subjected to an

electric field.
Digital Signal Processing (DSP): A signal analysis in which one or more analog inputs
are sampled at regular intervals, converted to digital form, and fed to a memory.
Dimensional Testing: See Inspection (Robotic).
Direct Drive Motor: Electric motors employed for compact and lightweight design of
robotic material handling transporters. Characteristics such as high torque (torque / weight
ratio of 6.0 Nm / kg or more) for climbing slope, smooth acceleration and deceleration
which will protect valuable payload in motion from vibration / physical shocks are fun-
damental. Direct drive motors are also maintenance free, as the need for lubrication and
other maintenance activities is eliminated.
Direct Drive Torque Motors (DDM): See Direct Drive Motor.
Direct Dynamics: Also known as forward dynamics or integral dynamics. The deter-
mination of the trajectory of the manipulator from known input torques at the joints.
Direct Kinematics: Also known as forward kinematics. The determination of the po-
sition of the end-effector from known joint displacements.
Direct Manipulation Interfaces: User interfaces designed based on the idea that users
should be allowed to manipulate computer interfaces in a way that is analogous to the
way they manipulate objects in space.
Direct Matching: A class of techniques in image analysis which matches new images
or portions of images directly with other images. Images are usually matched with a
model or template which was memorized earlier.
Direct Numerical Methods: Numerical methods for determining optimal robot trajec-
tories. Direct methods are designed to minimize the functional cost. Compared to indirect
methods, direct methods prove to be quite robust and globally convergent, but compu-
tationally more expensive.
Disassembly: The inverse of the assembly process, in which products are decomposed
into parts and subassemblies. In product remanufacturing the disassembly path and the
termination goal are not necessarily fixed, but rather are adapted according to the actual
product condition.
Disparity, Convergent: Also known as crossed disparity. In stereo image depth analysis
convergent disparity is a condition of an object point located in front of the fixation point.
The optic axes of two cameras will have to cross or converge in order to fixate at the
object point.
Disparity, Divergent: Also known as uncrossed disparity. In stereo image depth anal-
ysis divergent disparity is a condition of an object point located behind the fixation point.
The optic axes of two cameras will have to diverge or uncross in order to fixate at the
object point.
Dispensing System (Robotic): Several components combined to apply a desired amount
of adhesive, sealant, or other material in a consistent, uniform bead along accurate tra-
jectories. The components are a five- or six-axis robot; containers, pumps, and regulators;
a programmable controller; and a dispenser or gun. Examples of robotic dispensing
include sealer to car underbody wheelhouse components, urethane bead on windshield
periphery before installation, and sealant applications on appliances.
Distal: The direction away from a robot base toward the end-effector of the arm.
Distributed Artificial Intelligence (DAI): A computational approach focusing on ne-
gotiation and coordination of multi-agent environments in which agents can vary from
knowledge-based systems to sorting algorithms, and approaches can vary from heuristic
search to decision theory. DAI can be divided into two subfields: Distributed Problem
Solving (DPS) and Multi-agent Systems (MAS).
Distributed Control: A collection of modules, each with its own specific control func-
tion, interconnected tightly to carry out an integrated data acquisition and control appli-
cation.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1273

Distributed Numerical Control (DNC): The use of a computer for inputting data to
several physically remote numerically controlled machine tools.
Distributed Problem Solving (DPS): Study of how a loosely coupled network of prob-
lem-solving nodes (processing elements) can solve problems that are beyond the capa-
bilities of the nodes individually. Each node (sometimes called agent) is a sophisticated
system that can modify its behavior as circumstances change and plan its own commu-
nication and cooperation strategies with other nodes.
Drift: The tendency of a system to gradually move away from a desired response.
Drive Power: The source or means of supplying energy to the robot actuators to pro-
duce motion.
Drum Sequencer: The mechanically programmed rotating device that uses limit
switches to control a robot or other machine.
Duty Cycle: The time intervals devoted to starting, running, stopping, and idling when
a device is used for intermittent duty.
Dynamic Accuracy

1. Degree of conformance to the true value when relevant variables are changing
with time.
2. Degree to which actual motion corresponds to desired or commanded motion.

Edge Detection: An image analysis technique in which information about a scene is

obtained without acquiring of an entire image. Locations of transition from black to white
and white to black are recorded, stored, and connected through a process called connec-
tivity to separate objects in the image into blobs. The blobs can then be analyzed and
recognized for their respective features.
Edge Finding: A type of gray-scale image analysis used to locate boundaries between
regions of an image. There are two steps in edge finding: locating pixels in the image
that are likely to be an edge, and linking candidate edge points together into a coherent
edge.
Elbow: The joint which connects the upper arm and forearm of a robot.
Electro-Reological Fluid (ERF): A functional fluid whose mechanical property such
as viscosity is changed considerably at high speed and reversibly by the applied voltage.
The fluid can be classified roughly into suspension (Bingham fluid) and homogeneous
(liquid crystal).
Electronics Data Interchange (EDI): The direct computer-to-computer exchange be-
tween two organizations of standard business transaction documents such as invoices,
bills of lading, and purchase orders. It differs from e-mail in that it transmits an actual
structured transaction as opposed to an unstructured text message.
Emergency Stop: A method using hardware-based components that overrides all other
robot controls and removes drive power from the robot actuators to bring all moving parts
to a stop.
EMILY: A high-level, functional robot programming language developed by IBM using
a relatively simple processor. Considered to be a primitive motion-level language that
incorporates simple and straight-line motion but not continuous path motion. EMILY has
gripper operation commands and is based on assembly-level language.
Encoder: A transducer used to convert linear or rotary position to digital data.
End-Effector: Also known as end-of-arm tooling or, more simply, hand. The subsystem
of an industrial robot system that links the mechanical portion of the robot (manipulator)
to the part being handled or worked on and gives the robot the ability to pick up and
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1274 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

transfer parts and / or handle a multitude of differing tools to perform work on parts. It is
commonly made up of four distinct elements: a method of attachment of the hand or tool
to the robot tool mounting plate, power for actuation of tooling machines, mechanical
linkages, and sensors integrated into the tooling. Examples include grippers, paint spray-
ing nozzles, welding guns, and laser gauging devices.
End-Effector, Turret: A number of end-effectors, usually small, that are mounted on
a turret for quick automatic change of end-effectors during operation.
End-of-Axis Control: Controlling the delivery of tooling through a path or to a point
by driving each axis of a robot in sequence. The joints arrive at their preprogrammed
positions on a given axis before the next joint sequence is actuated.
End-of-Life Value: The usefulness of the components of a product at the end of its
service life. This value should compensate for the cost of the remanufacturing or disas-
sembly process of the product.
Endpoint Control: Control wherein the motions of the axes are such that the endpoint
moves along a prespecified type of path line (straight line, circle, etc.)
Endpoint Rigidity: The resistance of the hand, tool, or endpoint of a manipulator arm
to motion under applied force.
Enterprise Integration: The integration of sophisticated automation equipment, com-
puter hardware and software, planning, control, and data management methodologies into
the enterprise functional areas with the objective of enhancement of the enterprise ability
to compete in the global market.
Enterprise Reengineering: The radical redesign of business processes, combining steps
to cut waste and eliminating repetitive, paper-intensive tasks in order to improve cost,
quality, and service and maximize the benefits of information technology.
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): A business management system that integrates
all facets of the business, including planning, manufacturing, sales, and marketing.
Ergonomics: The study of human capability and psychology in relation to the working
environment and the equipment operated by the worker (see also Robot Ergonomics).
Error Recovery: An ability in intelligent robotic systems to detect a variety of errors
and, through programming, take corrective action to resolve the problem and complete
the desired process.
Error-Absorbing Tooling: A type of robot end-effector able to compensate for small
variations in position and orientation. Especially suitable for assembly tasks, where the
insertion of components demands tight tolerance positioning and orientation of the parts
(see also Remote Center Compliance Device).
Exoskeleton: An articulated teleoperator mechanism whose joints correspond to those
of a human arm. When attached to the arm of a human operator, it will move in corre-
spondence to his or her arm. Exoskeletal devices are sometimes instrumented and used
for master–slave control of manipulators.
Expert System (ES): A computer program, usually based on artificial intelligence tech-
niques, that performs decision functions similar to those of a human expert and, on
demand, can justify to the user its line of reasoning. Typical applications in the field of
robotics are high-level robot programming, planning and control of assembly, and proc-
essing and recovery of errors.
External Sensor: A feedback device that is outside the inherent makeup of a robot
system, or a device used to effect the actions of a robot system that are used to source a
signal independent of the robot’s internal design.
Eye-in-Hand System: A robot vision system in which the camera is mounted on or
near the robot gripper. This arrangement eases the calculation of object location and
orientation and eliminates blind-spot problems encountered in using a static overhead
camera.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1275

Facility Design Language (FDL): A language tool developed at Purdue University in

Indiana to enhance the design capabilities of virtual robotic systems and permit concurrent
and distributed engineering techniques to be used in the general area of facility design.
FDL is based on TDL, the task description component of Robcad, and supports control
and communication, material handling and sensor functions, flow and process geometry
functions (such as collision avoidance), data integration, and conflict resolution functions.
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA): A systematic procedure for document-
ing the effects of system malfunctions on reliability and safety
Fault Tolerance: The capability of a system to perform in accordance with design
specifications even when undesired changes in the internal structure or external environ-
ment occur.
Fault Tree Analysis (FTA): A top-down approach for developing fault trees. The anal-
ysis starts with a malfunction or accident and works downwards to basic events (bottom
of the tree).
Feature Extractor: A program used in image analysis to compute the values of attri-
butes (features) considered by the user to be possibly useful in distinguishing between
different shapes of interest.
Feature Set (Image): A group of standard feature values gleaned from a known image
of a prototype and used to recognize an object based on its image. The feature set is
computed for an unknown image and compared with the feature sets of prototypes. The
unknown object is recognized as identical to the prototype whose feature values vary the
least from its own.
Feature Values: Numerical values used to describe prototypes in a vision system. The
feature values that are independent of position and orientation can be used as a basis of
comparison between two images. Examples of single feature values are the maximum
length and width, centroid, and area.
Feature Vector: A data representation for a part. The data can include area, number of
holes, minimum and maximum diameter, perimeter, and so on. The vision system usually
generates the feature vector for a part during teach-in. The feature vector is then used in
image analysis.
Fiber Optics: The technique of transmitting light through long, thin, flexible fibers of
glass, plastic, or other transparent materials; bundles of parallel fibers can be used to
transmit complete images.
Fiducial Points: Reference points on the face of a printed circuit board. Fiducial points
are used for high-precision location to perform robotic component insertion or surface
mount placement.
Finishing (Robotic): A finishing robot is usually of the continuous-path type and ca-
pable of multiple program storage with random access. These two features allow for the
smooth, intricate movements duplicating the human wrist which are needed to perform
high-speed, efficient finishing tasks such as spraypainting or coating. Finishing robots
usually require some additional features not normally required for other types of robots:
noise filters to prevent interference of electrical noise from electrostatic spraying devices,
an explosion-proof remote control operator’s panel in the spray area, gun and cap cleaners,
and a cleaning receptacle for cleaning the gun after prolonged use or color changes.
First-Generation Robot Systems: Robots with little, if any, computer power. Their
only intelligent functions consist of learning a sequence of manipulative actions choreo-
graphed by a human operator using a teach box. The factory world around them has to
be prearranged to accommodate their actions. Necessary constraints include precise work-
piece positioning, care in specifying spatial relationships with other machines, and safety
for nearby humans and equipment.
Fixed Assembly System: A group of equipment dedicated to assemble one product
type only.
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1276 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Fixture: A device used for holding and positioning a workpiece without guiding the
tool.
Flexi-Arm: A manipulator arm designed to have as much freedom as the human wrist
and especially suited to coating and other finishing applications. The design provides full
arching without regard to the pitch-and-yaw axis, minimizes the arm size, and eliminates
the need for electrical wiring, hydraulic hoses, and actuators on the end of the arm. The
arm can be fitted with a seventh axis to further increase gun (tool) mobility so the arm
has better reach and access than a human spray finisher.
Flexibility (Gripper): The ability of a gripper to conform to parts that have irregular
shapes and adapt to parts that are inaccurately oriented with respect to the gripper.
Flexibility, Mechanical: Pliable or capable of bending. In robot mechanisms this may
be due to joints, links, or transmission elements. Flexibility allows the endpoint of the
robot to sag or deflect under a load and vibrate as a result of acceleration or deceleration.
Flexibility, Operational: Multipurpose robots that are adaptable and capable of being
redirected, trained, or used for new purposes. Refers to the reprogrammability or multitask
capability of robots.
Flexibility–Efficiency Trade-off: The trade-off between retaining a capability for rapid
redesign or reconfiguration of the product to produce a range of different products, and
being efficient enough to produce a large number of products at high levels of production
and low unit cost.
Flexible Arm: A robot arm with mechanical flexibility, e.g., inflatable links or links
made of mechanically flexible materials (contrast with Rigidity).
Flexible Assembly System (FAS): An arrangement of assembly machines or stations,
and a connecting transport system under control of a central computer that allows the
assembly of several, not necessarily identical, workpieces simultaneously (see also Pro-
grammable Assembly System).
Flexible Fixturing: Fixture systems with the ability of accommodating several part
types for the same type of operation. The fixture can be robotic and change automatically
according to sensor input detecting the part change.
Flexible Fixturing Robots: Robots working in parallel, designed to hold and position
parts on which other robots or people or automation can work.
Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS): An arrangement of machine tools that is ca-
pable of standing alone, interconnected by a workpiece transport system, and controlled
by a central computer. The transport subsystem, possibly including one or more robots,
carries work to the machines on pallets or other interface units so that accurate registration
is rapid and automatic. FMS may have a variety of parts being processed at one time.
Flight Telerobotic Servicer (FTS): Telerobotics based system for the assembly, check-
out, and maintenance of the International Space Station to minimize the amount of ex-
travehicular activity required of the crew.
Folding Arm Manipulator: A manipulator designed to enter an enclosed area, such as
the interior of a nuclear reactor, through a narrow opening. A control console outside the
enclosed area is connected to the manipulator by an umbilical cord which carries com-
mand signals, telemetry, and services. Once inside the enclosed area, the manipulator
unfolds and / or extends into a working position. Visual feedback from the work zone
employs closed-circuit television through a remotely controlled camera on the manipulator
feeding a visual display unit in the control console. The manipulator is designed to allow
all relevant motions to be recovered in an emergency situation.
Force Control: A method of error detection in which the force exerted on the end-
effector is sensed and fed back to the controller, usually by mechanical, hydraulic, or
electric transducers.
Force Reflection: Also known as bilateral master–slave control. A category of teleo-
perator control incorporating the features of simple master–slave control and also provid-
ing the operator with resistance to motions of the master unit which corresponds to the
resistance experienced by the slave unit.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1277

Force–Torque Sensors: The sensors that measure the amount of force and torque ex-
erted by the mechanical hand along three hand-referenced orthogonal directions and ap-
plied around a point ahead and away from the sensors.
Forearm: That portion of a jointed arm which is connected to the wrist and elbow.
Forward Dynamics: The computation of a trajectory resulting from an applied torque.
Forward Kinematics: The computation of the position or motion of each link as a
function of the joint variables.
Forward Reasoning: A strategy for searching the rule base in an expert or knowledge-
based system that begins with the information entered by the user and searches the rule
base to arrive at a conclusion.
FREDDY: A pioneering robot system developed at Edinburgh University, Scotland, in
the mid-1970s that used television cameras, a touch-sensitive manipulator, and a motor-
controlled mobile viewing platform to study the acquisition of perceptual descriptions.
Function Based Sharing Control (FBSC): A strategy for combining robotic and te-
leoperated commands. It constructs a path in terms of a position dependent path planner.
FUNKY: Robot software developed by IBM for advanced motion guiding that produces
robot programs through the use of a function keyboard and manual guiding device. Con-
sidered a point-to-point level language that is inherently unstructured, FUNKY has sup-
port for gripper commands, tool operations, touch sensor commands, and interaction with
external devices.
Fuzzifier: One of the four basic components of the Fuzzy Logic Controller. A fuzzifier
performs the function of fuzzification, which is a subjective valuation to transform mea-
surement data into a valuation of a subjective value. Hence it can be defined as a mapping
from an observed input space to labels of fuzzy sets in a specified input universe of
discourse. Since the data manipulation in a FLC is based on fuzzy set theory, fuzzification
is necessary and desirable at an early stage.
Fuzzy Adaptive Learning Control Network (FALCON): Feedforward multilayer net-
work which integrates the basic elements and functions of a traditional fuzzy logic con-
troller into a connectionist structure which has distributed learning abilities. In this
connectionist structure the input and output nodes represent the input states and output
control / decision signals, respectively, and in the hidden layers there are nodes functioning
as membership functions and rules.
Fuzzy Basis Function Network (FBFN): A Neuro-Fuzzy Control system where a fuzzy
system is represented as a series expansion of fuzzy basis functions (FBFs) which are
algebraic superpositions of membership functions. Each FBF corresponds to one fuzzy
logic rule.
Fuzzy Logic: Rule-based artificial intelligence that tolerates imprecision by using non-
specific terms called ‘‘membership functions’’ to solve problems.
Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC): Control mechanism that incorporates the ‘‘expert expe-
rience’’ of a human operator in the design of the controller in controlling a process whose
input / output relationship is described by a collection of fuzzy control rules (e.g., IF–
THEN rules) involving linguistic variables rather than a complicated dynamic model.
Fuzzy Logic Controller: Composed of four principal components: a fuzzifier, a fuzzy
rule base, an inference engine, and a defuzzifier.
Fuzzy Relations: A generalization of classical relations to allow for various degrees of
association between elements. An important operation of fuzzy relations is the compo-
sition of fuzzy relations. There are two types of composition operators: max–min and
min–max compositions, and these compositions can be applied to both relation–relation
compositions and set–relation compositions.
Fuzzy Rule Base: A collection of fuzzy IF–THEN rules in which the preconditions
and consequences involve linguistic variables. This collection of fuzzy control rules char-
acterizes the simple input–output relation of the system.
Fuzzy Set: A collection of vaguely distinct objects. A fuzzy set introduces vagueness
by eliminating the sharp boundary that divides members from nonmembers in the group.
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1278 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Thus, the transition between the full membership and nonmembership is gradual rather
than abrupt, and this is realized by a membership function. Hence, fuzzy sets may be
viewed as an extension and generalization of the basic concepts of crisp sets.

