QUOTE

“Our world is world is built on biology and once we begin to understand it,
It then becomes a technology”
- By Ryan Bethencourt

WELCOME TO THE WORLD OF BIOLOGY

 Biology, study of living things and their vital processes. The field deals with all
the physicochemical aspects of life.

 The modern tendency toward cross-disciplinary research and the unification of

scientific knowledge and investigation from different fields has resulted in
significant overlap of the field of biology with other scientific disciplines.

 Modern principles of other fields—chemistry, medicine, and physics, for

example—are integrated with those of biology in areas such as biochemistry,
biomedicine, and biophysics.

 Biology is subdivided into separate branches for convenience of study, though

all the subdivisions are interrelated by basic principles.

 Thus, while it is custom to separate the study of plants (botany) from that
of animals (zoology), and the study of the structure of organisms (morphology)
from that of function (physiology).

 All living things share in common certain biological phenomena—for example,

various means of reproduction, cell division, and the transmission of genetic
material.

Father of Botany – Theophrastus

Father of Zoology – Aristotle
Father of Morphology – Wilhelm Hofmeister
Father of Physiology - Claude Bernard

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 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION

 Neural control and coordination are a crucial aspect of human physiology.

 Neural system is a well-organized network of point-to-point connections in the

human body that allows for speedy coordination, while the endocrine system is
responsible for chemical integration via hormones.

 Coordination refers to the process by which two or more organs interact and
complement one another’s functions. For example, when we exercise, the supply
of oxygen and the demand for energy both rise as our muscular activity increases.

 When we cease exercising, our nerves, heart, lungs, and kidneys all return to
normal. As a result, all of the organs’ functions are well coordinated to execute
physical activity and provide appropriate circumstances during physical exercise.

 Similarly, in human bodies, the brain and endocrine systems work together to
coordinate and integrate all of the organs’ operations so that they operate in
unison.

• Coordination is the process through which two or more organs interact and
complement the functions of one another.

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 NEURAL SYSTEM
Neurons
The neural system of all animals is composed of highly specialized cells called
neurons which can detect, receive and transmit different kinds of stimuli.

Neural Organization in Invertebrates, Vertebrates and Insects

 The neural organization is very simple in lower invertebrates. For example, in
Hydra it is composed of a network of neurons.
 The neural system is better organized in insects, where a brain is present along
with a number of ganglia and neural tissues.
 The vertebrates have a more developed neural system.

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 HUMAN NEURAL SYSTEM
The Human Neural System is divided into two parts :
 The Central Neural System (CNS)

 The Peripheral Neural System (PNS)

The Central Neural System (CNS)

The CNS includes the brain and the spinal cord and is the site of information
processing and control. The PNS comprises of all the nerves of the body
associated with the CNS (brain and spinal cord).

The Peripheral Neural System (PNS)

The nerve fibres of the PNS are of two types :
 Afferent Fibres

 Efferent Fibres

The afferent nerve fibres transmit impulses from tissues/organs to the CNS and
the efferent fibers transmit regulatory impulses from the CNS to the concerned
peripheral tissues/organs.

The PNS is divided into two divisions called

 Somatic Neural System

 Autonomic Neural System

The Somatic Neural System relays impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles
Autonomic Neural System transmits impulses from the CNS to the involuntary
organs and smooth muscles of the body.

The Autonomic Neural System is further classified into

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 Sympathetic Neural System

 Parasympathetic Neural System.

Visceral Nervous System

Visceral Nervous System is the part of the peripheral nervous system that
comprises the whole complex of nerves, fibres, ganglia, and plexuses by which
impulses travel from the central nervous system to the viscera and from the
viscera to the central nervous system.

NEURON AS STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF NEURAL SYSTEM

Neuron
A neuron is a microscopic structure composed of three major parts, namely, cell
body, dendrites and axon. The cell body contains cytoplasm with typical cell
organelles and certain granular bodies called Nissl’s granules.
Dendrites
Short fibres which branch repeatedly and project out of the cell body also contain
Nissl’s granules and are called dendrites. These fibres transmit impulses towards
the cell body.
Axon
The axon is a long fibre, the distal end of which is branched. Each branch
terminates as a bulb-like structure called synaptic knob which possess synaptic
vesicles containing chemicals called neurotransmitters. The axons transmit nerve
impulses away from the cell body to a synapse or to a neuro-muscular junction.
Based on the number of axon and dendrites, the neurons are divided into three
types :
 Multipolar (with one axon and two or more dendrites; found in the cerebral
cortex)

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 Bipolar (with one axon and one dendrite, found in the retina of eye)

 Unipolar (cell body with one axon only; found usually in the embryonic stage).

