Importance of nutrients

& introduction to
Micronutrients &
Macronutrients
 Outline
• Introduction to nutrients, Macro &
Micronutrients
• Carbohydrates: Sugar, Starch, and Dietary
• Lipids: Fats, Oils,
Phospholipids, and Sterols
• Protein and Amino Acids

• Fibre
What are nutrients?
A substance that provides nourishment essential
for the maintenance of life, for growth and
development
Food provides a range of different nutrients. Some
nutrients provide energy, while others are
essential for growth and maintenance of the
body.
Macronutrients
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fat
we need to eat in relatively large amounts in the
diet provide our bodies with energy
Also the building blocks for growth and
maintenance of a healthy body
Micronutrients
Vitamins
Minerals
Which are only needed in small amounts
But are essential to keep us healthy

Some food components that are not strictly

‘nutrients’ but are important for health, such as
water and fibre
Importance of nutrients
Provide energy

Building blocks for growth, maintenance & development of live

Good nutrition is an important part of leading a healthy lifestyle

Combined with physical activity, your diet can help you to reach
and maintain a healthy weight

Reduce your risk of chronic diseases (like heart disease and cancer)

Thus, promote your overall health

 Carbohydrates: Sugar, Starch, and
Dietary Fibre
Specific Objectives
– Chemistry of carbohydrates and Dietary fibre
– Digestion of carbohydrates
– Lactose intolerance
– Functions of carbohydrates
– Health effects of dietary fibre
– Regulations of the blood sugar level
 Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are the bodies ultimate source
of fuel.
– Provide energy for daily activity
– Provide energy to allow proper organ
function
• When eaten, carbohydrates are broken down
into glucose which circulates in the blood
stream
 Carbohydrate Chemistry
• Glucose(C6H12O6) is the principal block of
carbohydrates
• During Photosynthesis,
Carbohydrates

Chlorophyll

• Composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

• General molecular formula Cn (H2O)n
 Classification of Carbohydrates
• Three main categories
– Simple carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides- Glucose, Fructose (commonly found in fruit),
Galactose (a component of lactose)
– They all have same chemical formula with only slight variation in the
positioning of some atoms
• Disaccharides- Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose
– Complex carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)
• Starch (found in cereals, legumes and potatoes),
Glycogen (found in the liver and muscles), Cellulose,
hemi cellulose, pectin
– Dietary fibre
 Carbohydrates

Disaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides

2 sugar units 3-9 units >10
 Disaccharides
1. Maltose ----→ formed from two molecules of glucose.
• Occurs as a breakdown product of starch.
2. Lactose ------→ formed from a molecule of glucose plus a
molecule of galactose.
– principle carbohydrate found in milk
3. Sucrose ----→ comprises a molecule of glucose plus a
molecule of fructose
commonly known as table
sugar and is obtained from
sugarcane and sugar beet
 Polysaccharides
• The complex carbohydrates are polysaccharides.
• Major type found in plant food is starch
– Consists of hundreds or even thousands of glucose molecules joined
together in long branched chains
– Found in cereals, legumes and potatoes.
• Another polysaccharide is glycogen
– Storage carbohydrate found in the liver and muscles
– Chemically, it is very similar to starch.
 Dietary Fibre
• Resistant to digestion by human digestive enzymes
• Partially broken down by bacterial enzymes in the colon
• Sub divided into two groups
1. Soluble fibre
• Can be partially digested by bacteria in the colon
• Includes several polysacharides (hemicellulose, mucilages and
pectins)
2. Insoluble fibre
• more resistant to breakdown by bacterial enzymes / major
component is cellulose
• polysaccharide consisting of glucose units
• glucose units are attached in a different way than is starch, which
explains why it is not digested.
• Another insoluble fibre is hemicellulose (some forms of it are soluble,
others are insoluble). Lastly, there is lignin, which is not a
carbohydrate
 Dietary Fibre cont.…
• There, around 70 to 80 percent of the fibre is broken down by
bacterial fermentation.
• The fibre that is not broken down (mainly insoluble fibre such
as wheat) absorbs a considerable amount of water (about two
to four grams per gram of fibre).
• As a result of these two processes-production of massive
numbers of bacteria and absorption of water-fibre causes a
large increase in faecal bulk.
 Main health effects of dietary fibre
• Help prevent constipation
• Lowering of blood cholesterol
• Slowing of glucose absorption
• As a treatment for diabetes
• Preventing and treating obesity
• Softening of stools
• Decreasing or accelerating the transit time of materials
through the colon
 Some Specific Terms

