ST.

FINBARR’S COLLEGE, AKOKA

CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 1
SSS2 CHEMISTRY FIRST TERM SCHEME OF WORK
WEEKS TOPICS SUB-TOPICS/CONTENTS
1. Revision/Periodic Table i. The Modern Periodic Table
ii. Periods of Elements
iii. Groups of Elements
iv The Reactive Metals
v. The Transition Metals
vi. General Characteristics of First Transition Metals
vii. The Lanthanides and Actinides
viii. The Non–metals and Noble Gases
ix. Metalloids
2. Periodic Trends i. Periodicity
ii. Atomic Radius
iii. Ionic Radius
iv. Periodic Properties of Elements
v. Diagonal Relationship in the Properties of Elements in
the Periodic Table.
3. Oxidation and Reduction i. Definition of Oxidation and Reduction
Reaction ii. Determination of the Oxidation State of Element in
Compound
iii. Concepts of Oxidation and Reduction
4. Identification of Oxidizing i. Examples of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
and Reducing Agents ii. Test for Oxidizing Agents
iii. Test for Reducing Agents
iv. Balancing of Redox Equations
5. Electrolysis i. Terms in Electrolysis
ii. Types of Electrolytes
iii. The Electrolytic Cell
iv. Conductors and its Types
v. Differences between Conductors and Electrolytes
vi. Differences between a Conductor and Non-conductor
(Insulator)
6. Electrolysis of Specified i. Electrolysis of Dilute Tetraoxosulphate (VI)
Electrolytes Acid (Acidified Water)
ii. Electrolysis of Concentrated Sodium Chloride
iii. Solution (Brine Solution)
iv. Electrolysis of Copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI)
Solution using Different Electrodes.
v. Uses of Electrolysis
7. Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis i. Faraday’s First and Second Law of Electrolysis
ii. Solving Problems on the Laws of Electrolysis
8. Electrochemistry i. The Electrochemical Cell
ii. Electrode Potential
iii. Standard Electrode Potential
iv. Drawing and Writing of Cell Diagrams
v. Calculations on e.m.f of a Cell
9. Application of i. Primary and Secondary Cell
Electrochemical Cell ii. Differences between Primary and Secondary Cells
10. Energy Changes in Chemical i. Types of Heat Change in Chemical Reaction
Reaction ii. Enthalpy, Entropy, Gibb’s Free Energy
iii. Laws of Thermodynamics
11-12. Revision and
Examination
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 2
THE PERIODIC TABLE
Objectives:
 Define the periodic table.
 Name each group in the periodic table and give examples.
 State the characteristics of each group in the periodic table.
 State the general characteristics of first transition metals.

The periodic table is the arrangement of chemical elements in order of their atomic numbers. Atomic number,
Z, of an element is the number of protons in one atom of that element. It is the arrangement of elements in
rows and columns in a table. Any systematic study must be based on a good system of classification.

In chemistry, classification of elements began with Anthony Lavoisier, whose classification was essentially
into metals and non-metals. Many scientists have attempted to classify chemical elements based on their
properties.

They include Newland, Lothar Meyer, Dobereiner and Dmitri Mendeleev as well as Henry Moseley.
Mendeleev periodic law state that the “properties of an elements are in periodic function of their relative
atomic masses”. This law fulfilled two important functions:
1. It summarized the properties of elements and classified them into groups with similar properties.
2. It enables predictions to be made about the properties of known and unknown elements and led to
considerable research activity.

The use of relative atomic mass was somehow confusing to chemists, because relative atomic mass is not in
whole numbers. The modern periodic table is based on Mendeleev’s original idea in 1869. The basic
assumption behind the modern periodic table known as Modern Periodic Law which states that “the
properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic number.

Moseley's contribution to the periodic table was that he arranged the elements in the periodic table
according to atomic numbers. He realized his findings indicated that the identity of an element is how many
protons it has. The number of protons represents the atomic number of an element.

The Modern Periodic Table

The modern periodic table is divided into vertical columns of elements called Groups and horizontal rows of
elements called Periods. There are seven (7) periods and eight (8) groups. The first twenty (20) elements are:
1. Hydrogen 6. Carbon 11. Sodium 16. Sulphur
2. Helium 7. Nitrogen 12. Magnesium 17. Chlorine
3. Lithium 8. Oxygen 13. Aluminium 18. Argon
4. Beryllium 9. Fluorine 14. Silicon 19. Potassium
5. Boron 10. Neon 15. Phosphorus 20. Calcium
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Periodic Table of Elements CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 3

Periods of Elements
The horizontal or row arrangement of elements is called period, and are numbered from 1 – 7. All elements in
the same period have the same number of shells.
Period 1has two (2) elements Period 2 has eight (8) elements
Period 3 has eight (8) elements Period 4 has eighteen (18) elements
Period 5 has eighteen (18) elements Period 6 has thirty-two (32) elements
Period 7 has thirty-two (32) elements

Groups of Elements
The vertical or column arrangement of elements is called group, and are numbered from 1 – 7 and 0. There are
eight (8) groups in the periodic table. All elements in the same group have the same number of valence
electrons or same number of electrons at the outermost shell.

Group 1: Alkali metals Group 5: Nitrogen Family

Group 2: Alkaline - earth metals Group 6: Oxygen Family
Group 3: Boron Family Group 7: Halogen Family
Group 4: Carbon Family Group 0: Noble or Inert gases

Group 1
1. They are univalent elements because they have one valance electron.
2. They ionized readily by donating one electron to form positive ions.
3. They are good reducing agent, their reducing properties increases down the group and decreases across the
period.
4. They form electrovalent compounds.
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5. They are very good conductors of electricity and are very electro-positive. CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 4
6. They react vigorously with cold water.
7. They are known as alkali metal, e.g lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium.

Group 2
1. They are divalent elements because they have two valance electrons.
2. They ionized readily by donating two electrons to form positive ions.
3. They are good reducing agent, their reducing properties increases down the group and decreases across the
period.
4. They form electrovalent compounds
5. They are very good conductors of electricity and are very electro-positive
6. Some react vigorously with cold water while others with steam.
7. They are known as alkaline-earth metal, e.g beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and
radium.