There are two types of Axons

 Myelinated

 Non-Myelinated

Myelinated Nerve Fibres

• The myelinated nerve fibres are enveloped with Schwann cells, which form a
myelin sheath around the axon.
• The gaps between two adjacent myelin sheaths are called nodes of Ranvier.
 Myelinated nerve fibres are found in spinal and cranial nerves.

Non – Myelinated Nerve Fibres

Unmyelinated nerve fibre is enclosed by a Schwann cell that does not form a
myelin sheath around the axon, and is commonly found in autonomous and the
somatic neural systems.
TYPES OF NEURONS
Sensory Neurons
Function: Sensory neurons carry signals from sensory receptors (like the skin,
eyes, ears, nose, and tongue) to the central nervous system (CNS), which includes
the brain and spinal cord.
Role in Reflex Actions: They detect changes in the environment (stimuli) and
transmit this information to the CNS for processing.

Motor Neurons

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Function: Motor neurons carry signals from the CNS to the muscles or glands,
triggering a response such as muscle contraction or secretion of hormones.
Role in Reflex Actions: They execute the response determined by the CNS. For
example, pulling your hand back when you touch something hot.

Relay Neurons (Interneurons)

Function: Relay neurons are found within the CNS and act as connectors between
sensory neurons and motor neurons.
Role in Reflex Actions: They process the information received from sensory
neurons and decide the appropriate response. This signal is then passed on to the
motor neurons.

GENERATION AND CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE

 Neurons are excitable due to their polarized membranes.

 The polarization of the neuron membrane is due to differential ion

permeability: more permeable to K+ and impermeable to Na+ at rest.
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 Inside the axon, high K+ and negatively charged proteins; outside, low K+ and
high Na+ create an ionic concentration gradient.

• The resting potential is maintained by the sodium-potassium pump (3 Na+ out,

2 K+ in).

• Resting membrane potential: outer surface positive, inner surface negative.

• Action potential (nerve impulse) generation:

 Stimulus at a site (e.g., A) increases Na+ permeability, causing

depolarization.
 Rapid Na+ influx reverses polarity temporarily (outer surface negative,
inner positive).
 This is the action potential.

• Action potential propagation:

 Ahead of site A (e.g., site B), membrane is polarized oppositely (outer

positive, inner negative).
 Current flows from A to B (inside) and B to A (outside), completing the
circuit.
 Action potential generated at A triggers B, and so on.

• Restoration of resting potential:

 Na+ permeability increase is short-lived, followed by K+ permeability

increase.
 K+ efflux restores resting potential, making neuron responsive to further
stimulation.

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 TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES
 The transmission of a nerve impulse along a neuron from one end to the other
takes place because of the electrical changes across the neurons.
 Synapses are the nerve endings of neurons where the neural impulses are
transmitted between each neuron.
 They contain a pre-synaptic ending, a synaptic cleft, and a post-synaptic ending.

 The Neurotransmitters thus produced in the neuron, cross the synaptic cleft
and bind to receptors in the postsynaptic ending. The released neurotransmitters
bind to their specific receptors, present on the post-synaptic membrane.
 They then stimulate an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron.

 The membrane of an unstimulated neuron is first polarized which then creates

a difference in electrical charge between the outside and inside of the membrane.
 Polarization is established by maintaining an excess of sodium ions on the
outside and an excess of potassium ions on the inside.

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 Synapses
Synapses
are the nerve endings of neurons where the neural impulses are transmitted
between each neuron.
A Synapse is formed by the membranes of a pre-synaptic neuron and a post-
synaptic neuron, which may or may not be separated by a gap called Synaptic
Cleft.

CENTRAL NEURAL SYSTEM (CNS)

 The brain is the central information processing organ of our body, and acts as
the ‘command and control system’.
 It controls the voluntary movements, balance of the body, functioning of vital
involuntary organs (e.g., lungs, heart, kidneys, etc.), thermoregulation, hunger
and thirst, circadian (24-hour) rhythms of our body, activities of several endocrine
glands and human behavior.
 It is also the site for processing of vision, hearing, speech, memory, intelligence,
emotions and thoughts.