• The terms simple sugars and simple carbohydrates can be

used interchangeably.
• Blood sugar refers to glucose in the bloodstream.
• The term dextrose is commonly used on food labels, and is
the same compound as glucose.
• Dextrin - a short chain of glucose units resulting from the
partial hydrolysis of starch; it is often used as a thickening
agent in foods.
 Some Specific Terms

• Refined sugars - such sugars as white table sugar or corn

syrup, and contain virtually pure simple carbohydrates.
– As they contain no other nutrients they are therefore often
referred to as empty-calorie foods.
• Refined cereals - grains that have been milled to remove the
bran and germ, leaving only the endosperm.
– Ex: white flour, polished (white) rice and cornstarch.
• Refined carbohydrates include refined sugars and refined
cereals such as white bread, white rice and cornflakes).
 Digestion of Carbohydrate
• In the mouth-salivary amylase converts starch into small
polysaccharides & maltose
• In the stomach-starch is not digested due to acidity in gastric
secretions
• The major site of carbohydrate digestion -----→ small
intestine
• The pancreas secretes enzymes into the small intestine via the
pancreatic duct.
• One enzyme is amylase which pedorms the same role as
salivary amylase.
 Digestion of Carbohydrate
• Enzymes on the surface of the small intestinal cells hydrolyze
disaccharides:
 Digestion of Carbohydrate
• Monosaccharides resulting from digestion are then absorbed
in the small intestine and travel in the blood to the liver
• ln the liver fructose and galactose are converted to glucose
• Dietary fibre is not digested in the small intestine and passes
to the colon
– bacteria digest much of the soluble fibre, and to a lesser
extent the insoluble fibre, producing short-chain fatty acids
Digestion
of
Carbohydr
ate

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 Lactose Intolerance
• Normally, the intestinal cells produce enough of the enzyme
lactase to ensure that the disaccharide lactose found in milk is
both digested and absorbed efficiently

• Lactase activity is highest immediately after birth

• In the great majority of the world’s populations, lactase

activity declines dramatically during childhood and
adolescence to about 5 to 10 percent of the activity at birth
 Lactose Intolerance
• Symptoms: nausea, diarrhoea, fullness and cramping, gas
production
• Eat with great care as lactose is present in small quantities in
many foods
• Foods such as cheese, which contain minute amount of
lactose, often do not pose any problem.
• Yoghurt contains lactose, but most has been degraded to
lactic acid during fermentation by the bacterial culture, so it
can be tolerated by people with lactose intolerance.
• Lactose intolerance is distinct from milk allergy.
– person becomes sick after drinking milk. However, the
cause is an allergic reaction to the proteins in the milk.
 Functions of Carbohydrates
• Major source of energy – primary function
- Uses by muscle
• Essential for normal function of specialized
cells
• Spare protein - preventing protein from being
used as energy
• Prevent ketosis
• Ensures normal function of colon.
 Cont.….
• Carbohydrate is the preferred source of energy
or fuel for muscle contraction and biologic work