Group 3
1. They are trivalent elements because they have three valance electron.
2. They ionized readily by donating three electron to form positive ions.
3. They are good reducing agent, their reducing properties increases down the group and decreases across the
period.
4. They form electrovalent compounds.
5. They are very good conductors of electricity and are very electro-positive.
6. Aluminium reacts with steam.
7. They are known as boron family, e.g Boron, aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallum.

Group 4
1. They are tetravalent elements because they have four valance electron.
2. They exhibit two oxidation states, +2 and +4. The stability of the +2 state compounds increases while that
of the +4 state compounds decrease on moving down the group.
3. The group trend in changing from non-metal to metal on moving down the group.
4. They form covalent compounds.
5. They are non-conductors of electricity.
6. Carbon does not react with water in any form, but silicon and tin react with steam at red heat. 7. They are
known as carbon family, e.g carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, and lead.
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Group 5 CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 5
1. They are non –metals.
2. They show two valences of 3 and 5.
3. They are oxidizing agent.
4. They ionized readily by accepting three electrons to form negative ions.
5. They are bad conductors of electricity and are electro-negative.
6. They electrons acceptor.
7. They are known as nitrogen family, e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth.

Group 6
1. They are non –metals.
2. They ionized readily by accepting two electrons to form negative ions.
3. They are oxidizing agent.
4. They do not attack water in any form, oxygen combines directly with hydrogen to form water.
5. They are bad conductors of electricity and are electro-negative.
6. They are electron acceptors.
7. They are known as oxygen family, e.g. oxygen, sulphur, selenium, tellurium and polonium.

Group 7
1. They exist as diatomic molecule, e.g. F2, Cl2, Br2, I2.
2. They ionized to form univalent negative ion.
3. They are good oxidizing agent.
4. They are coloured.
5. They are most reactive non-metals and are very electro-negative.
6. They are electron acceptor.
7. They are known as halogen family, and exist mainly as salt e.g Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and
astatine.

Group 0
1. They form few compounds and exist freely as monoatomic molecules in the atmosphere, e.g. He, Ne, Ar.
2. They have no bonding electrons in the outermost shell.
3. They are non-reactive elements, because they have completely filled valence electron.
4. They show similar properties among themselves.
5. They bear no resemblance to the halogens that come before them and the alkali metals that come after
them.
6. They exhibit a gradation in their physical properties which is related to the progressive increase in their
atomic numbers.
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 6
7. Their melting and boiling points increase while their ionization energy decrease down the group from
helium to radon.
8. They are known as noble or inert gases e.g. helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon.

The Reactive Metals

The elements in Group I and Group II form a block of reactive metals .e.g. Na, Mg, K, Ca. They are sometimes
referred to as the “s – block” elements since the outermost electrons in these metals are in s– subshells. These
metals are all high in the electrochemical series and have lower densities, melting and boiling point than most
other metals. They form stable, involatile ionic compounds.

The Transition Metals

These elements are located between Group II and Group III in the periodic table which shows similar
behaviour. Transition elements are all metals with typical metallic properties such as high tensile strength and
high melting points.

They are sometimes called the “d–block” elements since electrons are added to d–subshells across this block
of elements. Elements in this group include Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu and Zn. They are much less
reactive than the metals in group I and II, hence they have properties different from that of the reactive metals.

General Characteristics of First Transition Metals

1. They have variable oxidation state.
2. They form coloured ions (Compounds).
3. They form complex ions.
4. They exhibit paramagnetism.
5. They are used as catalyst.

The Lanthanides and Actinides

These elements are found at the bottom of the periodic table, they are metals with typical metallic properties.
The lanthanides and actinides form a block of elements with the transition metals. They are sometimes called
the inner transition elements or “f–block” elements, since electrons are being added to f–sub-shells across this
block of elements. Lanthanide is the sixth period series and actinide is the seventh period series.

The Non–Metals
These elements form a triangular block in the periodic table which is located between Group III and Group
VII. They are sometimes called the “p–block” elements since the outermost electrons in these elements are
going into p – subshells. Non-metals include N, O, Si, P and the halogens which are Group VII elements.
These include F, Cl, Br, I and At.
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The Noble Gases CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 7
The elements in Group 0 are known as the inert or noble gases. They have completely filled shells and have
outer S– and P– subshells of electrons. They are very unreactive. Elements in this group include He, Ne, Ar,
Kr, Xe and Rn.

Metalloids
Some elements are very difficult to classify as either metals or non-metals, such elements are called metalloids
or semi–metals. They include B, Si, Ge, As, Te and are found as follows in the periodic table.
Group III – B
Group IV – Si, Ge
Group V – As
Group VI – Te
They are poor conductors of electricity.

Evaluation
1. Define the periodic table.
2. Name each group in the periodic table and give examples.
3. State the characteristics of each group in the periodic table.
4. State the general characteristics of first transition metals.
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 8
THE PERIODIC TRENDS
Objectives:
 Define periodicity.
 List and explain the periodic properties of elements.
 Give the trends of the periodic properties across the period and down the group.
 Explain the diagonal relationship in periodic table.

Periodicity
This is the variation of the properties of elements in a regular pattern both down the group and across the
period.

Atomic Radius
Atomic radius is defined as half the distance between the nuclei when the bond linking the atoms is a single
covalent bond. In other words, it is the distance of closest approach to another atom in a given bonding
situation.

The value of atomic radii decreases from left to right across a period. This is because as the nuclear charge
increases, the electrons enter the same shell at about the same distance from the nucleus. In moving down a
group of the periodic table, the atomic radii increases while it decreases from left to right across the period

Ionic Radius
This is the distance between the centre of one ion and the centre of its nearest neighbour of opposite charge.
Ionic radii deals with electrovalent compound and it varies periodically like the atomic radius, i.e. it decreases
across the period and increase down the group.