Game Theoretic Approach: The mathematical study of games or abstract models of

conflict situations from the viewpoint of determining an optimal policy or strategy.
Gantry Robot: An overhead-mounted, rectilinear robot with a minimum of three de-
grees of freedom and normally not exceeding six. Bench-mounted assembly robots that
have a gantry design are not included in this definition. A gantry robot can move along
its x and y axes traveling over relatively greater distances than a pedestal-mounted robot
at high traverse speeds while still providing a high degree of accuracy for positioning.
Features of a gantry robot include large work envelopes, heavy payloads, mobile overhead
mounting, and the capability and flexibility to operate over the work area of several
pedestal-mounted robots.
Genetic Algorithms (GA): Search algorithms based on the mechanics of natural selec-
tion and natural genetics. Genetic algorithms have been used primarily in optimization
and machine learning problems. They have three basic operators: reproduction of solutions
based on their fitness, crossover of genes, and mutation for random change of genes.
Another operator associated with each of these three operators is the selection operator,
which produces survival of the fittest.
Geometric Dexterity: The ability of the robot to achieve a wide range of orientations
of the hand with the tool center point in a specified position.
Geometric Modeler: A component of an off-line programming system which generates
a world model from geometric data. The world model allows objects to be referenced
during programming.
Global Positioning System (GPS): A positioning or navigation system designed to use
18 to 24 satellites, each carrying atomic clocks, to provide a receiver anywhere on earth
with extremely accurate measurements of its three-dimensional position, velocity, and
time.
Graphic Simulation: A three-dimensional model generating static or dynamic displays
of objects and workcell layout. It enables a programmer to view workcell objects from
different directions (using perspective transformations) with variable magnification (zoom-
ing), as if the programmer were a ‘‘flying eye’’ observing a real workcell. An off-line
programmer can interactively use the simulation for writing and debugging the program
steps for a given task, observe the animation, and, when satisfied with the results, down-
load the program into a real workcell controller and run it.
Grasp Planning: A capability of a robot programming language to determine where to
grasp objects in order to avoid collisions during grasping or moving. The grasp config-
uration is chosen so that objects are stable in the gripper.
Gray-Scale Picture: A digitized image in which the brightness of the pixels can have
more than two values, typically, 128 or 256 values. A gray-scale picture requires more
storage space and more sophisticated image processing than a binary image.
Gripper: The grasping hand of the robot which manipulates objects and tools to fulfill
a given task.
Gripper Design Factors: Factors considered during the design of a gripper in order to
prevent serious damage to the tool or facilitate quick repair and alignment. The factors
include: parts’ or tools’ shape, dimension, weight, and material; adjustment for realign-
ment in the x and y direction; easy-to-remove fingers; mechanical fusing (shear pins, etc.);
locating surface at the gripper–arm interface; spring loading in the z (vertical) direction;
and specification of spare gripper fingers.
Gripper, External: A type of mechanical gripper used to grasp the exterior surface of
an object with closed fingers.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1279

Gripper, Internal: A type of mechanical gripper used to grip the internal surface of an
object with open fingers.
Gripper, Soft: A type of mechanical gripper which provides the capability of conform-
ing to part of the periphery of an object of any shape.
Gripper, Swing Type: A type of mechanical gripper which can move its fingers in a
swinging motion.
Gripper, Translational: A type of mechanical gripper which can move its own fingers,
keeping them parallel.
Gripper, Universal: A gripper capable of handling and manipulating many different
objects of varying weights, shapes, and materials.
Gripping Surfaces: The surfaces, such as the inside of the fingers, on the robot gripper
or hand that are used for grasping.
Gross Volume of Work Envelope: The volume of the work envelope determined by
shoulder and elbow joints.
Group Behavior: See Cooperative Behavior.
Group Technology: A technique for grouping parts to gain design and operational
advantages. For example, in robotics group technology is used to ensure that different
parts are of the same part family in planning part processing for a workcell or designing
widely usable fixtures for part families. Part grouping may be based on geometric shapes,
operation processes, or both.
Groupe de recherché en automatisation integree (GRAI): See Computer Integrated
Manufacturing Open Systems Architecture (CIMOSA).
Growing (Image): Transformation from an input binary image to an output binary
image. Growing increases the number of one type of pixel for purposes of smoothing,
noise elimination, and detection of blobs based on approximate size.
Guarded Motions: The motion required of a robot when approaching a surface. This
motion is required because of uncertainty in the world model and the inherent inaccuracy
of a robot. The goal of the guarded motion is to achieve a desired manipulator configu-
ration on an actual surface while avoiding excessive forces.

Hand (Robot’s): A fingered gripper sometimes distinguished from a regular gripper by

having more than three fingers and more dexterous finger motions resembling those of
the human hand.
Hand Coordinate System: A robot coordinate system based on the last axis of the
robot manipulator.
Handchanger: A mechanism analogous to a toolchanger on a machining center or other
machine tool. It permits a single robot arm to equip itself with a series of task-specific
hands or grippers.
Haptic Interfaces: Devices controlled by human hand (or body) physical contact forces
or exerting such forces on the human body. These devices are necessary elements of
virtual reality machines. They can be programmed to give the operator arm and hand the
sensation of forces associated with various arbitrary maneuvers, for instance feeling the
smoothness or vibrations of a virtual surface.
Hard Automation: Also known as fixed automation or hard tooling. A nonprogramm-
able, fixed tooling which is designed and dedicated for specific operations that are not
easily changeable. It may be reconfigured mechanically and is cost-effective for a high
production rate of the same product.
Hard Tooling: Traditional tooling where every part to be processed in the robotic cell
has its own fixtures and tools. It results in increased changeover time and processing
delays.
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1280 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Harmonic Drive: A drive system that uses inner and outer gear bands to provide
smooth motion.
Heat Distortion Zone: Volume of the parts being joined by a welding process that are
affected by the increase in temperature resulting from the welding method. These zones
have their properties altered and may become brittle.
HELP (High Level Procedural Language): A robot programming language, based on
PASCAL / Fortran, developed at the DEA Corporation in Turin, Italy. HELP supports
structured program design for robot operation and features flexibility to multiple arms,
support of continuous path motion, force feedback and touch sensor commands, inter-
action with external devices, and gripper operation commands.
Heuristics: A method of solving a problem in which several approaches or methods
are tried and evaluated for progress toward an optimal solution after each attempt (but an
optimal solution is not guaranteed).
Heuristic Problem Solving: In computing logic, the ability to plan and direct actions
to steer toward higher-level goals. This approach is the opposite of algorithmic problem
solving.
Hexapod: A robot that uses six leglike appendages to stride over a surface.
Hierarchical Control: A distributed control technique in which the controlling pro-
cesses are arranged in a hierarchy and distributed physically.
High-Level Language: A programming language that generates machine code from
function-oriented statements that approach English.
High-Level Robot Programming: The control of a robot with a high-level language
that contains English-like (or another natural language) commands. These commands then
perform computations of numerous elementary operations in order to simplify compli-
cated robot operations.
Hold: A stopping of all movement of the robot during its sequence in which some
power is maintained on the robot; for example, on hydraulically driven robots, power is
shut off to the servo-valves but is present in the main electrical and hydraulic systems.
Holonic Manufacturing System (HMS): A new paradigm for the next-generation man-
ufacturing systems, comprising multiagent manufacturing systems in which the entities
(the holons) are both autonomous and cooperative building blocks of a manufacturing
system for transforming, transporting, storing, and / or validating information and physical
objects. Holonic manufacturing systems are human-centered, and therefore they aim to
enable the cooperation amongst humans and machines that preserves the ability to plan
and act autonomously for both of them. The strength of the holonic organization (holar-
chy) is that it enables the construction of very complex systems that are nonetheless
efficient in the use of resources, highly resilient to disturbances (both internal and exter-
nal), and viable by adapting to changes in the environment in which they exist.
Holonomic Constraints: An integrable set of differential equations that describes the
restrictions on the motion of a system; a function relating several variables, in the form
f(x1, . . . , xn) ⫽ 0, in optimization or physical problems.
Holonomic System: A system in which the constraints are such that the original co-
ordinates can be expressed in terms of independent coordinates and possibly of the time.
Home Robots: Small mobile vehicles fitted with a relatively slow-moving arm and
hand, and visual and force / tactile sensors, controlled by joysticks and speech, with a
number of accessories specialized for carrying objects, cleaning, and other manipulative
tasks.
Homogeneous Transform: A 4 ⫻ 4 matrix which represents the rotation and translation
of vectors in the joint coordinate systems. It is used to compute the position and orien-
tation of any coordinate system with respect to any other coordinate system.
Horizontal Integration: The integration of activities at the same hierarchical level in
the enterprise by investigating the passing of material and information from one activity
to another. The analysis can be supported through activity modeling.
Hostile Environments: Robot’s work environments characterized by high temperatures,
vibration, moisture, pollution, or electromagnetic or nuclear radiation.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1281

HRL (High Robot Language): Robot motion software, based on LISP and Fortran,
developed at the University of Tokyo. HRL is used to describe manipulator motions for
mechanical assemblies and disassemblies. Its features include language extensions, world
models, and orbit calculation commands.
Human Error Analysis (HEA): A system malfunction analysis technique which relates
the tasks performed in the system to the malfunctions suffered.
Human Factors Engineering: The area of knowledge dealing with the capabilities and
limitations of human performance in relation to design of machines, jobs, and other
modifications of human’s physical environment.
Human-Oriented Design: Design of a complex computerized system and interfaces for
ease of learning, training, operating, and maintaining by human operators and users (see
also User-Friendly).
Human–Machine Interface: See User Interface.
Human–Robot Interaction (HRI): The analysis and design of real and virtual inter-
faces with robots, including communication and off-line programming, adaptive and social
behavior, anthropomorphic interfaces and robot devices, collaboration, and human-
friendly interactions.
Humanoid: A robot designed to resemble human physical characteristics.
Humanoid Robotics: See Humanoid.
Hybrid Teleoperator / Robot Systems: A partially controlled robot for performing ser-
vice tasks. Most of the intelligence is supplied by a human operator interfaced in a user-
friendly manner to control switches, joysticks, and voice input devices to control the
physical motion and manipulation of the robot.
Hydraulic Motor: An actuator consisting of interconnected valves and pistons or vanes
which converts high-pressure hydraulic or pneumatic fluid into mechanical shaft trans-
lation or rotation. While hydraulic motors were popular for early robots, DC servo-drives
have become more popular.
Hypermedia: Hypertext-based systems that combine data, text, graphics, video, and
sound.
Hyperredundant Manipulators: See Underactuated Robotic System.
Hypertext: A data structure in which there are links between words, phrases, graphics,
or other elements and associated information so that selection of a key object can activate
a linkage and reveal the information.

ICRA: International Conference on Robotics and Automation.

Image Analysis: The interpretation of data received from an imaging device. For the
three basic analysis approaches that exist, see Image Buffering, Edge Detection, and
Windowing.
Image Buffering: An image analysis technique in which an entire image is digitized
and stored in computer memory. Computer software uses the image data to detect features,
such as an object’s area, centroid location, orientation, perimeter, and others.
Imaging: The analysis of an image to derive the identity, position, orientation, or con-
dition of objects in the scene. Dimensional measurements may also be performed.
Indexer: Device for transferring the partially completed assembly from one assembly
station to the next. Indexers can be in-line (transference assembly lines, e.g., automobile
assembly) or rotatory (rotary assembly tables).
Indirect Numerical Methods: Numerical methods for determining optimal robot tra-
jectories. In indirect methods the solution which is an extremal is computed from the
 10.1002/9780470172506.gloss, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470172506.gloss by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [14/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1282 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

minimum principle (first-order necessary conditions) by solving a two-point boundary

value problem.
Induction Motor: An alternating-current motor wherein torque is produced by the re-
action between a varying or rotating magnetic field that is generated in stationary-field
magnets and the current that is induced in the coils of the rotor.
Inductosyn: Trademark for Farrand Controls resolver, in which an output signal is pro-
duced by inductive coupling between metallic patterns, versus glass-scale position re-
solvers that use Moire-fringe patterns.
Industrial Robot: A mechanical device that can be programmed to perform a variety
of tasks of manipulation and locomotion under automatic control. The attribute ‘‘indus-
trial’’ distinguishes such production and service robots from science fiction robots and
from purely software robots (such as search engines for the World Wide Web).
Inference Engine: The kernel of computational systems that infer, such as knowledge-
based or expert systems or the Fuzzy Logic Controller. It is based on modeling human
decision-making within the conceptual framework of fuzzy logic or approximate
reasoning.
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT): The collection of technologies
that deal specifically with processing, storing, and communicating information, including
all types of computer and communication systems as well as reprographics methodologies.
Information View: A subset of data elements from a database. The view is supposed
to satisfy the requirements of a user or of an enterprise function.
Infrared Sensor: A device that intercepts or demodulates infrared radiation that may
carry intelligence.
Inspection (Robotic): Robot manipulation and sensory feedback to check the compli-
ance of a part or assembly with specifications. In such applications robots are used in
conjunction with sensors, such as a video camera, laser, or ultrasonic detector, to check
part locations, identify defects, or recognize parts for sorting. Application examples in-
clude inspecting printed circuit boards and valve cover assemblies for automotive engines,
sorting metal castings, and inspecting the dimensional accuracy of openings in automotive
bodies.
Integral Control: A control scheme whereby the signal driving the actuator equals the
time integral of the error signal.
Integrated Circuit (IC): An interconnected array of active and passive elements inte-
grated with a single semiconductor substrate or deposited on the substrate by a continuous
series of compatible processes, and capable of performing at least one complete electronic
circuit function.
Integration: A process by which subsystems share or combine physical or logical tasks
and resources so that the whole system can produce better (synergistic) results. Internal
integration occurs among subsystems of the same system, and external integration is with
subsystems of other systems. Integration depends on a cooperative behavior.
Intelligent Collision Avoidance and Warning Systems: Systems utilizing sophisticated
ultrasound, capacitive, inferred, or microwave presence sensing system or computer vision
to detect the presence of obstacles and then react appropriately by stopping, replanning
their motions, or giving alarm signals.
Intelligent Programming Interface: Interface for automating the programming of ro-
bots, based on Artificial Intelligence-related algorithms and database technology, enabling
robots to imitate, to a certain extent, the human behavior of learning, reasoning, and
contingency reaction.
Intelligent Robot: A robot that can be programmed to execute performance choices
contingent on sensory inputs.
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS): The combination of robotics and transpor-
tation, both in terms of robotic vehicles and in terms of knowledge-based driving and
transportation management.
Interactive Manual–Automatic Control: A type of remote robot operation. Data from
sensors integrated with the remote robot are used to adapt the real-time control actions
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1283

to changes or variances in task conditions automatically through computer control algo-

rithms.
Interactive Task Programming: Generation of task-based robot programs by the hu-
man operator with the assistance of a task instructions database. The main benefits of this
programming mode are:
1. Automatic generation of motion program from task-level programs
2. Generation of a knowledge database for robot programming
3. Enablement operators to teach the robot behavior at the more natural task-instruc-
tion level
Interface: A shared boundary which might be a mechanical or electrical connection
between two devices; a portion of computer storage accessed by two or more programs;
or a device for communication with a human operator.
Interface Box (Input / Output): Additional equipment for the robot system’s interface
which is required for an application, but is not part of the robot system. For example, in
spot-welding, an interface box can be used to control cooling water, shielding gas, a
weld-gun servo-controller card, power supply, and AC input.
Interfacing (Robot with Vision): Calculating the relative orientation between the cam-
era coordinate frame and robot coordinate system so that objects detected by the camera
can be manipulated by the robot.
Interference Zone: Space contained in the work envelopes of more than one robot.
Interlock: To arrange the control of machines or devices so that their operation is
interdependent in order to assure their proper coordination and synchronization.
Interpolator: A program in a system computer of a numerically controlled machine or
robot that determines the calculated motion path (e.g., linear, circular, elliptic), between
given end points.
Inverse Dynamics: The determination of torques to be exerted at the joints to move
the manipulator along a desired trajectory and to exert the desired force at the end-effector.
Inverse Kinematics: The determination of joint displacements required to move the
end-effector to a desired position and orientation.
Ironware: A nickname for a crew of industrial robotics equipment. Another version:
Iron Collar.
ISIR: International Symposium on Industrial Robotics.
Islands of Automation: An approach used to introduce factory automation technology
into manufacturing by selective application of automation. Examples include numerically
controlled machine tools; robots for assembly, inspection, coating, or welding; automated
assembly equipment; and flexible machining systems. Islands of automation should not
be viewed as ends in themselves but as a means of forming integrated factory systems.
They may range in size from an individual machine or workstation to entire departments.
In nonintegrated or poorly integrated enterprises even fully automated manufacturing di-
vision can be considered an island.
ISRA: International Service Robot Association.