Foods rich in Carbohydrates:

cereals, crackers, cakes, flours, jams,
bread products, and potato products.
Healthy high carbohydrate foods include
vegetables, legumes (beans), whole grains,
fruits, nuts
 Ketosis
• Ketosis is a normal metabolic process our
body does to keep working.
• When it doesn't have enough carbohydrates
from food for your cells to burn for energy, it
burns fat instead.
• As part of this process, it makes ketones.
Regulation of Blood Glucose Level
Maintaining Glucose Homeostasis
• To function optimally, the body must maintain blood glucose
within limits that permit the cells to nourish themselves.
• If blood glucose falls below normal, a person may become
dizzy and weak
• if it rises above normal, a person may become fatigued.
• Left untreated, fluctuations to the extremes—either high or
low—can be fatal.
 Blood Glucose Homeostasis
• Blood glucose homeostasis is regulated primarily by two
hormones: insulin and glucagon
Insulin (Reduce blood glucose)
• After a meal, blood glucose level rises. lnsulin is secreted by
the pancreas (beta cells of islets of Langerhans)to reduce the
blood glucose level by:
1 . increasing the permeability of cell membranes allowing
glucose to enter the cells
2. stimulating the production of energy from glucose in the
cells
3. facilitating the conversion of glucose to glycogen in the
muscle and liver cells
4. facilitating the conversion of glucose to fat in the liver cells
 Blood Glucose Homeostasis
Glucagon (increase blood glucose)
• Between meals, the blood glucose level drops. Glucagon is
• secreted by the pancreas (alpha cells of the islets of
Langerhans) to increase the blood glucose level by:
1 . facilitating the conversion of glycogen stored in the liver to
glucose, which enters the bloodstream and circulates to
the brain and other parts of the body;
2. stimulating the conversion of body protein to glucose
(gluconeogenesis) and energy if the glycogen store in the
liver is exhausted
ln order to help the body regulate blood glucose, it is best to
avoid extremes of food intake by:
1. Eating when hungry, and not waiting until famished.
2. Eating a balanced meal, with a combination of protein and
complex carbohydrate
3. Spread the food intake evenly over three or four times a day,
and avoid overconsumption at any one meal.
Regulation of Blood Glucose Level
Adrenalin.
• During "fight-or-flight" or stress situations, adrenalin is
secreted to ensure that sufficient energy is available
• Stimulates the conversion of liver and muscle glycogen to
glucose and energy.
• Works similarly to glucagon, except that it is stimulated by
different circumstances
 Regulation of Blood Glucose Level

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 The Lipids: Fats, Oils, Phospholipids &
Sterols
Specific Objectives
‒ Identify the chemical characteristics of triglycerides,
phospholipids, and sterols
‒ Identify the two families of essential fatty acids
‒ Describe the process of digestion, absorption and
transport of dietary lipids
‒ Describe the functions of lipids in the body
‒ Identify the major sources of different types of dietary
lipids
‒ Describe the problem of lipid oxidation and how it can be
prevented
 Lipids: Definition
• Organic compounds composed primarily of
carbon, hydrogen and small amounts of
oxygen
“ Organic substances that are insoluble in water,
but soluble in organic solvents such as
chloroform, ether or benzene, and can be utilized
by living organisms”
 Lipids and Fats
• Even though the terms "lipids" and "fats" are often used
interchangeably , in strict chemical terms, fats belong to a
subgroup under the general nutrient class of lipids.
• This subgroup is called triglycerides which includes fats
(usually solid), and oils (usually liquid) at room temperature.
• Triglycerides make up 95% of dietary lipids. The other 5% is
contributed by phospholipids, sterols, plus fat-soluble
vitamins, waxes and other minor complex lipid compounds.
• ln the body, triglycerides make up 99% of the stored fats.
 Triglyceride
• Contains one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids
(organic acids that consist of hydrocarbn chains)
• are hydrophobic (water-insoluble)

