Tribes in India: Structure and Change

Course No: SOC23207GE

Unit 1 Introduction
Concept and Features of Tribe
Tribal Social Institutions: Family, Marriage and Kinship
Tribe-Caste Continuum
Unit 2 Tribes in India: Profile and Problems
Demographic Profile
Tribal Religion
Problems of Tribes: Poverty, Land Alienation and Identity
 DEFINITION AND FEATURES OF TRIBE
In Oxford Dictionary of sociology ‘tribe’ is defined as
a social group bound together by kin and duly associated with
a particular territory; members of the tribe share the social
cohesion and associated with the family together with the sense
of political autonomy of the nation.
The New Encyclopedia Britannica defines it as
A type of human social organization based on small groups
defined by traditions of common descends and having
temporary or permanent political integration above the family
level and a shared language, culture and ideology.
W.H.R. Rivers had defined a tribe as
“a group of a simple kind, settled in a definite locality which speaks a
common language and is capable of uniting for common action as in
warfare”.
G.A. Richards describing a tribe as
“an economically independent group of people speaking the same
language and uniting to defend themselves against outsiders”.
Likewise, Hoebel defines a tribe as
‘a social group speaking a distinctive language or dialect and possessing
a distinctive culture that marks it off from the other tribes. It is not
necessarily organised politically”.
A tribe has been defined as, “a politically or socially coherent and
autonomous group occupying or claiming a particular territory”
In the Indian context, the Imperial Gazetteer of India has reflected that
“A tribe, as we find in India, is a collection of families, groups of families, bearing a
common name which, as a rule, does not denote any specific occupation; generally
claiming common descent from a mystical or historical ancestor and occasionally from
an animal, but in some parts of the country held together rather by the obligation of
blood-feud than by the tradition of Kinship; usually speaking the same language and
occupying, or claiming to occupy, a definite tract of country. A tribe is not necessarily
endogamous, i.e. it is not an invariable rule that a man of a particular tribe must marry a
woman of that tribe”
D. N. Majumdar has defined tribe as a
“social group with territorial affiliation, endogamous, with no specialization of
functions, ruled by tribal officers, hereditary or otherwise, united in language or dialect,
recognizing social distance with other tribes or castes, without any social obloquy
attaching to them, as it does in the caste structure, following tribal traditions, beliefs,
and customs, illiberal of naturalization of ideas from the alien sources, above all
conscious of homogeneity of ethnic and territorial integration”
Andre Béteille, has stated that
the term ‘tribe’ has been used to describe people who are regarded as
‘primitive’, with animistic religion, and living in hilly terrains or backward
areas.
In the Indian context, it is worthy to note that there is no indigenous term
equivalent to the word ‘tribe’ which comes from the Roman word tribus.
From time immemorial the people living in the forests, hills, and remote plain
areas within India have been known by such names as vanavasi (forest
dwellers), adivasis (first settlers), anusuchit janjati (scheduled tribes), and so
on. It has been stated that in Sanskrit, there is a term atavikajana, which was
used to denote agglomeration of individuals with specific territorial, kinship,
and cultural patterns. In most of the anthropological writings, the literal
translation of the name of a Tribe means ‘Humans’ or ‘original inhabitants’.
From the examples of empirical works, it is clear that the term ‘tribe’ is not of Indian
origin;
Indian anthropologists have stated time and again that the use of the term ‘tribe’ in the
Indian context dates back to the colonial period. It was during the British rule in India,
for better administration purposes, administrators and anthropologists were encouraged and
engaged in the study of the Indian population. The word ‘Tribe’ was officially recorded and
used by the British in the Indian context.
The categorization of the Indian population into two distinct groups- Tribes and Caste came
up in the first Census of India 1891, a report prepared by Baine wherein, the tribal groups
were clubbed under the category of “Forest Tribes”, which constituted a part of the
“Agricultural and Pastoral Castes”. This population was estimated at 16 million at that time.