Ionization Energy
This is the minimum amount of energy required to remove a valence electron from the atom of an element to
form an ion. Generally, there is a tendency of ionization energy to increase across a period and decreases down
a group. The ionization energy of an atom is affected by:

1. The distance of the outermost electron from the nucleus.

2. The size of the positive nuclear charge.
3. The screening effect of the inner electrons.
Moving from left to right across the period, there is a general rise in the first ionization energy.
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 9
Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is the energy change that occurs when an isolated gaseous atom acquires an electron and so
becomes a negatively charge ion. E.g. X + e- → X-
If the electron affinity is negative, a lot of energy is released when the ion is formed. Generally, electron
affinities decrease (i.e. increases in negative value) from left to right across a period (except noble gases which
have positive values) and increase (i.e. decreases in negative value) from top to bottom within a group.

This is because, as the nuclear charge increase (i.e. smaller atomic radii) the extra electrons enter the same
electron shell and so are attracted more strongly.

Electronegativity
This is the measure of ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself. Electro negativity of
elements increases across a period but decreases down a group. This is because as we move from one element
to the next across a period, the nuclear charge increases and the atomic radius decrease.

Electro negativity can be used to predict the type of bonding a compound will have. When two elements of
widely different electro negativity combine, an ionic compound is formed.

Diagonal Relationship in the Properties of Elements in the Periodic Table

In the periodic table, particularly for the elements lithium and magnesium, beryllium and aluminium, boron
and silicon, there is diagonal resemblance. This is to be expected, since in moving from left to right across the
periodic table, the metallic properties gradually decrease, while on descending a group, they increase. Hence,
elements diagonally below one another have similar properties.
Li Be B C

Na Mg Al Si

The ions of lithium and magnesium have the following characteristics:

1. They are extensively hydrated due to their small size.
2. Their trioxocarbonates (IV) and trioxonitrate (V) undergo ready decomposition on heating.
3. Their tetraoxophospate (V) and trioxocarbonates (IV) are insoluble in water.
4. Both metals combine with nitrogen at high temperature.
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 10

S/N Atomic Properties Across the Period Down the Group

1. Atomic radii Decreases Increases

2. Ionic radii Decreases Increase

3. Ionization energy Increases Decreases

4. Electron affinity Increases Decreases

5. Electronegativity Increases Decreases

Evaluation
1. Define periodicity.
2. List and explain the periodic properties of elements.
3. Give the trends of the periodic properties across the period and down the group.
4. Explain the diagonal relationship in periodic table.

OXIDATION – REDUCTION REACTIONS

Objectives:
 Define oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen.
 Define oxidation and reduction in terms of electrons.
 Determine the oxidation state of elements in compound.
 Explain oxidation and reduction in terms of oxidation number.

Oxidation–reduction reactions involve two opposing yet complementary processes; oxidation and reduction.
Every oxidation must be accompanied by a reduction and vice versa. Oxidation–reduction reactions are
abbreviated as Redox Reactions.
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 11

Definition of Oxidation and Reduction

Addition of Oxygen: Oxidation is simply a reaction in which oxygen combines with another substance while
reduction is that in which oxygen is removed from a substance. For example,

CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
In the reaction above, the hydrogen is oxidized to water since oxygen has been added to it, while the copper
(II) oxide has been reduced to metallic copper since oxygen has been moved from it. Another example is as
follows:
ZnO + C CO2 + Zn
In the above reaction, Zinc oxide donates oxygen to the carbon and oxidizes it to carbon IV oxide, while carbon
removes oxygen form Zinc oxide and reduces it to metallic Zinc.

In terms of removal of hydrogen: Oxidation can also be defined as the removal of hydrogen from a substance
while reduction means the addition of hydrogen to a substance. For example:
H2S + Cl2 2HCl + S

The hydrogen sulphide has been oxidized to yellow sulphur since hydrogen has been removed from it and the
chlorine has been reduced to hydrogen chloride since hydrogen has been added to it.

Transfer of Electrons
Oxidation is a process involving loss of electron(s), while reduction is a process involving gain of electron(s).
This is the most concise definition of oxidation and reduction, because that concept of redox reaction in terms
of electron gain or loss, can be extended to all reactions, e.g. iron (II) chloride reacts with chlorine to form iron
(III) chloride: 2FeCl2 + Cl2 2FeCl3

Similarly, change such as the conversion of copper I to Copper II, lead II to lead IV and so on, are all regarded
as oxidation reactions. In all these changes, the charges on a positive ion are increased, while that on a negative
ion is decreased e.g.
Cu+ Cu2+ Clo Cl-

NOTE: Oxidation is the increase in oxidation number of a substance, while reduction is the decrease in
oxidation number of a substance. A substance loses electrons when it is oxidized and gain electrons when it is
reduced. A redox reaction is basically a transfer of electrons from the reducing agent (the electron donor) to
the oxidizing agent (the electron acceptor).
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 12
Determination of the Oxidation State of Element in Compound
Rule 1: The oxidation number of an element in the free state is zero, e.g. Mg = 0, Fe =0 etc.

Rule 2: The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a molecule is zero, e.g. MgSO4 = 0,
H2SO4 = 0, etc

Rule 3: In ion, the algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers equal to charge on the ion,
e.g. Fe2+ = +2, Fe3+ = +3, MnO- = -1

Rule 4: In any substance, the more electronegative an atom has, is the negative oxidation number, e.g. O2-,
F-, Cl- and so on. While the less electronegative atom has the positive oxidation number, e.g. Al3+,
Zn2+, K+ and so on.

Rule 5: The oxidation number of hydrogen in all compounds, except in metal hydrides is +1.

Rule 6: The oxidation number of oxygen in all compounds, except in peroxides and in OF2 is -2.

Example: Find the oxidation number of Mn in KMnO4

Solution: Applying Rule
KMnO4 = 0
K+ + Mn + O42— = 0
1 + Mn + 4(-2) = 0
Mn = 8 – 1 Mn = + 7
IUPAC name: Potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII)

Evaluation
1. Define oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen.
2. Define oxidation and reduction in terms of electrons.
3. Determine the oxidation state of elements in compound.
4. Explain oxidation and reduction in terms of oxidation number.
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 13

IDENTIFICATION OF OXIDIZING AND REDUCING AGENTS

Objectives:
 Define oxidizing agent and give examples.
 Define reducing agent and give examples.
 Test for oxidizing and reducing agents.
 Balance redox equations.