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 Triglyceride
• The nutritional significance of triglycerides is governed by the
composition of these fatty acids
• Visible fats:
– Butter, margarine, vegetable oil, the fatty portion of meat, and
chicken skin.
• Invisible fats:
– cream, milk, cheese, egg yolk, meat, fish, poultry, nuts, seeds,
olives, avocados, whole grain cereals, and baked and fried
foods.
 Mono and diglycerides
• lf only one fatty acid is attached to a glycerol molecule ---→ ,
monoglyceride
• if two fatty acids are attached ----→ diglyceride
• Mono- and diglycerides --→ products of the food industry
• Used as emulsifiers to give foods a smooth texture and keep
fats evenly dispersed
• Foods such as ice-cream, baked goods, margarine may contain
mono- and diglycerides
• Monoglycerides can also be found in the human
gastrointestinal tract after a, fatty meal, as one of the
products of fat digestion
Phospholipid
• a lipid that contains phosphorus
• Found in almost all cells as a major
constituent of cell membranes
• Have the ability to attract water-soluble as
well as fat-soluble substances
• Can therefore help to facilitate the passage
of fats in and out of cells through the cell
membranes
• Phospholipids in the blood and body fluids
also act as emulsifiers, keeping fats in
solution
 Phospholipid
Examples: Lecithin
• Has the water-soluble base choline, plus a phosphate molecule,
attached to a glycerol, along with two water-insoluble fatty
acids.
• Naturally occur in liver, egg yolk and soybean.
• As a food additive, serves as an emulsifier in such foods as
cheese, margarine and chocolate bars
• Phospholipids make up only a very small proportion of dietary
lipids
• When ingested, they are hydrolysed by intestinal enzymes and
can be used to produce energy.
They are not an essential nutrient since the body can synthesize
them as needed
 Sterol
• Lipid with the characteristic hydrocarbon ring structures
• hydrophobic (water-insoluble)
• do not contribute energy to the body
Example: Cholesterol
• 80% of body cholesterol is synthesized in the body (mainly by
the liver and intestine) and is called endogenous cholesterol
• Also found in foods of animal origin; plants do not make
cholesterol.
• Cholesterol from dietary sources, called exogenous cholesterol,
contributes the remaining cholesterol
• Functions:
❖ as an essential component for cell membranes,
❖ is the precursor for the synthesis of bile acids, hormones and
vitamin D
 Fatty acids
Fatty acids are the building blocks of lipids.
• Classification according to the chain length:
1. short-chain fatty acids ----→ 4 to 8 carbons
2. medium-chain fatty acids ---→ 10 to 14 carbons
3. Long chain fatty acids ----→ 16 to 22 carbons.
• Classification by the degree of unsaturation- ( i.e the number
of double carbon bonds formed along the chain):
1. Saturated fatty acids ---→ No double bonds
2.Monounsaturated fatty acids ---→ one double bond
3.Polyunsaturated fatty acids ----→ two or more double
bonds
Saturated fatty acid
[Single bonds only]
Unsaturated fatty acid
[Double bonds]
Saturated Unsaturated
fatty fatty acid
acids
 Fatty Acids
• Hardness of fat or oil depends on
– The length of the carbon chains
– Degree of unsaturation of fatty acids
• The shorter and more unsaturated the fatty acids --→ more
liquid
• Dietary lipids with saturated short- and medium-chain fatty
acids
– butterfat and coconut oil
• Palmitic acid---→ are the most abundant saturated fatty
acids in fats and oils.
• Linoleic acid -----→ are the most abundant polyunsaturated
fatty acids in fats and oils
 Essential Fatty Acids
• Two families of polyunsaturated fatty acids
• the omega-6 (n-6) and the omega-3 (n-3) fatty acid
families.
• Chemical difference between the two groups
– is the position of the endmost double bond from the
methyl end of the fatty acid molecule.
• omega-6 fatty acid -----→ has the endmost double bond six
(6)carbons from its methyl end
• omega-3 fatty acid ------→ has the endmost double bond
three (3) carbons from its methyl end
 Essential Fatty Acids
Omega-6 (n-6) fatty acids
• Examples:
– Linoleic acid (18 carbons, 2 double bonds)
– Arachidonic acid (20 carbons, 4 double bonds)
• Arachidonic acid can be synthesized in the body from its
precursor, linoleic acid, and is also provided in the diet by
meats.
• Seed oils are excellent sources of linoleic acid
 Essential Fatty Acids
Omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids
• Linolenic acid
– Linolenic acid has its own distinct nutritional functions,
and serves as the precursor for two other fatty acids in this
series: eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA)
• Eicosapentaenoic (EPA)
• docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
Sources of linolenic acid
canola, soybean oils, fatty fish (mackerel, sardines, lake
trout, salmon, tuna etc)
 Lipids - Digestion
• Dietary lipids -→ water-insoluble and non-polar (neutral) with
no net charge