Jamming: In part assembly, jamming is a condition where forces applied to the part
for part mating point in the wrong direction. As a result, the part to be inserted will not
move.
JARA: Japan Robot Association
Job and Skill Analysis: A method for analyzing robot work methods. Job analysis
focuses on what to do, while skills analysis focuses on how.
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1284 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Job Shop: A discrete parts manufacturing facility characterized by a mix of products

of relatively low volume production in batch lots.
Joint: A rotary or linear articulation or axis of rotational or translational (sliding) motion
in a manipulator system.
Joint Acceleration: Rotational acceleration of the arm’s joint, used in Forward Dynam-
ics to obtain the joint’s displacement and velocity.
Joint Coordinate: The position of a joint.
Joint Coordinate System: The set of all joint position values. In non-Cartesian robots,
actually not a coordinate system.
Joint Elasticity: See Backlash.
Joint Encoder: A transducer whose output is a series of pulses (a binary number)
representing the joint’s shaft position.
Joint Geometry Information: Geometry data of the mating of the parts to be joined,
assembled, or welded. In welding, the geometry of the welding joint is utilized by the
robotic system for positioning of the welding gun / fingers and deposition / squeezing par-
ameters.
Joint Level Calibration: First level of calibration procedures. It involves the determi-
nation of the relationship between the actual joint displacement and the signal generated
by the joint displacement transducer.
Joint Level Control: A level of robot control which requires the programming of each
individual joint of the robot structure to achieve the required overall positions.
Joint Position: The joint’s pose as registered by the associated encoders.
Joint Rate Control: A category of teleoperator control which requires the operator to
specify the velocity of each separate joint.
Joint Space: The space defined by a vector whose components are the angular or trans-
lational displacement of each joint of a multi-degree-of-freedom linkage relative to a
reference displacement for each such joint.
Joint Torque: Momentum applied by the joint’s actuator.
Joint Velocity: Angular speed at which the joint is rotating.
Just-in-Time (JIT): A philosophy and a collection of management methods and tech-
niques whose focus is the execution of operations only when they are needed. The benefits
derive from the integration into a smooth-running production. JIT was originated at Toyota
as an effort to eliminate waste (particularly inventories). It has evolved into a system for
the continuous improvement of all aspects of manufacturing operations.

Kinematic Chain: The combination of rotary and / or translational joints, or axes of

motion.
Kinematic Constraints: Positions and orientations of the robot’s end-effector for which
it may not be possible to find an inverse kinematics map. These constraints derive from
the kinematic structure of the manipulator, being especially critical in underactuated or
redundant manipulators.
Kinematic Geometry: The representation of the robot’s physical structure in the robot
controller.
Kinematic Model: A mathematical model used to define the position, velocity, and
acceleration of each link coordinate and the end-effector, excluding consideration of mass
and force.
Kinematic Structure: The physical composition of the robot. It includes joints, links,
actuators, power feeding mechanism, and tooling.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1285

Kinematic-Loop Method: A class of robot calibration methods where the manipulator

is placed into a number of poses providing joint and TCP (Tool Center Point) measure-
ment information, and where all model parameters are identified simultaneously by ex-
ploitation of the differentiability of the system model as a function of its parameters.
Kinematics (of Robot, Manipulator): The study of the mapping of joint coordinates
to link coordinates in motion, and the inverse mapping of link coordinates to joint co-
ordinates in motion.
Kitting Process: The organization of subassemblies, consumables, and tools in sets
corresponding to one processed unit. The kits are fed into the robot workstation for their
process.
Knowledge-Based Process Planning: A knowledge database-supported system for es-
tablishing the processes and parameters to be used in the manufacturing facility to convert
a part from its initial state to its final form according to an engineering drawing.
Knowledge-Based System (KBS): A computer system whose usefulness derives pri-
marily from a database containing human knowledge in a computerized format.
Knowledge Supply Chains: Integrated processes that use knowledge resources in in-
dustry and academia to enhance an enterprise’s competitiveness by providing it with
timely talent and knowledge.

LAMA (LAnguage for Mechanical Assembly): Robot programming software that is

part of a system capable of transforming mechanical assembly descriptions into robot
programs. LAMA allows a programmer to define assembly strategies. Force feedback is
accomplished in the system by force sensors on the wrist that are capable of resolving
X, Y, and Z components of the force and torque acting on the wrist.
Laser Interferometer: A laser-based instrument splits the laser light into two or more
beams, which are subsequently reunited after traveling over different paths and display
interference. Because of the monochromaticity and high intrinsic brilliance of laser light,
it can operate with path differences in the interfering beams of hundreds of meters, in
contrast to a maximum of about 20 centimeters for classical interferometers.
Laser Sensor: A range-measuring device which illuminates an object with a collimated
beam. The backscattered light, approximately coaxial with the transmitted beam, is picked
up by a receiver. The range, or distance, is determined by either:
1. Measuring the time delay for a pulse of light to travel from the sensor to the object
and back
2. Modulating the beam and measuring the phase difference between the modulations
on the backscattered and the transmitted signals

Laser Vision System: Laser-based sensing system to gather information for motion
control, torch position and orientation, and welding parameters such as arc current, arc
voltage, arc length, and torch weaving. Laser-based vision systems provide also the ca-
pability of performing 100 percent inspection.
Laser Welding (Robotic): Welding systems utilizing a highly coherent beam of light
focused to a very small spot, where the metal melts and leads to the formation of a
keyhole (a cylindrical cavity filled with ionized metallic gas) that causes a pool of molten
metal. When this metal hardens behind the keyhole, it forms a weld as the beam moves
along.
Lateral Resolution: The ability of a sensor, such as an ultrasonic sensor, to distinguish
between details in the direction of a scan. In simple ultrasonic sensors lateral resolution
is poor but can be improved by using the concept of back-propagation.
Lead-Through Programming: Also known as lead-through teaching, programming by
guiding, or manual programming. A technique for programming robot motion, usually
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1286 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

following a continuous path motion, but sometimes referring also to teaching point-to-
point motions by using a teach box. For continuous path motions the operator grasps a
handle which is secured to the arm and guides the robot through the desired task or
motions while the robot controller records movement information and any activation sig-
nals for external equipment. This programming approach contrasts with off-line program-
ming, which can be accomplished away from the manipulator.
Lean Manufacturing System: The description of a manufacturing system operating
under the Just-in-Time approach as depicted by Womack, Jones, and Roos in the book
The Machine That Changed the World, which chronicles the automobile industry.
Learning Control: A control scheme whereby experience is automatically used to
change control parameters or algorithms.
Learning Machines: Machines that are capable of improving their future actions as a
result of analysis and appraisal of past actions.
Level of Automation: The degree to which a process has been made automatic. Rele-
vant to the level of automation are questions of automatic failure recovery, the variety of
situations which will be automatically handled, and the conditions under which manual
intervention or action by human beings is required.
Light-Section Inspection: The use of a slit projector to project a slit of light on an
object to be inspected and an image detector to interpret the slit image of the object.
Depending on the specific application, the projector and image detector may be oriented
to provide a direct reflection or diffused reflection. A feature of light-section inspection
is that the detection process is essentially sequential, thereby allowing relatively easier
image analysis compared to other three-dimensional inspection techniques.
Lights out Factory: A totally automated factory, equipped with intelligent control and
manufacturing systems.
Limit-Detecting Hardware: A device for stopping robot motion independently from
control logic.
Limit Switch: An electrical switch positioned to be switched when a motion limit
occurs, thereby deactivating the actuator that causes the motion.
Limited Sequence Manipulator: A nonservo manipulator that operates between fixed
mechanical stops. Such a manipulator can operate only on parts in a fixed location (po-
sition and orientation) relative to the arm.
Line Feature: A linear edge extracted from the analysis of a vision image of a part.
Line features serve as references to extract additional part features and as orientational
cues in the position of the object.
Linear Interpolation: A computer function automatically performed in the control that
defines the continuum of points in a straight line based on only two taught coordinate
positions. All calculated points are automatically inserted between the taught coordinate
positions upon playback.
Link:
1. A robotic manipulator is built of joints and links; each link is a basic part of a
mechanical limb;
2. A non-servo manipulator that operates between fixed mechanical stops. Such a
manipulator can operate only on parts in a fixed location (position and orientation)
relative to the arm.
Link Coordinate: A coordinate system attached to a link of a manipulator.
LISP: Acronym for list processing; a high-level computer language implemented at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1958. LISP is useful in artificial intelligence
applications.
Load Capacity: The maximum total weight that can be applied to the end of the robot
arm without sacrifice of any of the applicable published specifications of the robot.
Load Deflection:
1. The difference in position of some point on a body between a nonloaded and an
externally loaded condition.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1287

2. The difference in position of a manipulator hand or tool, usually with the arm
extended between a nonloaded condition (other than gravity) and an externally
loaded condition. Either or both static and dynamic (inertial) loads may be con-
sidered.
Local Area Network (LAN): Telecommunications network that requires its own ded-
icated channels and that encompasses a limited distance, usually one building or several
buildings in close proximity.
Location Analysis: The first step of refining a robotic system design. The details of
the placement of workstations, buffers, material-handling equipment, and so on, are
worked out. Location analysis may also be applied to location of an automated facility
with respect to existing facilities and location of workpieces, accessories, and tools within
a workstation. Typical factors to be considered are transport time or costs, workstation
dimensions, transporter reach, fixed costs, and capacity limits.

Machine Language: The lowest-level language used directly by a machine.

Machine Loading / Unloading (Robotic): The use of the robot’s manipulative and
transport capabilities in ways generally more sophisticated than simple material handling.
Robots can be used to grasp a workpiece from a conveyor belt, lift it to a machine, orient
it correctly, and then insert or place it on the machine. After processing, the robot unloads
the workpiece and transfers it to another machine or conveyor. Some applications include
loading and unloading of hot billets into forging presses, machine tools such as lathes
and machining centers, and stamping presses. Another application is the tending of plastic
injection molding machines. The primary motivation for robotic machine loading / un-
loading is the reduction of direct labor cost. Overall productivity is also increased. The
greatest efficiency is usually achieved when a single robot is used to service several
machines. A single robot may also be used to perform other operations while the machines
are performing their primary functions.
Machine Vision: See Vision System.
Machine Vision Inspection System: The combination of a control system, sensor sys-
tem, image-processing system, and workpiece-handling system to automatically inspect,
transport, and handle the disposition of objects. The system also can adapt to changing
working environments to a certain degree. The workpiece handling system may consist
of x-y-␪ tables, limited sequence arms, robots, or other positioning devices to emulate the
oculomotor or manual functions of human workers. The sensor system may consist of
single or multiple visual sensors for partial / overall viewing of scenes and / or coarse / fine
inspection (to emulate human peripheral / foveal or far / close vision).
Machine-Mounted Robot: A robot usually dedicated to the machine on which it is
mounted. The robot is designed to swivel its arm to load a part for one machine operation
and then set the part down and repick it at a different orientation for the next operation.
Fixtures are used to hold and maintain part position during these motions.
Machining (Robotic): Robot manipulation of a powered spindle to perform drilling,
grinding, routing, or other similar operations on the workpiece. Sensory feedback may
also be used. The workpiece can be placed in a fixture by a human, another robot, or a
second arm of the same robot. In some operations, the robot moves the workpiece to a
stationary powered spindle and tool, such as a buffing wheel. Because of accuracy re-
quirements, expensive tool designs, and a lack of appropriate sensory feedback capabil-
ities, robot applications in machining are limited at present and are likely to remain so
until both improved sensing capabilities and better positioning accuracy can be justified.
Machining Center: A numerically controlled metal-cutting machine tool that uses tools
like drills or milling cutters equipped with an automatic tool-changing device to exchange
those tools for different and / or fresh ones. In some machining centers programmable
pallets for part fixturing are also available.
Magnetic Pickup Devices: A type of end-of-arm tooling that can be used to handle
parts with ferrous content. Either permanent magnets or electromagnets are used, with
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1288 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

permanent magnets requiring a stripping device to separate the part from the magnet
during part release.
Main Reference: A geometric reference which must be maintained throughout a pro-
duction process; for example, spot welding. The compliance with the references of the
component elements of a subassembly guarantees the geometry of the complete assembly.
Maintenance Program: A maintenance program will typically:

1. Specify, assign, and coordinate maintenance activities

2. Establish maintenance priorities and standards
3. Set maintenance schedules
4. Specify diagnosis and monitoring methods
5. Provide special tools, diagnostic equipment, and service kits
6. Provide control of spare parts inventory
7. Provide training to maintenance personnel and operators
8. Measure and document program effectiveness.

Major Axes (Motions): These axes may be described as the independent directions an
arm can move the attached wrist and end-effector relative to a point of origin of the
manipulator such as the base. The number of robot arm axes required to reach world
coordinate points is dependent on the robot configuration.
MAL (Multipurpose Assembly Language): A Fortran-based robot programming soft-
ware developed by the Milan Polytechnic Institute of Italy, primarily for the programming
of assembly tasks. Multiple robot arms are supported by MAL.
Manipulation (Robotic): The handling of objects, by moving, inserting, orienting,
twisting, and so on, to be in the proper position for machining, assembling, or some other
operation. In many cases it is the tool that is being manipulated rather than the object
being processed.
Manipulator: A mechanism, usually consisting of a series of segments, or links, jointed
or sliding relative to one another, for grasping and moving objects, usually in several
degrees of freedom. It is remotely controlled by a human (manual manipulator) or a
computer (programmable manipulator). The term refers mainly to the mechanical aspect
of a robot.
Manipulator-Level Control: A level of robot control which involves specifying the
robot movements in terms of world positions of the manipulator structure. Mathematical
techniques are used to determine the individual joint values for these positions.
Manipulator Responsiveness: The ability of a manipulator to recreate a user’s trajec-
tories and impedance in time and space.
Manual Manipulator: A manipulator operated and controlled by a human operator.
See Teleoperator.
Manufacturing Automation Protocol (MAP): A collection of existing and emerging
communication protocols, each developed by a standard-setting body. It adopts the ISO /
OSI model and consists of seven layers: physical, data link, network, transport, session,
presentation, and application.
Manufacturing Cell: A manufacturing unit consisting of two or more workstations or
machines and the material transport mechanisms and storage buffers that interconnect
them.
Manufacturing Flexibility: Ability of the manufacturing system to respond to changes
in the product or process specifications. Changes may result from customer requirements
on the product and / or process being utilized in its manufacturing, or from the incorpo-
ration of new technologies into the existing processes.
Manufacturing Message Specification (MMS): ISO / IEC 9506 standard for specifying
messages to be passed between various types of industrial processes control systems.
MAPLE: A PL / I-based robot language developed by IBM and used for computations
with several extensions for directing a robot to execute complex tasks. MAPLE supports
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1289