Oxidizing Agents
An oxidizing agent is a substance that brings about oxidation in another substance. In bringing about oxidation,
an oxidizing agent is reduced.

Reducing Agents
A reducing agent is a substance that brings about reduction in another substance. Then itself is oxidized in the
process. For example, CuO + CO Cu + CO2
In this equation:

1. The copper (II) oxide loses oxygen to carbon (II) oxide to become metallic copper and is therefore reduced.
2. The carbon (II) oxide gains oxygen to become carbon (IV) oxide and therefore it is oxidized.
3. The copper (II) oxide is reduced by the carbon (II) oxide and thus carbon (II) oxide is the reducing agent.
4. The carbon (II) oxide is oxidized by the copper (II) oxide and thus copper (II) oxide is the oxidizing agent.

In a redox reaction, the oxidizing agent is reduced and the reducing agent is oxidized. Oxidizing and reducing
agents can be defined in terms of electron loss and gain.
H2S + Cl2 S + 2HCl.

The sulphide ion gives off its two electrons to form a sulphur atom, while the chlorine atom accepts the two
electrons to form a chloride ion. The sulphide ion has thus been oxidized while the chlorine atom has been
reduced.
S2- S + 2e- (Oxidation). Cl2 + 2e- 2Cl- (Reduction).
An oxidizing agent is therefore a substance that accepts electrons while a reducing agent is one which donates
electrons.
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 14

Common Oxidizing Reagents

1. Potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII), KMnO4. 6. Lead (IV) oxide, PbO2.

2. Potassium heptaoxodichromate (VI), K2Cr2O7. 7. Chlorine.

3. Oxygen, O2. 8. Trioxonitate (V) acid.

4. Ozone, O3. 9. Iron (III) salt, FeCl3.

5. Hydrogen perioxide, H2O2.

Common Reducing Reagents

1. Iron (II) salt, FeCl2. 6. Hydrogen sulphide, H2S.

2. Sodium thiosulphate, Na2S2O3. 7. Sulphur (IV) oxide, SO2.

3. Hydrogen, H2. 8. Ammonia, NH3.

4. Carbon, C. 9. Tin, Sn.

5. Carbon (II) oxide, CO. 10. Potassium iodide, KI.

Test for Oxidizing Agents

1. Pass hydrogen sulphide gas, H2S, through an unknown solution, a yellow sulphur will be
deposited. S2- S(s) + 2e-
[

2. To a little of the unknown add little dilute tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid and potassium iodide solution. A
brown colouration is formed. 2I- I2 + 2e-
brown

The brown colouration is due to the formation of iodine. If a drop of starch solution is then added, a blue
black colouration forms.

3. To an unknown solution add iron (II) chloride solution. A brown solution is formed.
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e-
green brown
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 15
Test for Reducing Agents
To an unknown solution, add a little tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid, then either potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII)
solution or potassium heptaoxodichromate(VI) solution drop by drop. Warm if necessary.

1. If potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII) solution is used, the purple colour disappears.

2. If potassium heptaoxodichromate (VI) solution is used, the orange colour changes to green.
3. Add iron (III) chloride solution to a little of the unknown. The brown colour change to pale green.

Balancing of Redox Equations

Redox equations can be balanced by two methods; the oxidation state method and the ion-electron method.
The one of interest to us is the ion–electron method. This method involves writing two half – equations. One
for oxidation and the other for reduction.
In balancing redox equation the following rules should be followed;
1. Breaking down the equation into an oxidation half – equation and reduction half – equations.
The two half – equations are then balanced separately.
2. Combine the two balanced half-equations in such a way that the overall equation does not show any change
in a number of electrons.

Example: Balance the redox reaction between iron (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) and potassium
tetraoxomanganate (VII), in acid solution it may be represented by the ionic equation.
Solution: Fe2+ + MnO4- Fe3+ + Mn2+ (in acid solution)
Oxidation half equation is Fe2+ Fe3+
Reduction half equation is MnO4- Mn2+

In acid solution, H+ ions and H2O molecules may be added while in alkaline solution, OH— ions and H2O
molecule may be added.

MnO4- + 8H+ Mn2+ + 4H2O

Fe2+ Fe3+ + e…….. (i) Oxidation half equation is balanced
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- Mn2+ + 4H2O ……… (ii) Reduction half equation is balanced thus,

Multiply the equation (i) by the numbers of electrons in equation (ii) and vice versa.
5Fe2+ 5 Fe3+ + 5e (iii)
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- Mn2+ + 4H2O (iv)

Add up equation (iii) and (iv)

5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- 5Fe3+ + 5e- + Mn2+ + 4H2O
5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O (Balanced)
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Evaluation CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 16
1. Define oxidizing agent and give examples.
2. Define reducing agent and give examples.
3. Test for oxidizing and reducing agents.
4. Balance redox equations.

ELECTROLYSIS
Objectives:
 Define electrolysis.
 Define electrolyte and give the types of electrolyte.
 Describe the electrolytic cell.
 Explain the factors affecting the preferential discharge of ions.
 Differentiate between conductors and electrolytes.

This is the effect of electricity on chemical substance. Electrolysis is the chemical decomposition of compound
which takes place when an electric current is passed through either a solution or the molten form of the
compound.

Terms in Electrolysis
Electrolyte: An electrolyte is an ionic compound which when in liquid form, molten or in aqueous solution
conducts electricity and is decomposed by the current in the process. Examples of electrolytes include;
1. Solutions of ionic salts e.g. dilute NaCl solution, CuSO4 solution.
2. Dilute solutions of acids e.g. dilute HCl solution, acidified water or acidulated (dilute H2SO4 solution).
3. Dilute solutions of bases e.g. dilute NaOH (caustic soda) solution or dilute KOH (caustic potash) solution.
4. Ionic salts in molten or fused states e.g. fused or molten NaCl, molten KI etc.

Types of Electrolytes
1. Strong Electrolytes: These are ionic compounds which ionize completely in water or in solutions like
mineral acid (HCl, H2SO4, HNO3) and caustic alkalis like KOH, LiOH and NaOH.