• Tend to separate from watery fluids (water is polar, with both

positive and negative charges)

• Emulsifying action of bile helps mixing lipids with the watery

digestive juices ---→ Digestive enzymes can gain access to
the lipids.
 Lipids - Digestion
• Bile contains two emulsifiers
1. bile acids
2. Phospholipids

• They can attract both hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances,

thus dispersing and suspending fat droplets in the digestive
juices.
• Bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
 Lipids - Digestion
• pancreatic lipase ----→ major enzyme that hydrolyses fat
• Occurs in the small intestine and converts triglyceride to a
mixture of monoglycerides and fatty acids.
• These digestive products merge into tiny spherical particles
called micelles which migrate into the intestinal cells.
• The intestinal cells then reassembles the monogylcerides and
fatiy acids into triglycerides
 Lipids - Transport
• Transport vehicles for lipids ----→ lipoproteins
• After digestion and absorption, lipids cluster together with
protein, forming lipoprotein complexes called "chylomicrons".
• These lipoproteins are then released into the lymphatic
system.
• Transported by the lymph and enter the bloodstream near the
heart.
• Some digestive products-glycerol and short-chain and
medium-chain fatty acids-are less hydrophobic and are
transported directly into the blood.
 Lipoproteins
• Contain triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol and
proteins in varying proportions
• 4 types
1. Chylomicrons
2. Very-Low-Density- Lipoproteins (VLDL)
3. Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDL)
4. High- Density Lipoproteins (HDL)
 Lipoproteins
1. Chylomicrons
• Formed in the mucosal cells after absorption of dietary
lipids.
• Composed mainly of triglycerides
• Very low in density
• Cells all over the body remove the lipids from the
chylomicrons as they pass by
• Liver and adipose cells are particularly active in taking up
the lipids from the chylomicrons
 Lipoproteins
2. Very-Low-Density- Lipoproteins (VLDL)
• Formed in the liver.
• Composed of a high proportion of triglycerides
• Liver picks up various body compounds from the blood, as
well as excess carbohydrates, proteins and alcohol, and
converts them into triglycerides, cholesterol, fatty acids
and other compounds.
• Carried to other parts of the body where cells remove the
triglycerides and use them for energy, storage or synthesis
of other body compounds.
• Removal of the triglycerides results in the formation of
low-density lipoproteins.
 Lipoproteins
3. Low-Density- Lipoproteins (LDL)
• Contain little triglycerides, but much cholesterol
• peripheral tissues (outside the liver) such as muscles,
arterial walls, adipose tissues and mammary glands pick up
cholesterol and phospholipids for synthesis of membranes,
hormones, and so on.
• Special LDL receptors in the liver normally remove LDL
from circulation, thereby controlling the cholesterol
concentration in the blood.
 Lipoproteins
4. High-Density- Lipoproteins (HDL)
• Contain much protein.
• HDL differ from LDL in their destination within the body
• Carry cholesterol and phospholipids from peripheral
tissues back to the liver for recycling or disposal
• Has an important role in helping in the removal of excess
cholesterol.
The only route for cholesterol excretion is through bile, either
as cholesterol itself or after conversion to bile acids.
Fat Digestion