force feedback and proximity sensory commands, gripper commands, coordinate trans-
formations, and simple and straight-line motion.
Mass Customization: See Programmable Automation.
Massively Parallel Assembly: The arrangement of microscopic parts on a reusable
pallet and then pressing two pallets together, thereby assembling the entire array in par-
allel.
Master–Slave Control: Control strategy for teleoperated systems which allows the op-
erator to specify the end position of the slave (remote) end-effector by specifying the
position of a master unit. Commands are resolved into the separate joint actuators either
by the kinematic similarity of the master and slave units or mathematically by a control
unit performing a transformation of coordinates.
Material Handling (Robotic): The use of the robot’s basic capability to transport ob-
jects. Typically, motion takes place in two or three dimensions, with the robot mounted
stationary on the floor on slides or rails that enable it to move from one workstation to
another, or overhead. Robots used in purely material-handling operations are typically
nonservo or pick-and-place robots. Some application examples include transferring parts
from one conveyor to another; transferring parts from a processing line to a conveyor;
palletizing parts; and loading bins and fixtures for subsequent processing. The primary
benefits of using robots for material handling are reduction of direct labor costs, removal
of humans from tasks that may be hazardous, tedious, or exhausting, and less damage to
parts during handling. It is common to find robots performing material-handling tasks and
interfacing with other material-handling equipment such as containers, conveyors, guided
vehicles, monorails, automated storage / retrieval systems, and carousels.
MCL (Manufacturing Control Language): A high-level programming language de-
veloped by the McDonnell-Douglas Aircraft Company and designed for off-line program-
ming of workcells that may include a robot. MCL is structured with major and minor
words that are combined to form a geometric entity or a description of desired motion.
It supports more than one type of robot and peripheral devices, as well as simple and
complex touch and vision sensors. Robot gripper commands are included.
Mechanical Grip Devices: The most widely used type of end-of-arm tooling in parts-
handling applications. Pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical actuators are used to generate a
holding force which is transferred to the part via linkages and fingers. Some devices are
able to sense and vary the grip force and grip opening.
Mechatronics: The synergetic integration of mechanical engineering with electronic
and intelligent computer control in the design and manufacture of industrial products and
processes.
Medical Robotics: The integration of robotics equipment in the planning and execution
of medical procedures.
Memory Alloy: Metallic compounds with the ability to recover the original shape after
its alteration by physical or other means such as electric charge applications. Often used
in gripper-fingers to handle objects with unique shapes.
Metamorphic Robotics: A collection of independently controlled mechatronic mod-
ules, each of which has the ability to connect, disconnect, and climb over adjacent mod-
ules. Each module allows power and information to flow through itself and to its
neighbors. A change in the manipulator morphology results from the locomotion of each
module over its neighbors.
Micro Electromechanical Systems (MEMS): Mechanical components, whose size typ-
ically ranges from about 10 micrometers to a few hundred micrometers, with smallest
feature size of less than a micron and overall size of up to a millimeter or more. These
components are manufactured by efficient, highly automated fabrication processes using
computer-aided design and analysis tools, lithographic pattern generation, and microma-
chining techniques such as thin film deposition and highly selective etching. MEMS
applications are in accelerometers, oscillators, micro optical components, and microfluidic
and biomedical devices. Interest is now shifting towards complex microsystems that com-
bine sensors, actuators, computation, and communication in a single micro device.
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1290 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Micromanipulation: Technology for the assembly, modification, and maintenance of

three-dimensional microsystems, integrating sensing, actuating, and mechanical parts. It
is classified into contact type and noncontact type.
Microrobot System: Robotics systems including micromachines, micromanipulators,
and human–machine interfaces. Design of microrobot systems is closely related to issues
of scaling problems and control methods. The main characteristics of a microrobot system
are:

1. Simplicity
2. Preassembly
3. Functional integration
4. Multitude
5. Autonomous decentralization

Minimal Precedence Constraint (MPC) Method: A method for the generation of as-
sembly sequences based on the identification of geometric precedence constraints that
implicitly represent all geometrically feasible assembly sequences. The minimal prece-
dence constraint for an assembly component is defined as the alternative assembly states
that will prevent the assembly of this component.
Minor Axes (Motions): The independent attitudes relative to the mounting point of the
wrist assembly on the arm by which the wrist can orient the attached end-effector.
Mobile Robot: A freely moving programmable industrial robot which can be automat-
ically moved, in addition to its usual five or six axes, in another one, two, or three axes
along a fixed or programmed path by means of a conveying unit. The additional degrees
of freedom distinguish between linear mobility, area mobility, and space mobility. Mobile
robots can be applied to tasks requiring workpiece handling, tool handling, or both.
Modal Analysis: A ground vibration test to determine experimentally the natural fre-
quencies, mode shapes, and associated damping factors of a structure.
Model Interactive CASP / CASE: Computer-Integrated Surgery systems relying on the
surgeon to control the motions of the surgical instruments (conventional or robotic ma-
nipulation devices).
Modular Robots: Robots that are built of standard independent building blocks, such
as joints, arms, wrist grippers, controls, and utility lines, and are controlled by one general
control system. Each modular mechanism has its own drive unit and power and com-
munication links. Different modules can be combined by standard interface to provide a
variety of kinematic structures designed to best solve a given application requirement.
‘‘Mobot,’’ a contraction for modular robot, is a tradename of the Mobot Corporation of
San Diego.
Modularity Concept: Design approach favoring the subassembly of components and
their delivery to the final assembly operation. The modules are assembled without the
constraints that the final assembly line may impose, allowing automated assembly oper-
ations, tighter controls and tolerances, and overlap of the assembly times.
Molded Interconnect Devices (MID): Molded plastic parts with a partially metal-
plated surface forming an electric circuit pattern. MIDs unite the functions of conventional
circuit boards, casings, connectors, and cables. The main technological advantage of MIDs
is that they integrate electronic and mechanical elements onto circuit carriers with virtually
any geometric shape. They have enabled entirely new functions and usually help to min-
iaturize electronic products.
Molecular Robotics: See Nano-Robotics.
Mono-Articulate Chain Manipulator: A manipulator at the end of a special type of
chain used to enter an enclosed area through a narrow opening. The chain is constructed
of box section links in such a manner as to allow the chain to articulate in one direction
but not another. This design results in a chain which can be reeled or coiled but which
forms a rigid element when extended.
Monorail Transporter: Material-handling devices designed to operate at much faster
speed (up to 260 meters per minute) than the conventional flat conveyor systems or the
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1291

mobile robots. Monorails are built for midair operation to connect assembly cells. A rail
system should be attached on the ceiling or wall. Monorails improve facility utilization
by increased storage density, and reduce facility size by less transport aisles.
Motion Economy Principles (MEPs): Principles that guide the development, trouble-
shooting, and improvement of work methods and workplaces, adapted for robot work.
Motion Envelope: See Work Envelope.
Motion Instruction Level: Programming instruction set based on the specific motion
instructions (see also Motion Planning, Fine, and Motion Planning, Gross).
Motion Planning, Fine: Dealing with uncertainty in the world model by using guarded
motions when approaching a surface and compliant motions when in contact with a
surface.
Motion Planning, Gross: Planning robot motions that are transfer movements for which
the only constraint is that the robot and whatever it is carrying should not collide with
objects in the environment.
Motion-Velocity Graphs: Graphs which show regions of maximum movement and ve-
locity combinations for common arm and wrist motions. Such charts are used to ascertain
the applicability of a robot for a particular task.
Mounting Plate: The means of attaching end-of-arm tooling to an industrial robot. It
is located at the end of the last axis of motion on the robot. The mounting plate is
sometimes used with an adapter plate to enable the use of a wide range of tools and tool
power sources.
Multiagent Systems (MAS): One of the two subfields of Distributed Artificial Intelli-
gence (DAI). It deals with heterogeneous, not necessarily centrally designed agents
charged with the goal of utility-maximizing coexistence; for instance, fulfillment of pro-
duction plans by a globally distributed enterprise.
Multi-gripper System: A robot system with several grippers mounted on a turret-like
wrist, or capable of automatically exchanging its gripper with alternative grippers, or
having a gripper for multiple parts. A type of mechanical gripper enabling effective si-
multaneous execution of two or more different jobs effectively.
Multi-hand Robot Systems: A class of robotic manipulators with more than one end-
effector, enabling effective simultaneous execution of two or more different jobs. Design
methods for each individual hand in a multi-hand system are similar to those of single
hands, but must also consider the other hands.
Multiple Stage Joint: A linear motion joint consisting of sets of nested single-stage
joints.
Multiplexed Teleoperation: The teleoperation by a single master station over several
dissimilar slave robots. Conversely, several collaborating master operators can be multi-
plexed to control a single slave robot performing a given task.
Multi-robot System (MRS): A robotic system with two or more robots executing a set
of tasks requiring the robots’ collaboration.
Multi-sensor System: Arrangement of a series of sensors gathering information about
the robot’s task. Neural networks-based mechanisms can be utilized for performing the
sensor data fusion.
Multi-spectral Color and Depth Sensing: The separation of the different colors of the
spectrum in the captured image of the sensing device. The method records the energy
levels of the red, green, blue, or infrared bands of the spectrum. Multi-spectral sensors
are basic remote sensing data sources for quantitative thematic information.

Nanoassembly: Assembly of nanoscale components requiring a combination of precise

positioning and chemical compliance (chemical affinity between atoms and molecules).
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1292 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Nanolithography: A technique closely related to Nanomanipulation which involves

removing or depositing small amounts of material by using Scanning Probe Microscopy
(SPM).
Nanomanipulation: See Nanorobotics.
Nanorobotics: The science of designing, building, and applying robots capable of in-
teraction with atomic- and molecular-sized objects.
Nanotechnology: Study of phenomena and structures with characteristic dimensions in
the nanometer range. Some of its applications include:

1. Cell probes with dimensions ⬃1 / 1000 of the cell’s size

2. Space applications, e.g., hardware to fly on satellites
3. Computer memory
4. Near-field optics, with characteristic dimensions ⬃20 nm
5. X-ray fabrication, systems that use X-ray photons
6. Genome applications, reading and manipulating DNA
7. Optical antennas

Natural Language: Any language spoken by humans. Any human or computer lan-
guage whose rules reflect and describe current rather than prescribed usage; it is often
loose and ambiguous in interpretation.
Navigation Controller: A control system that uses sensor information on two or more
navigation factors, such as altitude, direction, and velocity, to compute course information
for mobile robots or AGVs.
Nearest Neighbor Classifier: A method of object classification by statistical compari-
son of computed image features from an unknown object with the features known from
prototype objects. The statistical distance between object and prototype is computed in
the multidimensional feature space.
Negotiation Schemes: A multiple-way communication method for reaching a mutually
agreed upon course of action, for instance, resource allocation and task assignment for
distributed robots.
Neural Networks: An information-processing device modeled after biological networks
of neurons, that utilizes a large number of simple interconnected modules, and in which
information is stored by components that at the same time effect the connections between
these modules. Often called Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), their applications cover
four main areas:

1. The automatic generation of nonlinear mappings (e.g., robot control and noise
removal from signals)
2. Decisions based on a massive amount of data (e.g., speech recognition and fault
prediction)
3. Fast generation of near-optimal solution to a combinatorial optimization problem
(e.g., airline scheduling and network routing)
4. Situations in which there exist more input variables than other approaches can
consider.

Neuro-Fuzzy Control Systems (NFCS): Connectionist control models applying neural

learning techniques to determine and tune the parameters and / or structure of the connec-
tionist model. Neuro-fuzzy control systems require two major types of tuning: structural
and parametric. Structural tuning concerns the tuning of the structure of fuzzy logic rules
such as the number of variables to account for and for each input or output variable the
partition of the universe of discourse; the number of rules and the conjunctions that
constitute them.
Noncontact Inspection: The critical examination of a product, without touching it with
mechanical probes, to determine its conformance to applicable quality standards or spec-
ifications.
Noncontact Proximity Sensors: See Proximity Sensor.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1293

Noncontact Sensor: A type of sensor, including proximity and vision sensors, that
functions without any direct contact with objects.
Nonkinematic calibration: Third level of calibration procedures. It involves the anal-
ysis of nonkinematic errors in positioning the robot’s TCP that are due to effects such as
joint compliance, friction, clearance, etc.
Nonmotion Instruction: Instruction controlling the I / O signals or the execution of the
sequence of instructions in the robot program.
Nulling Time: The time required to reduce to zero, or close to zero, the difference
between the actual and the programmed position of every joint.
Numerical Control: A method for the control of machine tool systems. A part program
containing all the information, in symbolic ‘‘numerical’’ form, needed for processing a
workpiece is stored on a medium such as paper or on magnetic media. The information
is read into a computer controller, which translates the part program instructions to ma-
chine operations on the workpiece. See also Computerized Numerical Control.

Object-Level Control: A type of robot control where the task is specified in the most
general form. A comprehensive database containing a world model and knowledge of
application techniques is required. Knowledge-based algorithms are required to interpret
instructions and apply them to the database to automatically produce optimized, collision-
free robot programs.
Object-Oriented Methodologies (OO): Modeling, design, and programming methods
that focus on organizing all relevant knowledge about objects, leading to benefits that
include less errors, modularity of information, and the ability to inherit generic infor-
mation for particular objects.
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A nonprocedural computing programming
paradigm in which program elements are conceptualized as objects that can pass messages
to each other. Each object has its own data and programming code and is internally self
reliant; the program makes the object part of a larger whole by incorporating it into a
hierarchy of layers. Object-oriented programming is an extension of the concept of mod-
ular programming. The modules are independent so that they can be copied into other
programs. This capability raises the possibility of inheritance by copying and adding some
new features to an existing object, and then moving the new object to a new program.
Off-Line Programming: Developing robot programs partially or completely without
requiring the use of the robot itself. The program is loaded into the robot’s controller for
subsequent automatic action of the manipulator. An off-line programming system typically
has three main components: geometric modeler, robot modeler, and programming method.
Often it is associated with robot simulation to try to debug it before implementation. The
advantages of off-line programming are reduction of robot downtime; removal of pro-
grammer from potentially hazardous environments; a single programming system for a
variety of robots; integration with existing computer-aided design / computer-assisted man-
ufacturing systems; simplification of complex tasks, and verification of robot programs
prior to execution.
On-Line Programming: The use of a teach pendant for teach programming, which
directs the controller in positioning the robot and interacting with auxiliary equipment. It
is normally used for point-to-point motion and controlled path motion robots, and can be
used in conjunction with off-line programming to provide accurate trajectory data.
On–Off Control: A type of teleoperator control in which joint actuators can be turned
on or off in each direction at a fixed velocity.
One-Dimensional Scanning: The processing of an image one scan line at a time in-
dependent of all other scan lines. This technique simplifies processing but provides limited
information. It is useful for inspection of products such as paper, textiles, and glass.
Open Architecture: A computer architecture whose specifications are made widely
available to allow other parties to develop add-on peripherals for it.
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1294 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Open Development Environment: The organization of the Computer-Aided Design

system, allowing the researcher or the advanced user to access all the geometric and
kinematic models in the system and develop new applications, new types of analysis, and
new planning and synthesis algorithms.
Open-Loop Control: Control of a manipulator in which preprogrammed signals are
delivered to the actuators without the actual response at the actuators being measured.
This control is the opposite of closed-loop control.
Operating System: Software that controls the execution of computer programs and one
that may provide scheduling, allocation, debugging, data management, and other man-
agement functions.
Optimal Control: A control scheme whereby the system response to a commanded
input, given the dynamics of the process to be controlled and the constraints on measuring,
is optimal according to a specified objective function or criterion of performance.
Orientation: Also known as positioning. The consistent movement or manipulation of
an object into a controlled position and attitude in space.
Orientation Finding: The use of a vision system to locate objects so they can be
grasped by the manipulator or mated with other parts.
Overlap:

1. Sharing of work space by several robots (space overlap)

2. Performance of some or all of an operation concurrently by more than one robot
with one or more other operations.

Overshoot: The degree to which a system response to a step change in reference input
goes beyond the desired value.