In the 1901 Census report by Risley, they were renamed as “Animists”, based on religious
practices, while in the 1911 Census report by Gait, they were termed as “Tribal Animists”
or the people following “Tribal Religion”. Hutton in the Census report of 1921 classified
tribes under “Hill and Forest tribes” with a population of 22 million. In the 1931 Census,
they were named “Primitive Tribes”. In the Government of India Act of 1935, they were
termed as “Backward Tribes” and the 1941 Census report used the term “Tribes” .
 Tribes as per Indian Constitution
Let us begin this section with the definition of tribes that have been
provided in the Indian Constitution under Article 366 (25).
“Scheduled Tribes” means such tribes or tribal communities or
parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are
deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for the purposes
of this constitution” (The Constitution of India 2014, seventh edition, pp: 378).
The term ‘Scheduled Tribes’ first appeared in the Constitution of
India. Article 342, which is reproduced below, prescribes a
procedure to be followed in the matter of specification of scheduled
tribes.
Article 342
The President may, with respect to any State or Union territory, and where
it is a state, after consultation with the Governor thereof by public
notification, specify the tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups
within tribes or tribal communities which shall, for the purposes of this
constitution, is deemed to be scheduled tribes in relation to that State or
Union Territory, as the case may be.
Parliament may by law include in or exclude from the list of Scheduled
tribes specified in a notification issued under clause (1) any tribe or tribal
community or part of or group within any tribe or tribal community, but save
as aforesaid, a notification issued under the said clause shall not be varied by
any subsequent notification.
Owing to this, we see that the list of Scheduled Tribes in India is ever
increasing, it was 500 in the 1951 Census which today stands at around 700
in number. To date, claims of the various communities in India, to be included
in the list of Scheduled Tribes continue. To look into such claims, the Joint
Parliamentary Committee, 1967 had listed five criteria for judging the
eligibility of any group as a tribe;
a. Indication of primitive traits
b. Distinctive culture
c. Geographical isolation
d. Shyness of contact with the larger community
e. Backwardness
 Features of Tribe
From the discussions made above regarding various definitions of tribe, the following
characteristics may be derived for the tribe including the Indian varieties.
• Common Territory
A tribe is a territorial community. It means that the tribe has a definite territory in which its
members reside. For Example, the Naga, Rengma Naga, Sema Naga and other tribals reside
in Nagaland; Garos, Khasis, Khasas live in Assam; Bhils in Madhya Preadesh; Soligas in
Mysore; Thodasln in Niligiri Hills of Tamil Nadu, and so on. In the absence of a common
locality or territory a tribe would lose its uniqueness.
• Collection of Families
As the definitions of tribe cited above clarify, tribals constitute a collection of families. These
collections may have various sizes. These families which normally have blood relationships
among themselves could be matriarchal or patriarchal in nature.
• Common Name
Every tribe has its own name. Each tribe is known to other tribes by its distinctive name.
Example of some Indian tribes: Garo, Khasi, Khasa, Naga, Rengma Naga, Sema Naga,
Limbu, Santhal, MUnda, Gond, Kota, Badaga, Urali, Thodas, etc.
• Common Language
The members of a tribe speak a particular language. Different tribes speak different
languages. These languages are not only different from the language of the civilised people,
but they themselves differ from one another. Common language contributes much to the
development of community feeling. Since these languages do not have a script of their own,
education of the tribals has become problematic.
• Common Ancestor
The tribals claim that they have a common ancestor. A major cause of the sense of
communal unity in the tribe is “the tie of blood relationship” between its members arising
out of common ancestry. The tribals are bound by kinship bonds.
• Common Religion
Religion plays an important role in the tribal organization. The members of a tribe usually
worship a common ancestor. Also, ‘nature worship’ is common among them. In addition to
the Ancestral worship and nature worship the tribals practice other types of faith such as -
festishism, animism and totemism. Magic is also widespread among them. The tribal social
and political organisations are based on this religion. Participation in common religious
ceremonies functions and festivals contributes to the unity of the group.