2. Weak Electrolytes: These are compounds which ionize partially or slightly in solutions e.g. organic acids
(e.g. ethanoic acid, CH3COOH, methanoic acid, HCOOH,) and organic salts e.g. lead (II) ethanoate,
(CH3COOH)2 Pb and sodium ethanoate, CH3COONa, water, aqueous ammonia solution (NH4OH) and
ethylamine, CH3CH2NH2 are also good examples of weak electrolytes.
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 17
3. Non-electrolytes: These are substances which when in solution do not conduct electricity and are not
decomposed in the process. They are composed of molecules (not ions) hence they do not ionize at all e.g.
sugar solution, urea, (NH2)2CO, benzene, turpentine, tetrachloromethane, ether and starch solution.

Electrodes
These are conductors, (positive and negative poles of carbons or metal) through which an electric current enters
or leaves the electrolytes.

Anodes: It is a positive (+ve) electrode at which the electron leaves and current enters the electrolytes.

Cathode: It is a negative (-ve) electrode at which the electron enters and current leaves the electrolytes.

Ions: Ion can be referred to as an atom or group of atoms that possess (es) electric charge. They are charged
particles which exist in electrolytes and take part in electrolysis. There are the immediate products of
decomposition of an electrolyte. The ions which go to the anode are called anions; those ions which go to the
cathode are called cations.

Electrolytic Cell
This consists of a container of electrolyte with two electrodes connected to a suitable direct current supply.

Factors Affecting the Preferential Discharge of Ions

1. Position of ions in the electrochemical series.
2. Concentration of ions.
3. Nature of the electrodes.

Position of Ions in the Electrochemical Series:

According to electrochemical series, the more electropositive a metal is, the more it has greater tendency to
give up electron(s). In the same manner, the more electronegative a metal is, its ion will have the greater
tendency to accept electrons.
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 18
Concentration: Increase in concentration of a given ion tends to promote its discharge from solution. The
influence of concentration however, is effective only when the two competing ions are closely positioned in
the electrochemical series, while it is minimal if the ions are widely separated in their positions.

Nature of Electrodes: Some electrodes do not take part in electrolytic reaction, hence they are described as
inert electrodes. Platinum and carbon (graphite) usually behave as inert electrode. Some electrodes influence
the discharge of ions because they have strong affinity for certain ions.

Conductors
They are substances which can permit the passage of electricity. They conduct electricity or allow the transfer
of electrons very readily.

Types of Conductors
1. Metallic Conductors: These are metals and metallic materials which can conduct electricity e.g. copper
metal/wire, zinc, iron, tin, silver, aluminium, mercury etc. All metals are conductors, graphite a form of
carbon, is the only non-metal which conducts electricity.

2. Electrolytic Conductors: These are electrolytes that conduct electricity and are decomposed in the process
e.g. NaCl solution, dilute HCl, dilute H2SO4, NaOH solution, CuSO4 solution etc.

3. Non –conductors: These are also called insulators. They cannot conduct electricity e.g. earth, pure water,
plastics, rubber, wood, ceramics and the human. They are bad conductors of electricity. Enamel, glass, dry
wood, carbon (diamond) sulphur, phosphorus and mica are also good examples of non-conductors.

4. Semi-conductors: These are substances that conduct electricity very slightly. They do not conduct
electricity at low temperatures but can conduct at high temperatures. They are however classified as poor
conductors of electricity e.g. silicon and germanium.

Differences between Conductors and Electrolytes

S/N Conductor Electrolytes

1. A conductor is normally a solid. An electrolyte is an ionic compound in liquid fused

molten form or in solution.

2. It conducts by the movement of electrons. It conducts by the movement of ions.

3. It does not decomposed e.g all metals and It decomposed in the process e.g. all mineral acids
graphite. like HCl.

Similarity: Both conductor and electrolyte conduct heat and electricity.

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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 19
Differences between a Conductor and Non-conductor

S/N Conductor Non-conductor (insulator)

1. It can conduct heat and electricity. It cannot conduct heat and electricity.

2. Its valence electrons are equal to or less than Has five or more valence electrons.
Three

NOTE: Semi conductors have four valence electrons.

Evaluation
1. Define electrolysis.
2. Define electrolyte and give the types of electrolyte.
3. Describe the electrolytic cell.
4. Explain the factors affecting the preferential discharge of ions.
5. Differentiate between conductors and electrolytes.
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 20
ELECTROLYSIS OF SPECIFIED ELECTROLYTES
Objectives:
 Explain the electrolysis of acidified water.
 Describe the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution.
 Describe the electrolysis of copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) solution using different electrodes.
 Give the uses of electrolysis.

Electrolysis of Dilute Tetraoxosulphate (VI) Acid

The electrolytic cell used is shown above. It is designed for collection of gaseous products at the two electrodes
and it is known as Hofman Voltammeter. The electrodes used are platinum foil. The ions present in the
electrolyte are cations and anions.
H2SO4 2H + (g) SO 2-4 (aq)
H2 O H + (aq) OH-

At the Cathode: H+ ion migrates to the cathode and takes up electrodes to form neutral hydrogen atoms.
H+ (aq) + e- H (g)
The hydrogen atoms then combine in pairs to form diatomic hydrogen gas molecule
H+ (g) + H+ (g) H2 (g)

At the Anode: SO42- and OH- ions migrate to the anode. OH- ions being lower in the electrochemical series
are preferentially discharged and lose its electrons to the anode to become a neutral OH group.
OH- OH + e-
The neutral OH groups combine in pairs to form one molecule of water and one atom of oxygen.
OH + OH H2O (l) + O (g)

The oxygen atoms then react to form the diatomic oxygen gas molecule.
O (g) + O (g) O2 (g)
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 21
Electrolysis of Concentrated Sodium Chloride Solution (Brine Solution)
The apparatus is the same as for dilute tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid. The cathode may be platinum or carbon but
the anode must be carbon to resist attack by chlorine. The ions present are cations and anions
NaCl (aq) Na+(aq) Cl(aq)
H2 O H+ (aq) OH-(aq)

At the Cathode: Na+ and H+ ion migrates to the cathode. Since Na+ ion is higher concentration, H+ ion is
preferentially discharged because of its lower position in the electrochemical series. H+ takes up electrodes to
form neutral hydrogen atoms.
H+(aq) + e- H(g)
The hydrogen atoms then combine in pairs to form diatomic hydrogen gas molecule.
H+(g) + H+(g) H2(g).
Thus, hydrogen gas is obtained at the cathode.