PAL: A robot motion software developed at Purdue University in Indiana by which

robot tasks are represented in terms of structured Cartesian coordinates. PAL incorporates
coordinate transformation, gripper, tool, and sensor-controlled operation commands.
Palletizing / Depalletizing: A term used for loading / unloading a carton, container, or
pallet with parts in organized rows and possibly in multiple layers.
Pan:

1. Orientation of a view, as with a video camera, in azimuth.

2. Motion in the azimuth direction.

Parallel Manipulator: Robotic mechanisms containing two or more serial kinematic

chains connecting the end-effector to the base. Generally, parallel manipulators can offer
more accuracy in positioning and orienting objects than open-chain manipulators. They
can also possess a high payload / weight ratio, and they are easily adaptable to position
and force control.
Parallel Program Control: A robot program control structure which allows the parallel
execution of independent programs.
Parallel Robots: See Parallel Manipulator.
Part Classification: A coding scheme, typically involving four or more digits, which
specifies a discrete product as belonging to a part family according to group technology.
Part Mating: The action of assembling two parts together according to the assembly
design specifications. It occurs in four stages: approach, chamfer crossing, one-point con-
tact, and two-point contact.
Part Mating Theory: It predicts the success or failure mode of assembly of common
geometry parts, such as round pegs and holes, screw threads, gears, and some simple
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1295

prismatic part shapes. Two common failure modes during two-point contact are wedging
and jamming.
Part Orientation: See orientation.
Part Program: A collection of instructions and data used in numerically controlled
machine tool systems to produce a workpiece.
PASLA (Programmable ASsembly Robot Language): A robot programming lan-
guage developed at Nippon Electric Company, Ltd. (NEC) of Japan. It incorporates co-
ordinate guidance and sequencer functions. It is a motion-directed language that consists
of 20 basic instructions.
Passive Manipulator: Robotic manipulator with one or more joints without actuators
(passive joints) and at least one actuated joint (active joint). The design of this type of
manipulator reduces weight, cost, and energy consumption. On the other hand, their con-
trol and dynamics are nonlinear and highly coupled. See also Underactuated Robotic
System.
Path: The trajectory of the robot’s end-effector, or the trajectory of a mobile robot,
when performing a specific task.
Path Accuracy: For a path-controlled robot, this is the level of accuracy at which
programmed path curves can be followed at nominal load.
Path Interpolation: At each interpolation interval, based on the information provided
by the path planner, the path interpolator computes an intermediate position (between the
start position and destination position). The eventual output of the path interpolator at
each interpolation interval is a set of joint angles which forms the input to the servo-
control loop to command the robot to move along the path.
Path Measuring System: A part of the mechanical construction of each axis which
provides the position coordinate for the axis. Typically, for translational axes, potenti-
ometers or ultrasound are used for path measuring systems. But for rotational axes, re-
solvers, absolute optical encoders, or incremental encoders are used. A path measuring
system may be located directly on a robot axis or included with the drive system.
Pattern Comparison Inspection: The comparison of an image of an object with a
reference pattern. The image and pattern are aligned with one another for detecting de-
viations of the object being inspected. The features extracted from the object image are
compared with the features of the reference pattern. If both have the same features, the
object is presumed to have no defects.
Pattern Recognition: A field of artificial intelligence in which image analysis is used
to determine whether a particular object or data set corresponds to one of several alter-
natives or to none at all. The analysis system is provided in advance with the character-
istics of several prototype objects so that it can classify an unknown object by comparing
it with each of the different prototypes.
Payload: The maximum weight that a robot can handle satisfactorily during its normal
operations and extensions.
Performance Specifications: The specification of various important parameters or ca-
pabilities in the robot design and operation. Performance is defined in terms of:

1. The quality of behavior

2. The degree to which a specified result is achieved
3. A quantitative index of behavior or achievement, such as speed, power, or accuracy

Peripheral Equipment: The equipment used in conjunction with the robot for a com-
plete robotic system. This equipment includes grippers, conveyors, part positioners, and
part or material feeders that are needed with the robot.
Perspective Transform: The mathematical relationship between the points in the object
space and the corresponding points in a camera image. The perspective transform is a
function of the location of the camera in a fixed coordinate system, its orientation as
determined by its pan and tilt angles, and its focal length.
Photoelectric Sensors: A register control using a light source, one or more phototubes,
a suitable optical system, an amplifier, and a relay to actuate control equipment when a
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1296 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

change occurs in the amount of light reflected from a moving surface due to register
marks, dark areas of a design, or surface defects.
Pick-and-Place: A grasp-and-release task, usually involving a positioning task.
Pick-and-Place Robot: Also known as bang-bang robot. A simple robot, often with
only two or three degrees of freedom, that transfers items from a source to a destination
via point-to-point moves.
Pin Through Hole Component (PTHC) Assembly: Assembly technique for electronic
components. The component is positioned for aligning its pins with the holes, inserted,
and then soldered or glued to fix its position and ensure the proper contact of the pins to
the printed circuit board.
Pinch Point: Any point where it is possible for a part of the body to be injured between
the moving or stationary parts of a robot and the moving or stationary parts of associated
equipment, or between the material and moving parts of the robot or associated equip-
ment.
Pipe-Crawling Robot: Mobile and legged robots designed for a specific task-set of
sewer-line inspection. Due to the fact that mobile and legged systems work in a more
unstructured and much more expansive world without controllable conditions, they are
usually designed for a well-formulated task to reduce complexity and cost and increase
reliability and overall performance.
Pitch: Also known as bend, particularly for the wrist. The angular rotation of a moving
body about an axis that is perpendicular to its direction of motion and in the same plane
as its top side.
Pixel: Also known as photo-element or photosite. It is an element of a digital picture
or sensor. Pixel is short for picture-cell.
Playback Accuracy: The difference between a position command taught, programmed,
or recorded in an automatic control system and the position actually produced at a later
time when the recorded position is used to execute motion control.
PLC: See Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).
Pneumatic Pickup Device: The end-of-arm tooling such as vacuum cups, pressurized
bladders, and pressurized fingers.
Point-to-Point Control: A robot motion control in which the robot can be programmed
by a user to move from one position to the next. The intermediate paths between these
points cannot be specified.
Point-to-Point Positioning: Open-loop operation mode of a robotic positioner. It util-
izes multiple-stop mechanical or solid-state limit switches on all axes.
Point-to-Point System: The robot movement in which the robot moves to a numerically
defined position and stops, performs an operation, moves to another numerically defined
position and stops, and so on. The path and velocity while traveling from one point to
the next generally have no significance.
Pooling of Facilities: The sharing of facilities (robot, machines, cells, etc.) for the
manufacturing of a set of parts or products.
Pose: The robot’s joints position for a particular end-effector position and orientation
within the robot’s workspace. Specific positions are named according to the tasks the
robot is performing; for example, the home pose, which indicates the resting position of
the robot’s arm.
Position Control: A control by a system in which the input command is the desired
position of a body.
Position Finding: The use of a vision system to locate objects so they can be grasped
by a manipulator or mated with other parts.
Position Sensor: Device detecting the position of the rotor relative to the stator of the
actuator. The rotor speed is derived from the position information by differentiation with
respect to time. The servo-system uses this sensor data to control the position as well as
the speed of the motor. In general, one of two sensor types is used: either the pulse coder
type, also known as digital encoder, or the resolver type.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1297

Positioners: Also known as positioning table, positioners are fixture devices for locating
the parts to be processed in the required position and orientation. Positioners can be
implemented as hard tooling devices or reprogrammable robotic devices which reduce
the setup time and part changeover times. For instance, positioners are used in robotic
arc welding to hold and position pieces to be welded. The movable axes of the positioner
are sometimes considered additional robot axes. The robot controller controls all axes in
order to present the seam to be welded to the robot’s torch in the location and orientation
taught or modified by adaptive feedback, or changes inserted by the operator, dynamically
during execution.
Postprocessor: The programming software part of a robotic simulator / emulator, which
converts the task program simulated into the specific robot’s language motion instructions.
Precision (Robot): A general concept reflecting the robot’s accuracy, repeatability, and
resolution.
Presence Sensing: The use of a device designed, constructed, and installed to create a
sensing field or space around a robot(s) and one that will detect an intrusion into such
field or space by a person, another robot, and so on (constrast with Telepresence).
Pressurized Bladder: A pneumatic pickup device which is generally designed espe-
cially to conform to the shape of the part. The deflated bladder is placed in or around
the part. Pressurized air causes the bladder to expand, contact the part, and conform to
the surface of the part, applying equal pressure to all points of the contacted surface.
Pressurized Fingers: A pneumatic pickup device that has one straight half, which con-
tacts the part to be handled, one ribbed half, and a cavity for pressurized air between the
two halves. Air pressure filling the cavity causes the ribbed half to expand and ‘‘wrap’’
the straight side around a part.
Priority Capability: A feature of a robot program used to control a robot at a flexible
machining center. If signals (service calls) are received from several machines simulta-
neously, the priority capability determines the order in which the machines will be served
by the robot.
Prismatic Motion: The straight-line motion of an arm link relative to the link connected
to it.
Problem Solving: A computational reasoning process based on three elements:

1. General knowledge common to all problems under solution

2. Specific knowledge about the selected specific problems to be solved
3. Reasoning knowledge appropriate for the selected problem domain

Procedural Reasoning System (PRS): A hybrid robot control architecture which con-
tinuously creates and executes plans but abandons them as the situation dictates. PRS
plans are expanded dynamically and incrementally on an as-needed basis. Thus the system
reacts to changing situations by changing plans as rapidly as possible should the need
arise.
Process Control: The control of the product and associated variables of processes which
are continuous in time (such as oil refining, chemical manufacture, water supply, and
electrical power generation).
Process Reengineering: Focuses on the whole process but has a wider scope than the
removal of waste. This approach questions whether the status quo is relevant to the future
system. A reduced number of activities, organizational and job redesign, and new devel-
opments in Information Technology, such as document Image Processing (DIP) or expert
systems, may be used. This type of change seeks to reduce the number of activities by
up to 90 percent and addresses real strategic benefits.
Process Simplification: Analysis of processes within the frame of process reengineer-
ing, for locating and eliminating non-value-added activities as storage and inspection. The
analysis is usually performed by teams seeking to remove these activities. The benefits
of this type of change are related to the price of nonconformance in the process (the cost
of scrap, rework, inspection, warranty departments, etc.)
Product Data Representation and Exchange (STEP): ISO 10303 standard which pro-
vides a means of describing product data throughout the life cycle of a product inde-
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1298 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

pendent of any particular computer system. STEP standardizes the structure and meaning
of items of product data in the form of data models to meet particular industrial needs
but does not standardize the data values. The standard provides a series of data models
for different engineering applications and also a methodology for creating the data models.
Product Description Exchange for STEP (PDES): A standard file format including
all the information necessary to describe a product from its design to its production. It
supports multiple-application domains (e.g., mechanical engineering and electronics).
Product-Centric Paradigm: Design and development of robotic manufacturing systems
based on one or few products. Many automated systems developed under the old product-
centric paradigm have failed economically because there was not enough demand for the
product(s) the system was designed to produce. These product-specific systems have gen-
erally lacked the ability to be reconfigured at a cost that would allow them to meet the
needs of additional products.
Program Simulation: Execution of the robot’s program in a virtual environment that
is different from the real application. The environment may be a computer representation
of the robot and object interacting with it, a scale prototype system, or the same system
with the omission of some of the elements of the operation (e.g., parts, conveyors, etc.).
Programmable: A robot capable of being instructed, under computer control, to operate
in a specific manner or capable of accepting points or other commands from a remote
source.
Programmable Assembly Line: A number of assembly stations interconnected with a
buffered transfer system. A multilevel computer system controls the assembly line. The
individual stations can be programmable, dedicated, or manual assembly.
Programmable Assembly System: A number of assembly stations or assembly centers
in a stand-alone or interconnected configuration, possibly connected to one another or
other equipment by a buffered transfer mechanism. Within the assembly station, equip-
ment such as robots, dedicated equipment, programmable feeders, magazines, fixtures,
and vision or other sensors is arranged as required by the operators assigned to the station.
A suitable computer control system completes the configuration.
Programmable Automation: Automation for discrete parts manufacturing character-
ized by the features of flexibility to perform different actions for a variety of tasks, ease
of programming to execute a desired task, and artificial intelligence to perceive new
conditions, decide what actions must be performed under those conditions, and plan the
actions accordingly. Although suitable primarily for increasing the productivity of batch
manufacturing, programmable automation may also be applicable to mass production for
the following reasons:
1. Reduction of the setup time for manufacturing short-lived products in a compet-
itive world market (often called Mass Customization)
2. Lowering the cost of production equipment by reusing components, such as robots,
sensors, and computers, that are commercially available and recyclable
3. Producing a sufficiently large sample of new products to enable testing of their
technical and market performance
Programmable Controller: Short for Programmable Logic Controller.
Programmable Feeder: A part feeder that can deliver a wide range of product parts
with known or desired orientation and without any replacement or retooling when switch-
ing to a different product part.
Programmable Fixture: A multipurpose, computer-controlled fixture that is capable of
accepting and rigidly holding parts of different shapes which it then presents, upon re-
quest, to a manipulator or vision system in a specified orientation. This fixture might take
the form of a rugged hand and three-degree-of-freedom wrist.
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC): A solid-state device which has been desig-
nated as a direct replacement for relays and ‘‘hard-wired’’ solid-state electronics. The
logic can be altered without wiring changes. It has high reliability and fast response;
operates in hostile industrial environments without fans, air conditioning, or electrical
filtering; is programmed with a simple ladder diagram language; is easily reprogrammed
with a portable panel if requirements change; is reusable if equipment is no longer re-
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1299

quired; has indicator lights provided at major diagnostic points to simplify troubleshoot-
ing.
Programmable Manipulator: A mechanism which is capable of manipulating objects
by executing a program stored in its control computer (as opposed to manual manipulator,
which is controlled by a human).
Programming (Robot): The act of providing the control instructions required for a
robot to perform its intended task.
Pronation: The orientation or motion toward a position with the back or protected side
facing up or exposed. See supination.
Proportional Control: A control scheme whereby the signal which drives the actuator
is monotonically related to the difference between the input command (desired output)
and the measured actual output.
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control: A control scheme whereby the sig-
nal which drives the actuator equals a weighted sum of the difference, time integral of
the difference, and time derivative of the difference between the input (desired output)
and the measured actual output. Used especially in process control.
Proprioception: The reception of stimuli produced by the robot itself. It can be accom-
plished by sensing the positions and motions of the robot’s own articulated structures,
such as arms, fingers, legs, feet, ‘‘necks,’’ etc.
Prosthetic Robot: A programmable manipulator or device that substitutes for lost func-
tions of human limbs.
Protocol: A defined means or process for receiving and transmitting data through com-
munication channels. Often associated with operations that are influenced by the com-
municated information. For instance, a workflow protocol defines the information
exchanged for distributed control logic in a production or service system.
Proximal: The area on a robot close to the base but away from the end-effector of the
arm.
Proximity Sensor: A device which senses that an object is only a short distance (e.g.,
a few inches or feet) away and / or measures how far away it is. Proximity sensors typically
work on the principles of triangulation of reflected light, elapsed time for reflected sound,
intensity-induced eddy currents, magnetic fields, back pressure from air jets, and others.
Pseudo-Gantry Robot: A pedestal robot installed in the inverted position and mounted
on slides which allows it to traverse over a work area.
PUMA (Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly): Originated as a 1975 de-
velopmental project at General Motors Corporation, PUMA resulted in the specification
for a human-arm-size, articulated, electrically driven robot that was later commercialized
by Unimation, Inc.
Purdue Enterprise Reference Architecture (PERA): See Computer-Integrated Man-
ufacturing Open Systems Architecture (CIMOSA)
Pyloelectric Effect: An energy transformation from optical energy, supplied by a source
external to the microrobotic device, to electric energy required for the device operation.