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 The human brain is well protected by The Skull. Inside the skull, the brain is
covered by cranial meninges consisting of an outer layer called Dura Mater, a very
thin middle layer called Arachnoid and an inner layer (which is in contact with the
brain tissue) called Pia Mater.

FOREBRAIN
The Forebrain is the largest part of the brain and is located at the front of the
head. It plays a critical role in various functions including sensory perception,
motor function, conscious thought, and decision making. The forebrain is divided
into several important structures:
 Frontal lobe – Is associated with parts of speech, reasoning, problem-solving,
planning, movement and emotions
 Parietal lobe – We associate parietal lobe with recognition, orientation, and
perception of stimuli
 Occipital lobe – Is responsible for visual processing

 Temporal lobe – Finally temporal lobe is associated with memory, speech

perception and recognition of auditory stimuli.
 Thalamus - Located at the center of the brain, the thalamus serves as a relay
station for sensory information (except smell) traveling to the cerebral cortex. It
plays a crucial role in regulating consciousness, sleep, and alertness.
 Hypothalamus - Situated below the thalamus, the hypothalamus regulates
various autonomic functions such as body temperature, hunger, thirst, and

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circadian rhythms. It also controls the pituitary gland, which is a key player in the
endocrine system.

MIDBRAIN

 Location: The midbrain is situated above the hindbrain and below the forebrain.
It connects these two major parts of the brain.

 Function: The midbrain serves several critical functions:

 Sensory Processing: It plays a role in processing sensory information received

from the eyes, ears, and skin, and integrating this information for motor
responses.
 Motor Control: It contains nuclei involved in controlling voluntary movements,
including those related to eye movements and coordination.
 Arousal and Consciousness: The midbrain contributes to arousal and alertness,
helping to maintain consciousness.
 Temperature Regulation: It also plays a role in regulating body temperature.

 Role in the Brainstem: As part of the brainstem, the midbrain helps relay
sensory information and regulate basic bodily functions such as heartbeat,
breathing, and digestion.
 A canal called the cerebral aqueduct passes through the midbrain.

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The Dorsal Portion of the midbrain consists mainly of four round swellings
(lobes) called Corpora Quadrigemina

HINDBRAIN

 Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brainstem, the cerebellum is

responsible for coordinating voluntary movements, balance, posture, and
motor learning (such as learning to ride a bike).
 Pons: Located above the medulla oblongata, the pons serves as a bridge
between different parts of the brain, helping to relay signals between the
cerebrum and the cerebellum.
 Medulla Oblongata: This is the lowest part of the brainstem and connects
directly to the spinal cord. It regulates vital autonomic functions such as
breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and swallowing.

 Function: The hindbrain plays crucial roles in:

 Motor Control: The cerebellum coordinates smooth and precise muscle
movements. It receives sensory input about muscle tone and position and
adjusts motor output accordingly.

 Vital Functions: The medulla oblongata regulates involuntary functions

necessary for survival, such as breathing, heartbeat, and digestion.

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  Bridge for Information: The pons acts as a relay station, transmitting signals
between the cerebrum, cerebellum, and spinal cord.

The Hindbrain is essential for coordinating movement and regulating vital bodily
functions. It ensures that sensory information is integrated and motor responses
are executed smoothly.

TYPES OF RECEPTORS
PHOTORECEPTORS
 Location: Found in the retina of the eyes.
 Function: Detect light and enable vision.
 Types: Rods (sensitive to low light) and Cones (detect color and detail).

THERMORECEPTORS
 Location: Found in the skin and hypothalamus.

 Function: Detect changes in temperature.

CHEMORECEPTORS
Location: Found in the nose, tongue, and various internal organs.
Function: Detect chemical stimuli.
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Olfactory Receptors: In the nose, detect smells.
Gustatory Receptors: In the taste buds of the tongue, detect tastes.

PHONORECEPTORS
Location: Primarily found in the inner ear, specifically within the cochlea.
Function: Detect sound vibrations and convert them into electrical signals that
can be interpreted by the brain as sound.

BIBILIOGRAPHY
1.Unacademy.com
2.BYJUS.com
3.Vedantu.com
4.NCERT Textbook
5.Toppr.com
6.Britannica.com

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