At the Anode: Cl- and OH- ions migrate to the anode. Cl- ions is preferentially discharged because it is in
higher concentration than OH- ion. The effect of concentration is important here because Cl- and OH- are close
to each other in the series. Cl-(aq) Cl (g) + e--
The chlorine atoms then combine in pairs to give chlorine gas molecules. Cl (g) + Cl (g) Cl2 Chlorine gas
is obtained at the anode.

Electrolysis of Copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) Solution

Electrolytes Cations Anions
CuSO4 Cu2+ (g) SO42- (aq)
H2 O H+ (aq ) OH- (aq)

At the Cathode: Cu2+ and H+ ion migrates to the cathode. Cu2+ being lower than H+ in the electrochemical
series is preferentially discharged to acquire two electrons to be deposited as metallic copper on the cathode.
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu(s)

At the Anode: SO42- and OH- ions migrate to the anode. An OH- ion being lower in the electrochemical series
is preferentially discharged and loses its electrons to the anode to become a neutral OH group.
OH- (aq) OH + e-
The neutral OH groups combine in pairs to form one molecule of water and one atom of oxygen.
OH + OH H2O (l) + O (g)
The oxygen atoms then react to form the diatomic oxygen gas molecule. O (g) + O(g) O2(g)
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Uses of Electrolysis
1. Extraction of highly electropositive metals such as Na, K, Mg, Al, Zn and highly electronegative non-
metals such as F2, Cl2, O2, etc.

2. Purification of less electropositive metals such as copper, mercury, silver, gold, etc.

3. Electroplating that is, coating the surface of one metal with another metal to achieve improved appearance
or prevent corrosion or give thickness to worn parts of machinery or combination of both.

4. Preparation of certain important substances such as sodium hydroxide, hydrogen and chlorine from
electrolysis of brine using mercury cathode.

Evaluation
1. Define electrolysis.
2. Define electrolyte and give the types of electrolyte.
3. Describe the electrolytic cell.
4. Explain the factors affecting the preferential discharge of ions.
5. Differentiate between conductors and electrolytes.

FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS

Objectives:
 State Faraday’s first law of electrolysis.
 State Faraday’s second law of electrolysis.
 Solve problems on the laws of electrolysis.

Faraday’s First Law of Electrolysis

It states that the mass (m) of an element liberated or deposited at the electrodes during electrolysis is directly
proportional to the quantity of electricity (Q) passing through the electrolyte.

From the law, m increases as q increases by a similar proportion and vice versa. This relationship can be
expressed mathematically as: m α Q
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Where m = mass of the elements evolved or deposited in grammes.
Q = quantity of electricity in coulombs obtained from the measured values of current (I) and time So Q = It
Where I = electric current in amperes t = time in seconds

𝑴𝑶𝑳𝑬𝑪𝑼𝑳𝑨𝑹 𝑴𝑨𝑺𝑺
Therefore m α It or m = Zit while Z = 𝒏𝑭

Where Z = the electrochemical equivalent of the element. It is defined as the mass in grammes of the element
discharged (liberated) or deposited by the passage of a current of one ampere for one second.

Faraday’s Second Law of Electrolysis

This states that if the same quantity of electricity is passed through various electrolytes during electrolysis, the
relative number of moles of the elements liberated or deposited are inversely proportional to the charge on the
ions of each of the elements.

Solving Problems on the Laws of Electrolysis

1. Calculate the mass of silver metals deposited when 0.22A of electricity is allowed to pass through a solution
of silver chloride for 2.0hours given that the electrochemical equivalent (E) of silver is 9.8 x 10-5g/c.
Solution:
I = 0.22A
t = 2hours = 2 x 60 x 60s = 7200s Z = 9.8 x 10-5
But m = ZI t
= 9.8 x 10-5 x 0.22 x 7200
= 0.155g of silver.

2. Calculate the mass of lead metal deposited when a current of 0.2A is passed through a solution of lead (II)
tetraoxosulphate (VI) for 30minutes (Pb = 207, IF = 96500c)
Solution:
Q = It
= 0.2 x (30 x 60)s
= 360c
Equation = Pb2++ 2e- Pb(s)
1 mole of Pb2+ = 207g = 2F = 2 x 96500c
2 x 96500c of electricity form 207g of Pb
Therefore 360c of electricity will form
207 x 360
2 x 96500 = 0.386g of Pb.
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 24
3. Calculate the quantity of electricity needed to deposit 29.5g of nickel during the electrolysis of nickel
chloride solution [Ni = 59; IF = 96500c]
Solution:
Equation: Ni2+ + 2e- Ni(s)
2 moles of electron = 2 x 96500c
1 mole of nickel = 59g
Then, 59g of nickel needed 2 x 96500c
Therefore 29.5g of nickel would need
2 x 9500c x 29.5
59 = 96500C.

4. For how long must an electric current of 0.5A be passed through a solution of CuSO4 to deposit 1.6g of
copper? [Cu = 64, IF = 96500c]
Solution:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
64 g of copper need 2 x 96500c of electricity, therefore 1.6g of copper will need
2 x 96500 x 1.6
64 = 4825C
Q = It
4825C = 0.5A x t
t = QI = 4825
0.5 = 9650seconds.

5. 5.02g of silver was deposited when a current of 0.5A passed through a solution of silver trioxonitrate (V)
for 2hours 30minutes. Calculate the relative atomic mass of silver [Ag = 108, IF = 96500c].
Solution:
Q = It where I = 0.5 and t = 2hrs 30mins
150mins = 150 x 60sec
Therefore Q = 0.5 x 150 x 60 = 4500c
Ag (aq) + e- Ag(s)
1 mole of Ag = 108g = IF 96500c
If 4500c of electricity will produce
5.02 x 96500
4500 = 107.65g =108g of Ag.
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Evaluation CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 25
1. State Faraday’s first law of electrolysis.
2. State Faraday’s second law of electrolysis.
3. Solve problems on the laws of electrolysis.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Objectives:
 Describe an electrochemical cell.
 Explain standard electrode potential.
 Explain the e.m.f of a cell.
 Calculate the e.m.f of a cell.