Radius Statistics: Statistics of shape features computed from the set of radius vectors
of a blob. They are used in image analysis for determining orientation, distinguishing
shapes, and counting corners.
RAIL: A generalized robot programming language based on PASCAL and developed
by Automatix, Inc., Billerica, Massachusetts, for control of vision and arm manipulation
with many constructs to support inspection.
Rapid Prototyping: The process of generating the trial version of a product. The goal
is to generate inexpensively and quickly the fit, accessibility and other interrelated product
aspects that will ensure an efficient manufacturing process.
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1300 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

RAPT (Robot APT): An APT-based task-level robot programming language developed

at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland. RAPT describes objects in terms of their
features (cylinders, holes, and faces, etc.) and has means for describing relationships
between objects in a subassembly.
Rate Control: A control system where the input is the desired velocity of the controlled
object.
RCCL (Robot Control ‘‘C’’ Library): A robot programming system based on the ‘‘C’’
language and developed at Purdue University in Indiana to specify tasks by a set of
primitive system calls suitable for robot control. RCCL features include manipulator task
description, sensor integration, updateable world representation, manipulator independ-
ence, tracking, force control, and Cartesian path programming.
RCL: An assembly-level, command-oriented language developed at Rensselaer Poly-
technic Institute in New York to program a sequence of steps needed to accomplish a
robot task. RCL supports simple and straight-line motion but has no continuous-path
motion. The force feedback, gripper, and touch sensor commands are included in the
language.
Reusability: The characteristic of hardware or software of being used by several tasks
without significant modifications.
Reachability: A measure of motion economy, the number of useful positions or cells
that a particular robot succeeds in reaching during its intended task execution.
Reactive Robots: See Responsive Robots.
Realistic Robot Simulation (RRS): A technique for the design and off-line program-
ming of robotic workcells, based on the faithful virtual representation of the workcell
elements (robots, AGVs, conveyor belts, and sensors) and the embedding of an industrial
robot controller into the simulation system by means of a versatile message-based inter-
face and a sophisticated environment model for intuitive simulation of grip and release
operations, conveyor belts, and sensors. This representation is combined with a graphical
3D visualization of the workcell in real time. User interaction with the simulation system
is based on a windows-oriented graphical user interface (GUI).
Reasoning: The computational process of deriving new facts from given ones. It in-
cludes elements for identifying the domain knowledge relevant to the problem at hand,
resolving conflicts, activating rules, and interpreting the results.
Recognition: The act or process of identifying (or associating) an input with one of a
set of possible known alternatives (see also Pattern Recognition).
Recognition Unit: A sensory device used to distinguish between random parts (e.g., by
measuring their outer diameter).
Recovery Graph: A logical representation including all feasible disassembly sequences
and their associated costs and revenues.
Rectangular Robot: Also known as rectangular coordinate robot, Cartesian coordinate
robot, Cartesian robot, rectilinear coordinate robot, or rectilinear robot. A robot that
moves in straight lines up and down and in and out. The degrees of freedom of the
manipulator arm are defined primarily by a Cartesian coordinate axis system consisting
of three intersecting perpendicular straight lines with origin at the intersection. This robot
may lack control logic for coordinated joint motion. It is common for simple assembly
tasks.
Redundant Manipulator: A robot manipulator with more degrees of freedom than the
number required for a class of tasks or motions.
Reflexiveness: The ballistic mapping from an input (perception) to output (behavioral
response) that can involve single or multiple actions. It allows robotic systems timely
reaction to unexpected changes in the environment that could affect their autonomy and
eventually the fulfillment of their goals.
Rehabilitation (Robotic): The application of robotics systems as substitutes for human
or animal helpers or as replacements for lost human functions (robotic prosthetic / orthot-
ics). Robotic helpers can serve as manipulators for disabled or guides for blind people,
with their utilization being external to the human or animal body. On the other hand,
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1301

robotic prosthetics involves the tight coupling of human and machine with the objective
of working in cooperation (for instance, the implantation of artificial limbs). In prosthetic
systems it is fundamental to establish resilient communication methods and media be-
tween the human body and its robotic counterpart, especially in the case of powered
orthosies.
Relational Image Analysis Methods: Methods for image analysis that depend on the
context of local features rather than global feature values.
Relative Coordinate System: Also known as tool coordinate system. A coordinate sys-
tem whose origin moves relative to world or fixed coordinates.
Remanufacturing: A process in which worn-out products or parts are brought back to
original specifications and conditions or converted into raw materials. Central to reman-
ufacturing is the disassembly process for material and component isolation, since the
objectives of product remanufacturing are to maximize the quantity and quality of parts
obtained for repair and reuse and minimize the disposal quantities. Complementary pro-
cesses to which products are subjected include refurbishment, replacement, repair, and
testing.
Remote Center Compliance Device (RCC): In rigid part assembly, a passive support
device that aids part insertion operations. The RCC can be used with assembly robots as
well as with traditional assembly machines and fixed single-axis workstations. The main
feature of the RCC is its ability to project its compliance center outside itself, hence the
source of its particular abilities to aid assembly and the reason for the word ‘‘remote’’ in
its name. Its major function is to act as a multiaxis ‘‘float,’’ allowing positional and angular
misalignments between parts to be accommodated. The RCC allows a gripped part to
rotate about its tip or to translate without rotating when pushed laterally at its tip. It
enables successful mating between two parts, a tool and a part, a part and a fixture, a
tool and a tool holder, and many other mating pairs. Instrumented versions (IRCC) add
sensors to increase the abilities in complex assembly.
Remote Manipulation System (RMS): Space-based teleoperation system on the fleet
of U.S. space shuttles. The manipulator arms, located in the main shuttle bay, are con-
trolled directly by a human operator viewing the system through a window. Two three-
axis variable-rate command joysticks provide velocity input commands from the operator
to the robot’s controller. Applications of the RMS include deployment and capture of
satellite systems, space-based assembly, and construction of the International Space Sta-
tion (ISS).
Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV): An application of mobile robots controlled by
teleoperation. Typical usage include underwater and space exploration and search and
rescue as well as offshore oil-rig servicing and maintenance (see also Sojourner).
Remotely Piloted Vehicle (RPV): A robot aircraft controlled over a two-way radio link
from a ground station or mother aircraft that can be hundreds of miles away; electronic
guidance is generally supplemented by remote control television cameras feeding monitor
receivers at the control station.
Repeatability: The envelope of variance of the robot tool point position for repeated
cycles under the same conditions. It is obtained from the deviation between the positions
and orientations reached at the end of several similar cycles. Contrast with Accuracy.
Replacement Flexibility: The ease with which a production line can continue to operate
at a reduced rate in the event of failure of one of its components (robot or tooling). One
way to attain replacement flexibility is by controlling other line robots to automatically
compensate for the missing work of a faulty robot. Another way is to install robots at
the end of a line to perform operations that were missed.
Replica Master: A control device which duplicates a manipulator arm in shape and
serves for precise manipulator teaching. Control is achieved by servoing each joint of the
manipulator to the corresponding joint of the replica master.
Resolution: The smallest incremental motion which can be produced by the manipu-
lator. Serves as one indication of the manipulator accuracy. Three factors determine the
resolution: mechanical resolution, control resolution, and programming resolution.
Resolved Motion Rate Control:
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1302 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

1. A control scheme whereby the desired velocity vector of the endpoint of a ma-
nipulator arm is commanded and from it the computer determines the joint’s an-
gular velocities to achieve the desired result.
2. Coordination of a robot’s axes so that the velocity vector of the endpoint is under
direct control. Motion in the coordinate system of the endpoint along specified
directions or trajectories (line, circle, etc.) is possible. This technique is used in
manual control of manipulators and as a computational method for achieving pro-
grammed coordinate axis control in robots.
Resolver: A rotary or linear feedback device that converts mechanical motion to analog
electrical signals that represent motion or position.
Responsive Robots: Also known as adaptive robots or reactive robots. Robots equipped
with a set of competences that they use in order to ‘‘survive’’ in unknown or partially
unknown environments after completion of the designer’s task. This type of robotics
systems are especially suitable for conditions of unreliable or noisy sensors where the
robot operation has to be responsive to unexpected events and conditions (see also Error
Recovery).
Retroreflective Sensing: A photoelectric source consolidation method based on the
aiming of the light beam into a white retro target feeding a photoelectric sensor.
Reversal Error: The deviation between the positions and orientations reached at the
ends of several repeated paths.
RIA: Robotic Industries Association.
Rigidity: The property of a robot to retain its stiffness under loading and movement.
Rigidity can be improved by features such as a cast-iron base, precision ball screws on
all axial drives, ground and hardened spiral bevel gears in the wrist, brakes on the least
stiff axes, and end-effector design that permits a workpiece or tool to be held snugly
(Contrast with Flexi-Arm and with Flexibility, Mechanical).
ROBCAD: A three-dimensional graphical engineering software platform developed by
Tecnomatix, Inc. for the design of robotics systems and robotic manufacturing processes.
It facilitates concept analysis, layout design, and robot programming in the office envi-
ronment.
ROBEX: An off-line programming system developed at the Machine Tool Laboratory
in the Federal Republic of Germany for the control of a robotic arm. ROBEX supports
collision detection and prevention.
ROBODOC System: A stereotactic CASP / CASE system for hip replacement surgery.
Robot: See Industrial Robot.
Robot Calibration (for Vision): The act of determining the relative orientation of the
camera coordinate system with respect to the robot coordinate system.
Robot Dynamics: Mathematical models specifying the equations of manipulator mo-
tions subject to forces and relative to a chosen coordinate system.
Robot Ergonomics: The study and analysis of relevant aspects of robots in working
environments, including interactions and collaboration between robots and with people.
It is used to provide tools for the purpose of optimizing overall performance of the work
system, including analysis of work characteristics, work methods analysis, robot selection,
workplace design, performance measurement, and integrated human and robot ergon-
omics. Robot work should be optimized to:
1. Minimize the time / unit and cost of work produced
2. Minimize the amount of effort and energy expanded by the operator (robot and /
or human)
3. Minimize the amount of waste, scrap, and rework
4. Maximize quality of work produced
5. Maximize safety
Robot Hand: See Hand (Robot’s).
 10.1002/9780470172506.gloss, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470172506.gloss by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [14/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1303

Robot Language: Set of instructions (keywords) providing the interface between the
robot programmer and the robot controller. The robot controller interprets the compiled
version of the constructed program and transforms it into robot motion and operation.
The robot language can be motion- (robot displacements) or task- (robotics operations)
based.
Robot Learning: The improvement of robot performance by experience. Robots learn
by three different methods:
1. Being taught by an operator via a teach box
2. Being taught via off-line geometric database and programs
3. Learning from on-line experience
Robot learning is found in three main areas:
1. Robots learning about their operation
2. Human operators learning to accept and work with robots
3. Organizations learning to introduce, integrate, and effectively utilize robots
Robot Mobility: See Mobile Robot.
Robot Model Calibration: Second level of calibration procedures. It involves the basic
kinematic geometry of the robot in addition to the joint-level calibration.
Robot Modeler: A component of an off-line programming system which describes the
properties of jointed mechanisms. The joint structure, constraints, and velocity data are
stored in the system to give a kinematic representation of the robot. Robot modelers are
classified as kinematic, path control, or generalized types.
Robot Process Capability (RPC): Ability of a robotic system to consistently perform
a job with a certain degree of accuracy, repeatability, reproducibility, and stability. It is a
function of the task variables, such as speed of movement, spatial position, and load.
Robot Risk Assessment: A technique for economical evaluation of hazards in the ro-
bot’s operation. Hazards are evaluated in terms of their severity and probability of oc-
currence, and countermeasures are identified for each hazard. Finally the method
compares the control measures against the expected loss reduction.
Robot Selection Data: The following data are typically needed for the selection of a
robot for a given task: work envelope, repeatability, accuracy, payload, speed, degrees of
freedom, drive, control, and foundation type.
Robot Simulation: See Simulation; ROBCAD.
Robot System: A Robot System includes the robot(s) (hardware and software) con-
sisting of the manipulator, power supply, and controller; the end-effector(s); any equip-
ment, devices, and sensors required for the robot to perform its task; and any
communications interface that is operating and monitoring the robot, equipment, and
sensors. (This definition excludes the rest of the operating system hardware and software.)
Robot Task: Specification of the goals for the position of object being manipulated by
the robot, ignoring the motions required by the robot to achieve these goals.
Robot Time and Motion (RTM) Method: A technique developed at Purdue University
in Indiana to estimate the cycle time for given robot work methods without having to
first implement the work method and measure its performance. RTM is analogous to the
Methods Time Measurement technique for human work analysis. This system is made up
of three major components: RTM elements, robot performance models, and an RTM
analyzer.
Robot Workstation Design: The use of geometric requirements of a workstation, in-
cluding gross size of moves as well as their directions, and design scenarios for carrying
out operations in conjunction with an economic analysis to select robots, computers, and
tooling for an operation.
Robot–Human Charts: Detailed relative lists of characteristics and skills of industrial
robots and humans that were developed at Purdue University. These charts are used to
 10.1002/9780470172506.gloss, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470172506.gloss by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [14/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1304 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

aid engineers in determining whether a robot can perform a job, or as a guideline and
reference for robot specifications. The charts contain three main types of characteristics:
physical, mental and communicative, and energy.
Robot-Level Language: A robot system computer programming language with com-
mands to access sensors and specify robot motions.
Robotic Assembly: The combination of robots, people, and other technologies for the
purpose of assembly in a technologically and economically feasible manner. Robotic
assembly offers an alternative with some of the flexibility of people and the uniform
performance of fixed automation.
Robotic Autonomous Guidance: See Mobile Robot.
Robotic Cell: A robot-served cluster of workstations which contains no internal buffers
for work-in-process and in which only a single family of parts is produced.
Robotic Fixturing: A programmable fixture system that can accommodate a set of parts
for processing in the same workcell.
Robotic Welding System: Welding is currently the largest application area for industrial
robots, including mainly spot and arc welding and the emerging laser welding. A robotic
welding system comprises one or more robots, controls, suitable grippers for the work
and the welding equipment, one or more compatible welding positioners with controls,
and a suitable welding process with high-productivity filler. The correct safety barriers
and screens, along with a suitable material-handling system, are also required.
Robotics: The science of designing, building, and applying robots.
Robotics Automation: The intelligent and interactive connection of perception to action
through cognition and planning. It includes the following technologies: kinematics; dy-

       


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namics; control and simulation of robots and automatic machines; sensing and percep-
tion
systems control theory and applications as related to the modeling of robotics systems;
robot mobility and navigation; robotics-related computer hardware and software compo-
nents; architectures and systems; advanced command and programming languages for
robots; linkages to computer-aided design; engineering and manufacturing information
systems; electronic and manufacturing science and technology as related to robotics;
human–machine interfaces as related to robotics and automation; and management of
flexible automation.
Robotics System Design: Decisions concerning the operations that will be performed
by the robotic system, selecting the equipment, and deciding how it is to be configured.
This stage is critical to the eventual performance of the system since the choices made
here limit the options that are available under the later system operation phase.
Robotics System Planning: The feasibility study and preliminary system design, usu-
ally with consideration of several alternatives, as well as preliminary economic evalua-
tions.
Robust Processes: See Process Capability.
Roll: Also known as twist. The rotational displacement of a joint around the principal
axis of its motion, particularly at the wrist.
ROSS: An object-oriented language suitable for use in a multi-robot distributed system.
All processing in ROSS is done in terms of message passing among a collection of
‘‘actors’’ or ‘‘objects.’’
RPL (Robot Programming Language): A robot motion software developed at SRI
International in California. RPL was designed for the development, testing, and debugging
of control algorithms for manufacturing systems consisting of manipulators, sensors, and
auxiliary equipment. Continuous path motion is supported by this language. Features of
RPL include a manual teach mode and commands for object recognition, gripper opera-
tion, feedback, touch sensors, and vision. The programming is based on LISP cast in a
Fortran-like syntax.
RTM: See Robot Time and Motion Method.
Run-Length Encoding: A method of storing compressed data of a binary image. Each
horizontal line of the image is represented by a run-length representation containing only
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1305

the column numbers at which a transition from 0 to 1, or vice versa, takes place. Run-
length encoding can provide considerable efficiency in image processing compared to
pixel-by-pixel analyses.

Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM): An instrument for removing small amounts of

material from a silicon substrate that has been passivated with hydrogen by moving the
tip of an SPM in a straight line over the substrate and applying a suitable voltage.
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM): An instrument for producing surface images
with atomic-scale lateral resolution, in which a fine probe tip is raster-scanned over the
surface at a distance of 0.5–1 nanometer and the resulting tunneling current, or the po-
sition of the tip required to maintain a constant tunneling current, is monitored.
Screw Theory: A geometric description of the robot kinematics, based on the funda-
mental fact that any arbitrary rigid body motion is equivalent to a rotation about a certain
line combined with a translation parallel to that line.
Sealing (Robotic): The application by a robotic arm of the sealing compound in the
precise sealing path and amount required by the product. Common applications are the
application of adhesives and insulation material.
Seam Tracking: A control function to assure the quality of the weld seam. Various
parameters of a robotic arc weld are monitored and the data are then used to correct both
the cross-seam and stickout directions. Lateral welding torch motion is required and is
provided by a weaving motion for seam tracking.
Search Routine: A robot function that searches for a precise location when it is not
known exactly. An axis or axes move slowly in one direction until terminated by an
external signal. It is used in stacking and unstacking of parts, locating workpieces, or
inserting parts in holes.
Second-Generation Robot Systems: A robot with a computer processor added to the
robot controller. This addition makes it possible to perform, in real time, the calculations
required to control the motions of each degree of freedom in a cooperative manner to
effect smooth motions of the end-effector along predetermined paths. It also becomes
possible to integrate some simple sensors, such as force, torque, and proximity, into the
robot system, providing some degree of adaptability to the robot’s environment.
Secondary References: Geometric references used in assembling a main assembly
component. The compliance with the references of the components guarantees the correct
geometry of the completed assembly.
Security (Robotic): The application of a mobile robot as a security guard, patrolling a
designated area while monitoring for intrusion and other unwanted conditions, such as
fire, smoke, and flooding. The advantages of robotic systems in security are economical
(with a robotic system replacing four to five people on a 24-hour-per-day basis), reduced
training and supervision, the gathering and analysis of large amounts of information for
decision-making, and better reactiveness than man-based security systems.
Selective Compliance Assembly Robotic Arm (SCARA): A horizontal-revolute con-
figuration robot designed at Japan’s Yamanachi University. The tabletop-size arm with
permanently tilted, high-stiffness links sweeps across a fixtured area and is especially
suited for small-parts insertion tasks in the vertical (z) direction.
Self-Assembly Approach: One of the two main approaches for building useful devices
from nanoscale components and a natural evolution of traditional chemistry and bulk
processing. Self-assembly has severe limitations because the structures produced tend to
be highly symmetric, and the most versatile self-assembled systems are organic and there-
fore generally lack robustness.
Self-Organizing Systems: Systems that are able to affect or determine their own inter-
nal structure, for purposes of maintenance, repair, recovery, and adaptation.
 10.1002/9780470172506.gloss, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470172506.gloss by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [14/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1306 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Self-Replicating Robots: Robotic systems capable of constructing duplicates of them-