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 Functions of Lipids
1. A major source of energy
2. An insulator
3. A physical protector for sensitive tissues such as the kidneys
4. A source for important substances.
– Phospholipids and cholesterol are essential components
of cell membranes
– Cholesterol ---→ manufacture of other substances such as
vitamin D, bile acids and sex hormones.
5. Provision of essential fatty acids by dietary fats. The omega-
6 and omega-3 fatty acids particularly linoleic and linolenic
acids are involved in many specific biological functions
6. Act as a solvent for vitamins A, D, E and K
 Health Effects of Lipids
Causes of Lipid Defficiency
• infants fed with a low fat formula or skim milk;
• Patients suffering from serious burns, with loss of body fluid;
• people with bowel resections, who may suffer from severe fat
mal absorption;
• children or adults on long-term, low fat, total parenteral
nutrition (TPN) or gastric tube feedings
Signs of Lipid Deficiency
• Growth retardation
• skin lesions with characteristic dermatitis (eczema) and dry
scaly skin;
• increased susceptibility to infections;
• possible peripheral neuropathy and blurred vision.
 Lipids in the Diet
• The intake of omega-6 fatty acids ----→ at least 3% of total
energy intake and omega-3 should be at least 0.3%,
• Ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids a range from 4:1 to
10:1 .
• Suggested minimum intake of omega-3 fatty acids (0.3% of
energy intake) is about 0.8 g of omega-3 fatty acids
– Half a tablespoon of canola oil -----→ approximately 0.8 g of
linolenic acid.
• Omega-6 fatty acids (largely linoleic acid) are commonly
present in most vegetable oils, such as safflower, sunflower,
corn, passion seed, gingelly (sesame) and soybean (soya) oils
• Omega-3 fatty acids are less common, except in fish and some
vegetable oils, such as canola and soybean oils
 Lipids in the Diet
Animal fats
• saturated fats
• Ex: beef fat is 52% saturated, pork fat is 37%, milk fat is
59%, and chicken fat is 31%, Coconut oil is 87% saturated (81
percent).
• Fatty acids in coconut oil and coconut milk are mainly
medium-chain rather than long-chain as in meat (Reason for
liquid form)
• Monounsaturated fats (mostly oleic acid) are present in many
foods: beef, chicken, pork, sesame seeds and peanuts.
• Cholesterol is found only in animal products.
– Eggs are a concentrated source
 Oxidation of Fats
Oxidation
• Occurs when oxygen combines with an unsaturated fatty acid
at the double bond.
• Gives the oil the unpleasant odour and flavour characteristic
of rancid fats.
• oils which contain a high percentage of polyunsaturated fatty
acids are the most susceptible to oxidation.
• Conditions that accelerate oxidation
– presence of oxygen, light and heat, and exposure to metals like iron
and copper.
 Hydrogenation of Fats
• A chemical process by which hydrogen is added to
unsaturated oils to reduce the number of double bonds, thus
making them more saturated and more resistant to oxidation.

• Ex: changing a vegetable oil to a more solid fat such as

margarine
 Hydrogenation of Fats
• The degree of hydrogenation varies in products and
determines the hardness of a fat.
• For example, a soft margarine can be produced in two ways:
– by partial hydrogenation-that is, only some of the double bonds of the
fatty acids have hydrogen added
– or by adding unsaturated liquid oil to hydrogenated fats until a desired
consistency is attained.
• Hydrogenation reduces oxidation of fats and prolongs shelf-
life.
But there are some unwelcome effects as;
• Changes some polyunsaturated fat to saturated fat
• Changes the chemical structure of essential fatty acids (EFA)
by reducing the number of double bonds, and therefore
eliminates their ability to function as essential fatty acids.
 Hydrogenation of Fats
• Transformation of double bonds from a "cis" to a "trans" form

• Most natural unsaturated fats are in the cis form, and there is
some concern about the body's ability to handle large
amounts of trans fatty acids which probably have the same
health effects as saturated fats.