Electrochemical Cell
This is a set-up which converts chemical energy to electrical energy. It consists of two half cells – an oxidation
half-cell reaction and a reduction half-cell reaction. The overall redox reaction results in a flow of electrons
i.e. an electric current.

An example of an electrochemical cell is a zinc electrode dipping into a solution of zinc tetraoxosulphate (VI),
connected to a copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI). The two solutions are separated by a porous partition.

The porous partition allows electrical contact but prevents excessive mixing of the electrolytes by inter
diffusion. In both electrochemical and electrolytic cells, it is important to note that oxidation always occurs at
the anode and reduction at the cathode. Electrons always flow from the anode to the cathode.

In an electrochemical cell the negative is the anode while the positive electrode is the cathode. In an electrolytic
cell however, the negative electrode is the cathode while the positive electrode is the anode. In place of a
porous partition, the two half–cells of an electrochemical cell can be linked by a salt bridge.

Electrode Potential
This is the potential different set-up between an element and a solution of it ions. It is the measure of the
tendency of an element to form ions. When a metal plate is dipped into a solution containing its ions, some of
the atoms from the metal plate will ionize and go into solution as positively charged ions, leaving behind their
valence electron on the surface of the plate.
Metal(s) Metal ion (aq) + electrons
Zn(s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 26
Electrode potential varies from one metal ion/metal system to another and the value depends on;
1. The concentration of ions in the solution.
2. The temperature at which the measurement is made.
3. The overall energy change.

Standard Electrode Potential

This is the potential difference set-up between the metal and one molar solution of it ions at 250C or 298K
using hydrogen as arbitrary standard.

Drawing and Writing of Cell Diagrams

When the Cu2+ (aq) / Cu(s) system or half cell is connected to the 2H+ (aq) / H2 (g) or half cell by a salt bridge,
the voltammeter shows a reading of 0.34 volts. This is the potential difference between the two half cells and
is known as electromotive force or e.m.f of the cell.

The half cell reactions at the copper and hydrogen electrodes show that electrons flow from the hydrogen
electrodes to the copper electrode. Hence, the electrode potential of copper is +0.34v.

At the platinum in hydrogen electrode: H2 (g) 2H+ (aq) + 2e- (oxidation)

At the copper electrode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu(s) (Reduction)
Overall reaction: Cu2+ (aq) + H2 (g) Cu(s) + 2H+

The E.m.f of a Cell

When two half cells are joined together through a salt bridge, the e.m.f of the cell formed is the algebraic
difference between two electrode potential. Hence, the e.m.f of the cell (E0total) formed by the system,
Zn(s)/Zn2+ (aq) // Cu2+ (aq) / Cu(s).

The e.m.f. of a cell is defined as the standard electrode potential of the right – hand electrode minus the standard
electrode potential of the left – hand electrode.
Calculations on E.m.f. of a Cell Zn(s)/Zn2+ (aq) // Cu2+ (aq) / Cu(s)
E0total = E0 (R.H.E) - E0 (L.H.E)
= +0.34V – (0.76V)
= +1.10V.

When this method is used, then a positive e.m.f indicates that the left–hand electrode (zinc) is capable of
reducing copper ions to copper.
Suppose the cell had been written as:
Cu(s)/Cu2+ (aq) // Zn2+ (aq) / Zn(s) E0total = E0 (R.H.E) - E0 (L.H.E)
= – 0.76V – (+0.34V) = -1.10V.
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 27

The negative value of e.m.f indicates that the left–hand electrode (copper) is not capable of or cannot reduce
zinc ions to zinc. A positive e.m.f indicates that the reaction is thermodynamically feasible, as written down
from left to right. While a negative e.m.f implies that the reaction is thermodynamically not feasible as written.

Evaluation
1. Describe an electrochemical cell.
2. Explain standard electrode potential.
3. Explain the e.m.f of a cell.
4. Calculate the e.m.f of a cell.

APPLICATION OF ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS

Objectives:
 Describe an electrochemical cell.
 Give the types of electrochemical cell.
 Differentiate between primary and secondary cells.

Daniel Cell
This type of cell consists of copper vessel filled with a saturated solution of copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI)
and a porous pot filled with a zinc tetraoxosulphate (VI) solution. Daniel cell is an example of a primary cell.

Leclanche Cell
Leclanche cell consists of a zinc metal container as the anode and a graphite rod surrounded by manganese
(IV) oxide as the cathode. The electrolytes is a pastes of ammonia chloride. It is also a primary cell.

At the Anode: The zinc atoms lose two electrons each to dissolve in the electrolyte as positive charged zinc
ions. Zn(s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- (Oxidation)
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 28
At the Cathode: The ammonium ion accepts the electrons to become reduced to ammonia and hydrogen gas.
The hydrogen gas is removed by the manganese (IV) oxide to prevent it from adhering to the cathode.
2NH4 + + 2e- 2NH3 + H2 (Reduction)

Secondary Cell
Cells which can be recharged are known as secondary cells. They can be recharged by passing a direct current
through them. An example of a secondary cell is the lead accumulator, used in motor cars. The cathode and
anode are lead (IV) oxide (PbO2) and metallic lead respectively. The electrolyte is a dilute tetraoxosulphate
(VI) acid solution.

At the Anode: the lead atoms releases two electrons each to become oxidized to lead (II) ions Pb2+ which then
combine with the tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid.
Pb(S) Pb2+ (aq) + 2e-
Pb2 + (aq) + SO 2- PbSO4(s)

At the Cathode: The electrons from the anode are accepted at the cathode where the lead (IV) oxide and the
hydrogen ions H+ from the electrolytes undergo reduction to produce lead (II) ions and water.
PbO2 + 4H+ (aq) + 2e Pb2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l)
The lead (II) ions then combine with the tetraoxosulphate (VI) ions from the electrolytes to become deposited
at the cathode as lead (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI).
Pb2+ (aq) + SO 2- PbSO4(s)

Differences between Primary and Secondary Cells

S/N Primary Cells Secondary Cells

1. They are not rechargeable. They are rechargeable

2. They are affected by defects such as local action They are not affected by defects such as local
and polarization. action and polarization.