selves, which would then be capable of further self-replication.
Semiautonomous Control: A method for controlling a robot whereby a human operator
sets up the robot system for some repetitive task and a computer subroutine then takes
over to complete the assigned task.
Sensing: The feedback from the environment of the robot which enables the robot to
react to its environment. Sensory inputs may come from a variety of sensor types, in-
cluding proximity switches, force sensors, and machine vision systems.
Sensor: A device such as a transducer that detects a physical phenomenon and relays
information about it to a control mechanism.
Sensor Coordinate System: A coordinate system mounted over the workspace of the
robot and assigned to a sensor.
Sensor Fusion: Also known as sensor integration. The coordination and integration of
data from diverse sources to produce a usable perspective for a robotics system. A large
number of sensors can be applied, and the information they gather from the work envi-
ronment or workpiece is analyzed and integrated in a unique meaningful stream of feed-
back data to the robotic manipulator(s).
Sensor Integration: See Sensor Fusion.
Sensor System: The components of a robot system which monitor and interpret events
in the environment. Internal measurement devices, also considered sensors, are a part of
closed axis-control loops and monitor joint position, velocity, acceleration, wrist force,
and gripper force. External sensors update the robot model and are used for approxima-
tion, touch, geometry, vision, and safety. A data acquisition system uses data from sensors
to generate patterns. A data processing system then identifies the patterns and generates
frames for the dynamic world-model processor.
Sensor-Triggered Reflex: A preprogrammed emergency response of a manipulator, in-
duced by a sensor upon detection of certain events, such as an intruder being detected in
the workspace or an impending collision with unexpected obstacles.
SensorGlove: A robotics sensor capable of precision measurement of human gestures,
with applications in surgery and telerobotics.
Sensory-Controlled Robot: Also known as intelligent robot. A robot whose program
sequence can be modified as a function of information sensed from its environment. The
robot can be servoed or non-servoed.
Sequencer: A controller which operates an application through a fixed sequence of
events.
Sequential Program Control: A robot program control structure which allows the ex-
ecution of a program in ordered steps. Standard structured programming language con-
structs for sequential control are branches, IF tests, and WHILE loops.
Service (Robotic): The application of robotics systems aiming to achieve a high level
of flexibility, adaptability, safety, and efficiency in environments populated by humans.
The learning cycle is continuous to ensure adaptability in steadily changing environments.
The user of service robots is usually a nontechnical person. Applications include health
and safety, cleaning and maintenance, security, office and food deliveries, entertainment,
and other services.
Servo-Control Level: The lowest level of the control hierarchy. At this level, drive
signals for the actuators are generated to move the joints. The input signals are joint
trajectories in joint coordinates.
Servo-Controlled Robot: A robot driven by servo mechanisms, that is, motors or ac-
tuators whose driving signal is a function of the difference between command position
and / or rate, and measured actual position and / or rate. Such a robot is capable of stopping
at, or moving through, a practically unlimited number of points in executing motions
through a programmed trajectory.
Servo-System: A control system for the robot in which the control computer issues
motion commands to the actuators and internal measurement devices measure the motion
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1307

and signal the results back to the computer. This process continues until the arm reaches
the desired position.
Servo-mechanism: An automatic control mechanism consisting of a motor or actuator
driven by a signal which is a function of the difference between commanded position
and / or rate, and measured actual position and / or rate.
Servo-valve: A transducer whose input is a low-energy signal and whose output is a
higher-energy fluid flow which is proportional to the low-energy signal.
Settling Time: The time a system requires to stay within 2 to 5 percent of its steady
state value after an impulse has been issued to its controller. The impulse in a robotic
system takes the form of a controller’s command to move the robot arm or operate the
end-effector.
Shake: The uncontrollable vibration of a robot’s arm during, or at the end of, a
movement.
SHAKEY: A pioneering man-sized mobile robot on wheels equipped with a range-
finding device, camera, and other sensors. The SHAKEY project was developed in the
late 1960s at Stanford Research Institute to study robot plan formation.
Shape Memory Alloy (SMA): See Memory Alloy.
Shell Arm Structure: A robot arm structure designed to yield lower weight or higher
strength to weight ratios. Such design is typically more expensive and generally more
difficult to manufacture. Cast, extruded, or machined hollow beam-based structures are
often applied, and though not as structurally efficient as pure monocoque designs, they
can be more cost-effective.
Shipbuilding (Robotic): The application of robotics systems for the welding, hull as-
sembly, coating, and blasting of large hull structures of ships. This type of application
requires special robotic systems for handling workpieces of typically 33 ft ⫻ 15 ft at
subassembly stage and 65 ft ⫻ 49 ft (weighing as much as 700 tons) at assembly stage.
Work piece fixtures must be designed for handling these dimensions and weight and allow
the robots to perform the welding, coating, or abrasive operation. Production quantities
also challenge the implementation of robotic systems. Ships are built in quantities of 10
to 20 units per design; however, a greater degree of standardization is present at the joints
utilized for assembling the hull structures, allowing the robot implementation in repeated
basic activities such as welding.
Shoulder: The manipulator arm linkage joint that is attached to the base.
Shrinking (Image): The transformation from an input binary image to an output binary
image to decrease the number of one type of pixel for purposes of smoothing, eliminating
noise, and detecting blobs based on their approximate size.
SIGLA: An assembly-level manipulator model language developed by the Olivetti Cor-
poration in Italy, in which the focus is on the end-effector’s motion through space. SIGLA
supports multiple arms, gripper operation, touch sensors, force feedback, parallel proc-
essing, tool operations, interaction with external devices, relative or absolute motion, and
an anticollision command.
Simulation: A controlled statistical sampling technique for evaluating the performance
of complex probabilistic, robotics manufacturing, and other systems. Robot simulation is
helpful in the design of robotics mechanisms and control, design of robotics systems, and
off-line programming and calibration.
Single Stage Joint: A linear motion joint made up of a moving surface which slides
linearly along a fixed surface.
Single-Point Control of Motion: A safeguarding method for certain maintenance op-
erations in which it is necessary to enter the restricted work envelope of the robot. A
single-point control of the robot motion is used such that it cannot be overridden at any
location, in a manner which would adversely affect the safety of the persons performing
the maintenance function. Before the robot system can be returned to its regular operation,
a deliberate separate action is required by the person responsible for it to release the
single-point control.
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1308 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Skeletonizing: The transformation from an input binary image to an output binary im-
age. This transformation is similar to shrinking in that blobs are guaranteed to never
shrink so far that they entirely disappear.
Skill Twist (Robot-Caused): The change in level of skill requirements of jobs elimi-
nated and jobs created by industrial robotics. The performance requirement of jobs elim-
inated are mostly at the semiskilled or unskilled level, while those created are generally
at a higher technical level.
Slew Rate: The maximum velocity at which a manipulator joint can move; a rate im-
posed by saturation in the servo-loop controlling that joint.
Slip Sensors: Sensors that measure the distribution and amount of contact area pressure
between hand and objects positioned tangentially to the hand. They may be single-point,
multiple-point (array), simple binary (yes–no), or proportional sensors.
Sojourner: A Mars rover that in 1997 successfully drove off the rear ramp of the Mars
Pathfinder Lander onto the Martian surface. It was the first time an intelligent robot was
reacting to unplanned events on the surface of another planet. Sojourner’s dimensions
were about 2 ft ⫻ 1.5 ft ⫻ 1 ft and it traveled at a speed of 0.4 inches per second.
Remote commands from Earth took about 10 minutes to reach Sojourner.
Sonar Sensing: A system using underwater sound, at sonic or ultrasonic frequencies,
to detect and locate objects in the sea or for communication; the commonest sensing type
is echo-ranging sonar; other versions are passive sonar, scanning sonar, and searchlight
sonar.
Sorting (Robotic): The integrated operation of a sensor system and a robot for the
discrimination of two or more types of items, e.g., fruits, boxes, or workpieces. The sensor
system can be as simple as dimensional-based (detection of several discrete gripper fingers
apertures) or as complex as vision-based (recognition of distinctive features, including
color). Once the item is identified and classified by the sensor system, the robot will sort
it based on the output of the sensor system fed to the robot’s controller.
Space Exploration (Robotic): The utilization of robotic systems in outer space, with
five basic objectives:

1. Geologically characterize the landscape of the target location

2. Look for macroscopic evidence of life
3. Acquire surface samples
4. Support the magnetic and physical properties investigations
5. Support atmospheric characterization

Autonomy of the robotic system is a necessary characteristic for the exploration task
given the robots’ autonomy, which, based on the information gathered and its interpre-
tation, allows the robotic system to perform sequences of operations during transmission-
delayed ground commands. Endurance against the outer space harsh conditions, lift-off,
and landing stresses is also a must for the robotic system. The most recent robotic explorer
is the Sojourner (see Sojourner), the latest success in the program started by the Viking
Lander sent for the exploration of Mars in 1975.
Space Manufacturing (Robotic): The concept of building a highly automated manu-
facturing facility (the Space Manufacturing Facility) which would initially be based on
teleoperated robotic systems, later replaced by autonomous robotic systems. The objective
is the manufacture of solar power stations, communication satellites, and products re-
quiring outer space environmental conditions, using mainly nonterrestrial materials.
Space Robot: A robot used for manipulation or inspection in an earth orbit or deep
space environment.
Spatial Resolution: A value describing the dimensions of an image by the number of
available pixels; for example, 512 ⫻ 512. A relatively larger number of pixels implies a
relatively higher image resolution.
Speech Recognition: The process of analyzing an acoustic speech signal to identify the
linguistic message that was intended, so that a machine can correctly respond to spoken
commands.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1309

Speed Control Function: A feature of the robot control program used to adjust the
velocity of the robot as it moves along a given path.
Spherical Robot: Also known as a spherical coordinate robot or polar robot. A robot
operating in a spherical work envelope, or a robot arm capable of moving with rotation,
arm inclination, and arm extension.
Splined Joint Trajectory: A technique for following a path described in Cartesian
coordinates. Several points are selected from the Cartesian path and transformed into
angular displacements of the robot’s joints that are then controlled to move along straight-
line segments in joint coordinates. These motions may or may not correspond precisely
to the straight line specified in Cartesian coordinates, resulting in an error between the
two paths that can be reduced by adding intermediate points.
Spot-Welding Robot: A robot used for spot-welding and consisting of three main parts:
a mechanical structure composed of the body, arm and wrist; a welding tool; and a control
unit. The mechanical structure serves to position the welding tool at any point within the
working volume and orient the tool in any given direction so that it can perform the
appropriate task.
Spraying (Robotic): See Coating (Robotic).
Springback: The deflection of a manipulator arm when the external load is removed.
SRI Vision Module: A self-contained vision subsystem developed at SRI International
to sense and process visual images in response to top-level commands from a supervisory
computer.
Standard Data Exchange Format: Computer-Aided Design data formats for exporting
and importing geometric data from one CAD system to another. Some standards are:
IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Standard), DXF (Drawing Transfer File), STEP (Product
Data Representation and Exchange), and VDAFS (a European standard).
Static Deflection: Also known as static behavior or droop. Deformation of a robot
structure considering only static loads and excluding inertial loads. Sometimes the term
is used to include the effects of gravity loads.
Stepping Motor: A bidirectional, permanent-magnet motor which turns through one
angular increment for each pulse applied to it.
Stereo Analysis, Area Based: A stereo image depth analysis in which a succession of
windows in the left image are matched to corresponding windows in the right image by
cross correlation.
Stereo Analysis, Edge-Based: A stereo image depth analysis characterized by candidate
points for matching which represent changes in image intensity.
Stereo Imaging: The use of two or more cameras to pinpoint the location of an object
point in a three-dimensional space. Also known as stereo vision.
Stereotactic CASP / CASE: Computer-Integrated Surgery systems exploiting the posi-
tional accuracy of machines to position surgical tools in space.
Sticking Effect: The resulting effect from adhesive forces in the manipulation of parts
with size less than a millimeter and masses less than 10⫺6 kg where the gravitational and
inertial forces may become insignificant.
Stiffness: The amount of applied force per unit of displacement of a compliant body.
Stop (Mechanical): A mechanical constraint or limit on some motion. It can be set to
stop the motion at a desired point.
Structured Light Imaging: Depth information extraction technique which consists of
scanning a scene illuminated with a laser stripe, capturing the image of the stripe with
an off-set camera, and then, through triangulation, calculating the 3D coordinates of each
of the illuminated points in the scene so that three-dimensional patterns can be deter-
mined.
Super-Articulated Robot: Robotic systems having a large number of rotary joints in
several places along the body. This type of robot usually resembles an elephant-trunk or
a snake-like mechanism.
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1310 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Superconductive Solenoids: A solenoid whose operation depends on superconductivity

as produced by temperatures near the absolute zero.
Supervisory Control: The overall control and coordination of the robot system, in-
cluding both the internal sections of the system and synchronization with the external
environment comprising the operator, associated production devices, and possibly a
higher-level control computer. This control strategy enables a higher level of robot de-
cision-making. Lower-level controllers perform the control task continuously in real time
and usually communicate back with the supervisory control level.
Supination: An orientation or motion toward a position with the front, or unprotected
side, face up or exposed. See pronation.
Support and Containment Device: A type of end-of-arm tooling requiring no power,
such as lifting forks, hooks, scoops, and ladles. The robot moves to a position beneath a
part to be transferred, lifts to support and contain the part or material, and performs the
transfer process.
Surface Mount Technology: The technique of mounting circuit components and their
electrical connections on the surface of a printed board, rather than through holes.
Surgery (Robotic): The application of robotic systems in the planning and execution
of surgical procedures. The robotic system is aimed to overcome the limitations of tra-
ditional surgery by providing feedback information during the surgery (by X-ray, com-
puter-assisted tomographic scanning (CAT), magnetic resonance scanning, or ultrasound),
delivering precision required in surgical procedures where delicate and vital structures
can be destroyed by a small hand slip (e.g., in spine, brain, or retina surgery) or a
misguided instrument, increasing the access and dexterity and providing better accuracy
and repeatability in implementing the planned surgical actions. The main stream of ap-
plications is stereotactic-based (the guiding of a probe through a planned trajectory to the
damaged area); however, future applications will involve the robotic system in a more
active role, performing surgical incisions with the assistance of an appropriate vision
system. This type of applications will require multiple hand robots or the coordination of
multiple single-hand robots.
Surgical Augmentation Systems: Computer-Integrated Surgery systems extending the
sensory-motor abilities to overcome the limitations of traditional surgery. One of its ap-
plications involves the utilization of telerobotic systems to augment human manipulation
abilities in microsurgery.
Surveillance Systems: Systems observing air, surface, or subsurface areas or volumes
by visual, electronic, photographic, or other means, for intelligence gathering or other
purposes.
Swarm Systems: Systems of a relatively large number of simple robotics members
(hundreds or more). These organized groups of robots exhibit collectively intelligent be-
havior. Robots of different types, each executing different protocols, can be arranged in
a variety of patterns to form structures such as a measuring swarm, a distributed sensor
where each member of the swarm is sensitive to a specific value.
Swing Arm Robot: A robot arm typically with five- or six-axis, medium payload ar-
ticulated arm mounted on a sixth or seventh axis swing-arm rotational base. It allows for
greater reach and faster cycle times.
System Configuration: An iterative design process consisting of evaluation of the fac-
tors affecting the product and the production tasks, selection of a design concept based
on these factors, and evaluation of the performance of the selected concept. Following
the results of the evaluation, a system can be refined and reevaluated, or discarded.
System Planning: An early phase of robotic system selection during which the concern
is to establish feasibility of the project and determine the initial estimates for system size,
cost, return on investment, and other variables of interest to upper management.
System Reliability: The probability that a system will accurately perform its specified
task under stated environmental conditions.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1311