• Common Culture
Each tribe has a way of life of its own. Each tribe has its own way of behaving, thinking,
feeling and acting. Each has its own customs, traditions, morals, values, its own peculiar
institutions in brief, its own culture. The very peculiarities of a tribe reveal that it has a
distinctive culture of its own.
• Common Political Organisation
Each tribe has its own political system. The tribal chief normally,exercises authority
overall the other members. The chieftainship is normally,hereditary. He occupies an
important position in the tribal society. The tribals,do not possess a government in the
modern sense of the term. But, they do,have their own tribal government, tribal council
and tribal court or judicial,system. Santhai, for example, an advanced tribe, has a village
council the,members of which are democratically elected.
• Feeling of Unity
The members of a tribe always feel that they are united. This sense of unity is essential
for them to retain their identity. Tribals are normally cohesive and they fight against
common enemies as one man. They are ever ready to avenge the injustice done to the
group or the individuals.
• Simplicity and Self-Sufficiency
A tribal society is not complex but simple in character. Hunting, fishing and collection of
roots, fruits, nuts, berries, honey and forest products are their main means of subsistence.
Some have taken to cultivation also. They do not posses, neither do they enjoy the
facilities of civilised people. There was a time when the tribals were self-sufficient. Due to
the increase in their population and changed economic conditions, their self sufficiency
has gone. They are becoming more and more dependent on the civilized community and
also the government help.
 Classification or Division of Tribal Population in India
For the sake of convenience and study the tribal people of India have been broadly
classified on different bases.
Geographical or regional distribution forms the first base. On this basis the following
five regions are considered.
(1) North-Eastern Region :
It consists of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. The tribes in this
region include the Garo, Kuki, Mizo, Khasi, Monda, Serna, Nagas, Riyang, Miri, Apatani
etc.
(2) The Sub-Himalayan Region:
It includes north and northwest India, Himachal Pradesh, the major tribes being Gurjar,
Gaddi, Theru, Jaunsari etc.
(3) The Central and East India:
It consists of West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. The tribes
covered are: Baiga, Bondo, Joang, Kol, Khond, Santhal, Uraon, Ho, Munda, Lepcha,
Karwa, Bhils, and Pahadiya etc.
(4) South India:
This includes the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka. The Karnataka. The main tribes included are the Tod, Kol,
Kadar, Chenchu, Koya, Gonds, Cholanaiken, Godaba etc.
(5) Western India:
Includes Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra and the tribes included
are the Bhils, Ganasia, Gonds, Kolams, Pardhans, Korku, Koli,
Thakar,Katkari, Warli, Pawra, Munda, Kol, Khond, Dubla etc.
Classification based on Language:
Another classification is based on the language spoken which is assigned to
various language groups. These are:
1. Austric Language Group :
The tribes speaking languages from this group include Kol, Munda, Khasi,
Nikobari, Korku, Santals, and Gadaba etc.
2. Tibeto-Chinese Language Group:
For example, the Naga, Khasi, Kuki, Mismi, Mizo etc.
3. The Dravidian Language Group:
The Gond, Toda, Koya, Pradhan, Uraon etc.
4. The Indo-European Language Group:
The Bhils, Warlis, Thakurs, Koli etc.
Classification Based on Ethnic Roots:
One more classification is based on the ethnic roots of the tribes. The more
predominant are as follows:
1. The Mongoloid Origin:
The Nagas, Mizo, Serna, Jaunsari, Apa-Tanis, Tharu etc.
2. Proto-Austroloid :
This group usually speaks the so-called Kherwarian or Kaularian languages
and includes the Munda, Ho, Bhils, Paradia, Korku, Korwa, Baiga, Gonds
etc.
3. The Negrito:
Whom we usually recognize as being of Dravidian origin and include Toda,
Kola etc.