3. They have a very high internal resistance and hence They have a very low internal resistance and
can give a small current with very high drop of hence can give a large current with very little
terminal p.d. drop of terminal p.d.

Examples of Primary Cells are: Simple (voltaic) cell, Daniel cell, Leclanche cell, etc.
Examples of Secondary Cells are: Lead–acid accumulator, Alkaline cell, etc.
 ST. FINBARR’S COLLEGE, AKOKA
CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 29
Evaluation
1. Describe an electrochemical cell.
2. Give the types of electrochemical cell.
3. Differentiate between primary and secondary cells.

ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTION

Objectives:
 Define endothermic and exothermic reaction.
 List the types of heat change in chemical reaction.
 Explain enthalpy, entropy and free energy change.
 State the laws of thermodynamics.

Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

When chemicals react or dissolve in water heat is either given out or taken in. If during reaction, the chemicals
make water warm, then they are thought of as losing energy. If on the other hand, the chemicals make water
cool, then they are thought of as gaining energy.

An exothermic reaction is one in which heat is given out to the surrounding.

An endothermic reaction is one in which heat is absorbed from the surrounding.

Certain symbols are now commonly used to denote the energy change or a reaction. Chemists use the symbol
H to represent energy of a chemical which is lost or gained as heat during a reaction. ∆H is used to denote the
actual change in energy that takes place during the reaction. ∆H negative (- ∆H) represents an exothermic
reaction while ∆H positive (+∆H) represents an endothermic reaction.

Types of Heat Change in Chemical Reaction

1. Heat of Formation.
2. Heat of Combustion.
3. Heat of Neutralization.
4. Heat of Solution.
5. Heat of Fusion.
6. Heat of vapourisation.
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 30
Heat of Formation: This is the heat liberated or absorbed when one mole of a compound is formed from its
constituent element under standard conditions e.g.
C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) ∆Hfθ = 393KJmol-1
H2 (g) + O2 (g) H2O (l) ∆Hfθ = -286KJmol-1
The heat of formation of an element in stable state, under standard condition is zero e.g. ∆Hfθ (H2) = 0; ∆Hfθ
(O2) = 0; ∆Hfθ (Cu) = 0.

Heat of Combustion: The standard heat of combustion of a substance is the heat evolved when one mole of
the substance is burned completely in oxygen under standard conditions.

Heat of Neutralization: The standard heat of neutralization is the heat change when one mole of hydrogen
ion, H+ from an acid reacts with one mole of hydroxide ion, OH- from an alkali to form one mole of water
under standard conditions.

Heat of Solution: The standard heat of solution is the heat change when one mole of a substance is dissolved
in water under standard conditions that further dilution, will results in no detectable heat change.

Heat of Fusion: This is the heat change when one mole of a solid is melted, e.g. the standard enthalpy of
fusion of solid sulphur is +2.0KJ/mol.

Heat of Vapourisation: This is the heat change when one mole of a liquid is vapourised. The standard heat
of vapourisation is always positive, i.e. endothermic.

Enthalpy
The enthalpy (heat content) of a substance is the characteristic internal energy possessed by a substance which
is due to its structure and physical state.

Generally, an enthalpy change is the heat that would be exchanged with the surroundings, if the temperature
and pressure of the system were the same before and after the reaction.
Enthalpy change = heat content of products – heat content of reactants.
∆H = Hp - Hr

Entropy
Entropy is a state of randomness or disorderliness of the particles of a system. Entropy change ∆S, is the
difference between the sum of entropies of products and that of the reactants. In general, entropy increases
when constituent atoms or molecules of a system are removed to greater distances from one another.
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CITADEL OF EXCELLENCE 31
For this reason, the changes of state (melting, boiling and sublimation) are usually accompanied by an increase
in entropy.
For a reaction,
1. ∆S = +ve (increase in entropy) If the number of gaseous products exceed that of gaseous reactants e.g.
PCl5 (g) PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g)
2. ∆S = -ve (decrease in entropy) If there are more moles of gaseous reactants than gaseous products e.g.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
3. ∆S = 0 (no charge in entropy) If there are equal moles of gaseous reactants and gaseous products e.g.
H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) 2HCl (g)

Free Energy Change

Free energy change is a measure of the energy of a system that does useful work. ∆G is Gibb’s free energy
change.
∆G = ∆H - T∆S

The unit of ∆G is KJmol-1. T is temperature in Kelvin (K). It should be noted that the value of ∆S must be
divided by 1000 to convert the unit to KJmol-1k-1. The sign of ∆G is used to predict whether or not a change is
spontaneous (probable) or non-spontaneous (not probable).

A change is said to be spontaneous when it occurs naturally on its own without external assistance.
1. If ∆G is negative (∆G < O), the change is spontaneous (probable).
2. If ∆G is positive (∆G > O), the change is non-spontaneous (not probable).
3. If ∆G is zero (∆G = O), the system is at equilibrium and there is no net change e.g. change of state like
boiling, melting, sublimation, and so on.

Laws of Thermodynamics
First Law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can be converted
from one form to another.

Second Law of Thermodynamics states that a spontaneous process occurs only if there is an increase in the
entropy of the system and its surroundings.

Evaluation
1. Define endothermic and exothermic reaction.
2. List the types of heat change in chemical reaction.
3. Explain enthalpy, entropy and free energy change.
4. State the laws of thermodynamics.
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REFERENCES
Ababio, O. Y. (2016): “New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools”, Ninth Edition, Africana First
Publishers.

Odesina, I. A.(2018): “Essential Chemistry for Secondary Schools”, Revised Edition, Tonad Publishers.

Tan, Y. T. (2011): “New System Chemistry”, First Edition, Africana First Publishers.

Eketunde-Odus, O. A. (2009): “Hi-Grade Practical Chemistry”, Second Edition, Africana First Publishers.

Bamgbose, T. (2015): “Complete Student Guide on Practical Chemistry”, First Edition, Xpedite Ventures.