T3: The ‘‘Tomorrow Tool Today’’ was an industrial robot family and a robot program-
ming language developed by Cincinnati Milacron, Inc. in the 1980s. The language was
based on programmed motions to the required points. T3 supported straight-line motion
taught with a joystick, continuous path motion, conveyor tracking, and interaction with
external devices, sensors, and tool operations.
Tactile Sensing: The detection by a robot through contact by touch, force, pattern slip,
and movement. Tactile sensing allows for the determination of local shape, orientation,
and feedback forces of a grasped workpiece.
Task Planner: A part of a task-level programming language which transforms task-
level specifications into robot-level specifications. The output of the task planner is a
robot program for a specific robot to achieve a desired final state when executed from a
specified initial state.
Task-Level Language: A computer programming language for robot programming, that
requires specification of task goals for the positions of objects and operations. This goal
specification is intended to be completely robot-independent; no positions or paths de-
pendent on the robot geometry or kinematics are specified by the user.
TCP: See Tool Center Point.
TEACH: A robot programming software developed by the California Institute of Tech-
nology and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California to provide commands for vision,
force, and other sensors and process synchronization commands which provide for con-
currency in a systematic manner. This software supports multiple manipulators and other
peripheral devices simultaneously.
Teach Pendant: Also known as teach box. A portable, hand-held programming device
connected to the robot controller containing a number of buttons, switches, or program-
ming keys used to direct the controller in positioning the robot and interfacing with
auxiliary equipment. It is used for on-line programming.
Teach Pendant Programming: See On-Line Programming.
Teach Programming: Also known as teaching or lead-through programming. A
method of entering a desired control program into the robot controller. The robot is
manually moved by a teach pendant or led through a desired sequence of motions by an
operator. The movement information as well as other necessary data are recorded by the
robot controller as the robot is guided through the desired path.
Teach Restrict: A facility whereby the speed of movement of a robot, which during
normal operation would be considered dangerous, is restricted to a safe speed during
teaching.
Teleoperation: The use of robotic devices which have mobility and manipulative and
some sensing capabilities and are remotely controlled by a human operator. Teleoperation
is advantageous where human control is preferred but the environment is hazardous or
undesirable, e.g., remote manipulation in space, nuclear reactors, explosive material han-
dling, or clean-room assembly.
Telepresence: The mental state entered when sensory feedback has sufficient scope and
fidelity to convince the user that he or she is physically present at the remote site.
Telescoping Joint: A linear motion joint consisting of sets of nested single-stage joints.
Template Matching: The comparison of sample object image against a stored pattern,
or template. This technique is used for inspection by machine vision.
Textual Programming Systems: Programming system applying a text-based interface
for inputting program instructions. It usually requires a longer time to master and provides
less information than graphical programming systems.
TheoAgent: A hybrid reactive behavior-based robot control architecture developed at
Carnegie-Mellon University in Pennsylvania. It embodies the philosophy: ‘‘Reacts when
it can, plans when it must.’’ Stimulus–response rules encode the reactivity options. The
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1312 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

method for selecting the rules constitutes the planning component. TheoAgent is primarily
concerned with learning new rules: in particular, learning to act correctly; learning to be
more reactive (reduce time); and learning to perceive better (distinguish salient features).
Theodolite System: A noncontact measuring system for calibration employing a tri-
angulation technique and utilized to determine the spatial location of the robot’s end-
effector.
Third-Generation Robot Systems: Robot systems characterized by the incorporation
of multiple computer processors, each operating asynchronously to perform specific func-
tions. A typical third-generation robot system includes a separate low-level processor for
each degree of freedom and a master computer supervising and coordinating these pro-
cessors as well as providing higher-level functions.
3D Laser Tracking System: A calibration system to accurately determine the robot’s
end-effector pose with a set of external measurement devices for a given set of joint
displacements recorded by internal (joint-based) measurement devices. The system usually
includes a tracker consisting of a mirror system with two motors and two encoders, a
laser interferometer, and a precision distance sensor.
3D Orientational and Positional Errors: Errors generated in the three-dimensional
analysis of stereo vision images. Errors result from the selection of features from both
images and the three-dimensional object construction algorithm implemented.
Three-Roll Wrist: A wrist with three interference-free axes of rotational movement
(pitch, yaw, and roll) that intersect at one point to permit a continuous or reversible tool
rotation which simplifies the required end effector design by its extensive reachability. It
was originally designed by Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
Thresholding: A procedure of binarization of an image by segmenting it to black and
white regions (represented by ones and zeroes). The gray level of each pixel is compared
to a threshold value and then set to 0 or 1 so that binary image analysis can then be
performed.
Tilt: The orientation of a view, as with a video camera, in elevation.
Time Effectiveness Ratio: A measure of performance for teleoperators which, when
multiplied by the task time for the unencumbered hand, yields the task time for the
teleoperator.
Time to Market: A measure of the time required by the production system to deliver
a product to the market. Time to market is affected by the flexibility of the system to
incorporate changes in product and process, as well as coordination and integration of
the different production and management functions within the production system.
Tool Center Point (TCP): A tool-related reference point that lies along the last wrist
axis at a user-specified distance from the wrist.
Tool Changing (Robotic): An alternative to dedicated, automatic tool changers that
may be attractive because of an increased flexibility and a relatively lower cost. A robot
equipped with special grippers can handle a large variety of tools which can be shared
quickly and economically by several machines.
Tool Coordinate System: A coordinate system assigned to the end-effector.
Tool-Coordinate Programming: Programming the motion of each robot axis so that
the tool held by the robot gripper is always held normal to the work surface.
Torque Control: A method to control the motions of a robot driven by electric motors.
The torque produced by the motor is treated as an input to the robot joint. The torque
value is controlled by the motor current.
Torque / Force Controller: A control system capable of sensing forces and torques en-
countered during assembly or movement of objects, and / or generating forces on joint
torques by the manipulator, which are controlled to reach desired levels.
Touch Sensors: Sensors that measure the distribution and amount of contact area pres-
sure between hand and objects perpendicular to the hand. Touch sensors may be single-
point, multiple-point (array), simple binary (yes–no), or proportional sensors, or may
appear in the form of artificial skin.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1313

Track-Mounted Robot: A robot arm with typically four- to six-axis, medium payload
articulated arm mounted on an auxiliary axis linear track that travels in the same direction
as the flow of the production line.
Tracking: A continuous position-control response to continuously changing input re-
quirements.
Tracking (Line): The ability of a robot to work with continuously moving production
lines and conveyors. Moving-base line tracking and stationary-base line tracking are the
two methods of line tracking.
Tracking Sensor: Sensors used by the robot to continuously adjust the robot path in
real time while it is moving.
Training by Showing: The use of a vision system to view actual examples of prototype
objects in order to acquire their visual characteristics. The vision system can then classify
unknown objects by comparison with the stored prototype data.
Trajectory: A subelement of a cycle that defines lesser but integral elements of the
cycle. A trajectory is made up of points at which the robot performs or passes through
an operation, depending on the programming.
Transducer: A device that converts one form of energy into another; for instance, con-
verting the movement along certain distance to a number of electrical pulses that can be
counted.
Translation: A movement such that all axes remain parallel to what they were (i.e.,
without rotation).
Transport (Robotic): The acquisition, movement through space, and release of an ob-
ject by a robot. Simple material-handling tasks requiring one- or two-dimensional move-
ments are often performed by nonservo robots. More complicated operations, such as
machine loading and unloading, palletizing, part sorting, and packaging, are typically
performed by servo-controlled, point-to-point robots.
Transportation (Robotic): Similar to robotic transport, but over larger distances, in-
volving intelligent robotic vehicles, automated roadways, and computer-supported trans-
portation management systems.
Triangulation Ranging: Range-mapping techniques that combine direction calculations
from a single camera and the previous known direction of projected light beams.
Tropism System Cognitive Architecture: A cognitive architecture for the individual
behavior of robots in a colony, developed at the University of Southern California in
California. Experimental investigation of the properties of the colony demonstrates the
group’s ability to achieve global goals, such as the gathering of objects, and to improve
its performance as a result of learning, without explicit instructions for cooperation.

Ultrasonic Sensor: A range-measuring device which transmits a narrow-band pulse of

sound towards an object. A receiver senses the reflected sound when it returns. The time
it takes for the pulse to travel to the object and back is proportional to the range.
Underactuated Robotic System: Robotics system with fewer actuators than degrees of
freedom. For this type of robotics system, traditional models of control do not work, since
the linearization will always fail to be controllable.
Unidirectional Assembly: Assembly process performed in a single direction (usually
top-down). This type of assembly process simplifies the planning of the robot motion
during the assembly, as well as the design of the assembly and its components.
Unit Task Times: A method of predicting teleoperator performance in which the time
required for a specific task is based on completion of unit tasks or component subtasks.
Universal Fixture: A fixture designed to handle a large variety of objects. See Pro-
grammable Fixture.
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1314 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Universal Transfer Device (UTD): A term first applied to a Versatran robot (Versatran
was one of the pioneering robot manufacturers that was later acquired by Prab Company
of Michigan) used for press loading at the Canton Forge Plant of the Ford Motor Com-
pany, and later to other robots at Ford plants. The use of the term was discontinued in
1980.
Unmanned Air-Vehicles (UAV): An application of mobile flying robots under teleo-
peration control, mostly in military applications such as reconnaissance missions.
Unmanned Manufacturing Cells: Cells with the ability to operate autonomously, re-
placing the human’s decision-making and sensory abilities while producing superior-
quality parts (zero defects), without failures to disrupt the system. The cell must be able
to react to changes in demand for the parts and therefore must be flexible. The cells must
also be able to adapt to changes in the product mix and to accommodate changes in the
design of existing parts for which the cell was initially designed planned.
Upper Arm: The portion of a jointed arm that is connected to the robot’s shoulder.
User-Friendly: A common term implying ease of learning and operating a complex
system by human users, especially via a computer interface. A more scientific term is
Human Oriented Design.
User Interface: The interface between the robot and the operator through devices such
as a teach pendant or PC. It provides the operator with the means to create programs, jog
the robot, teach positions, and diagnose problems.

Vacuum Cups: A type of pneumatic pickup device which attaches to parts being trans-
ferred via a suction or vacuum pressure created by a venturi transducer or a vacuum
pump. They are typically used on parts with a smooth surface finish, but can be used on
some parts with nonsmooth surface finish by the adding of a ring of closed-cell foam
rubber to the cup.
VAL (Versatile Assembly Language): An assembly-level robot programming language
developed by Unimation, Inc., in the late 1970s and an outgrowth of work done at Cal-
ifornia’s Stanford University that provides the ability to define the task a robot is to
perform. VAL’s features include continuous path motion and matrix transformation.
VAL-II: An enhanced and expanded assembly-level robot control and programming
system based on VAL and developed by Unimation, Inc. VAL-II includes the capabilities
of VAL as well as a capability for communication with external computer systems at
various levels, trajectory modifications in response to real-time data, standard interfaces
to external sensors, computed or sensor-based trajectories, and facilities for making com-
plex decisions.
Vehicle Navigation: A system incorporating control surfaces or other devices which
adjusts and maintains the navigation course, and sometimes speed, of a robotic vehicle
in accordance with signals received from a guidance system.
Velocity Control: A method to control the motions of a robot driven by electric motors.
The robot arm is treated as a load disturbance acting on the motor’s shaft. The velocity
of the robot arm is controlled by manipulation of the motor voltage.
Vertical Integration: The integration of activities at different hierarchical levels in the
enterprise by investigating the passing of information through a control system and an
information system. The analysis can be supported through information modeling and an
architecture which identifies where various actions and exchanges are taken.
Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit (VLSI): A complex integrated circuit that con-
tains at least 20,000 logic gates or 64,000 bits of memory.
Viability: The designed ability of Responsive Robots to adapt to changing conditions
and unexpected events.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1315

Vibratory Feeder: A feeding mechanism for small parts that causes piece parts to move
upward as they vibrate up inclined ledges or tracks, spiraling around the inside of the
bowl.
Virtual Fixture: Abstract sensorial data in a virtual reality environment which is over-
laid on top of the remote space and used to guide the operator in the performance of
tasks.
Virtual Manufacturing Components: Computer model representations which charac-
terize properties of manufacturing components from viewpoints and perspectives of the
various people concerned with a manufacturing system throughout its lifetime.
Virtual Reality (VR): A simulation of an environment that is experienced by a human
operator provided with a combination of visual (computer-graphic), auditory, and tactile
presentations generated by a computer program. Also known as artificial reality, immer-
sive simulation, virtual environment and virtual world.
Virtual Robot: Virtual representation of a robot manipulator and part of a virtual reality
system for robot programming developed at Fraunhofer-IPA, Stuttgart, Germany. The
programming is done on a virtual robot and a virtual environment, with the programmer
interaction being mediated by virtual reality input / output devices. Thus the programmer
wears a sensing glove and a head mounted display and feels immersed in the application.
He or she can navigate using a trackball, look at the scene from any angle, and see details
that may not be visible in real life. Once the code is debugged, it is downloaded to a real
robot controller connected to the same virtual reality engine, and the task is executed.
Feedback from the sensors on the real robot is then used to fine-tune the program.
Vision System: A camera (or cameras) system interfaced to guide a robot to locate a
part, identify it, direct the gripper to a suitable grasping position, pick up the part, and
bring it to the work area. A coordinate transformation between the cameras and the robot
must be carried out to enable proper operation of the system.
Vision, Three-Dimensional: The means of providing a robot with depth perception.
With three-dimensional (stereo) vision, robots can avoid assembly errors, search for out-
of-place parts, distinguish between similar parts, and correct positioning discrepancies
(see also Stereo Imaging).
Vision, Two-Dimensional: The processing of two-dimensional images by a computer
vision system to derive the identity, position, orientation, or condition of objects in the
scene. It is useful in industrial applications, such as inspecting, locating, counting, mea-
suring, and controlling industrial robots.

Warmup: A procedure used to stabilize the temperature of a robot’s hydraulic com-

ponents. A warmup usually consists of a limited period of movement and motion actions
and is carried out to prevent program-positioning errors whenever the robot has been shut
down for any length of time.
Weaving: In robotic arc welding, this is a motion pattern of the welding tool to provide
a higher-quality weld. The robot controller produces a weaving pattern by controlling
weave-width, left-and-right dwell, and crossing time.
Web Searching (Robotic): The traversing of the World Wide Web by a web robot (an
autonomous computer program) retrieving recursively documents that are referenced. Web
robots differ from web browsers in that browsers are operated by a human user and do
not automatically retrieve referenced documents. Web robots can be used for selective
indexing (deciding which sites to retrieve the documents from), HTML validation, link
validation, ‘‘what’s new’’ monitoring, and mirroring.
Wedging: In rigid part assembly, a condition where two-point contact occurs too early
in part mating, leading to the part that is supposed to be inserted appearing to be stuck
in the hole. Unlike jamming, wedging is caused by geometric rather than ill-proportioned
applied forces.
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1316 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Welding (Robotic): Robot manipulation of a welding tool for spot or arc welding.
Robots are used in welding applications to reduce costs by eliminating human labor,
improve product quality through better welds, and, particularly in arc welding, minimize
human exposure to harsh environments. Spot welding automotive bodies, normally per-
formed by a point-to-point servo robot, is currently the largest single application for
robots. In such applications robots make from about 40 to over 75 percent of the total
spot welds on a given vehicle.
Windowing (Image): An image analysis technique in which only selected areas of the
image are analyzed. The area, or windows, may surround a hole or some other relevant
aspect of a part in the field of view. Various techniques can be used to study features of
the object in the window.
Windup: A colloquial term describing the twisting of a shaft under torsional load that
may cause a positioning error; the twist usually unwinds when the load is removed.
Work Envelope: Also known as the robot operating envelope or workspace. The set
of points representing the maximum extent or reach of the robot tool in all directions
(see also Reachability).
Workflow: Automated controls of business that are ‘‘structured.’’ It identifies the se-
quence of activities and the rules dictating the sequence.
Working Range:

1. The volume of space which can be reached by maximum extensions of the robot’s
axis.
2. The range of any variable within which the system normally operates.

Workspace: See Work Envelope.

Workstation: A location providing a stable, well-defined space for the implementation
of related production tasks. Major components may include a station substructure or
platform, tool and material storage, and locating devices to interface with other equipment.
The workstation is traditionally defined as one segment of fixed technology, a portion of
a fixed transfer machine, or a person working at one worksite. Now station can mean one
or more robots at a single worksite, a robot dividing its time among several worksites, a
robot serving one or several fixed workheads, or any other useful combination.
World Model: A model of the robot’s environment containing geometric and physical
descriptions of objects; kinematic descriptions of linkages; descriptions of the robot sys-
tem characteristics; and explicit specification of the amount of uncertainty there is in
model parameters. This model is useful in task-level programming.
World-Coordinate Programming: Programming the motion of each robot axis such
that the tool center point is the center of the path with no regard to tool pose.
World-Coordinate System: A Cartesian coordinate system with the origin at the ma-
nipulator base. The X and Y axes are perpendicular and on a plane parallel to the ground,
and the Z axis is perpendicular to both X and Y. It is used to reference a workpiece, jig,
or fixture.
World Wide Web Technologies (WWW): A set of standards for storing, retrieving,
formatting, and displaying information using a client / server architecture, graphical user
interfaces, and a hypertext language that enables dynamic links to other documents. Ro-
botics applications include distributed programming and control and teleoperation.
Wrist: A set of joints, usually rotational, between the arm and the hand or end-effector,
which allow the hand or end-effector to be oriented relative to the workpiece.
Wrist Force Sensor: A structure with some compliant sections and transducers that
serve as force sensors by measuring the deflections of the compliant sections. The types
of transducers used are strain-gauge, piezoelectric, magnetostrictive, and magnetic.
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1317

X-Y-␪ Table: A robotic mechanism used primarily for positioning parts by translational
and rotational planar motions. It can be integrated into a vision system and serve as an
intelligent workpiece conveyor / presenter which loads, transports, positions, and orients
parts.

Yaw: The angular displacement of a moving joint about an axis which is perpendicular
to the line of motion and the top side of the body.