• Such fats have been linked to heart disease.

 Protein and Amino Acids
Specific Objectives
‒ To explain
1. the chemistry of proteins.
2. the digestion and absorption of proteins.
3. protein quality and deficiency, and nitrogen balance.
4. the functions of protein.
5. Dietary protein
 Proteins
• Composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) and
nitrogen (N) (16% of their molecular weight)
• Sulphur (S), and sometimes phosphorus (P) and iron (Fe), may
also be present in lesser amounts.
• Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins (are made up
of about 20 common amino acids)
– are arranged in various sequences and geometric patterns.
– Such combinations of amino acids determines the
physiological function of each protein
 Amino Acids – building blocks of
protein
• All amino acids have a central carbon with an amino group
(NH2), an acid group (COOH), a hydrogen (H), and a side group
• The side group is a unique chemical structure that
differentiates one amino acid from another

• Depending on this side group, the amino acid takes on acidic,

basic, aromatic or neutral properties
 Peptide bond formation
• The amino acids can link together by reaction of the
carboxylic acid of one amino acid with the amino group of a
second.
• This linkage is called a peptide bond. Two amino acids linked
together in this way is a dipeptide.
 Peptide bond formation

• lf there are three amino acids, it is a tripeptide

• As additional amino acids are added to the chain, a

polypeptide is formed. Most proteins are polypeptides with
100 to 300 amino acids

• The difference between one protein and another is a function

of its primary structure. Thus the sequence of the amino aids
explains the whole diversity of nature
 Protein Structures
Primary Structure

• Refers to the number, type

and order of the amino acids
in proteins
• The primary structure of
proteins is determined by the
genetic code in the DNA of
the cell
 Protein Structures
Secondary Structure
• Refers to the helical
arrangement of amino acid
chains into recurring spatial
structures such as coils.
• Such a structure is flexible and
elastic, and is found in the
proteins of wool and hair

• Hydrogen bonds are formed between the weak, negatively charged

oxygen on one amino acid, and the weak, positively charged hydrogen of
another amino acid.
• Disulphide bridges are formed between sulphur atoms found on two
different amino acids
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 Protein Structures
Tertiary Structure
• Refers to the folding or bending
of the coils into specific shapes.

• lt is the structure which results

in proteins that are fibrous,
globular, layered, or some other
shape uniquely suited for a
specific biological function.
 Protein Structures
Quaternary Structure
• Refers to the arrangement of two
or more polypeptide chains
combining into a protein
• Hydrogen bonds and disulphide
bridges contribute to secondary,
tertiary and quaternary structures.
• Example : haemoglobin
 Protein - Denaturation
• Denaturation is the unfolding or rearrangement of a protein
shape by heat, acid or other conditions such as mechanical
agitation (whipping or beating), resulting in a loss of
functional activity.
• This rearrangement in shape is
due to the breaking of the weak
hydrogen bonds
• The primary structure of the
protein is not changed because
the peptide bonds are not
affected
• Examples:
• Hardening of an egg
• Curding of milk by hydrochloric
acid in stomach Examples:
 Protein - Denaturation
• The secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins
are changed.
• the first step in protein digestion
• Lose their biological activity
• Peptide bonds are not broken
• Amino acid composition is unchanged
• The nutritional value of proteins is not changed
 Digestion of Proteins
• Complex than digestion of carbohydrates
– Because it involves the activation of proenzymes
• Digestion occurs in the stomach and small intestine
• Since digestion of proteins occurs in the stomach and small
intestine, which are themselves made of proteins, only
proenzymes-the inactive forms of proteases (protein-digesting
enzymes)-are secreted.
• ln the presence of foods, proenzymes are then activated to
functioning enzymes, which hydrolyse the proteins.
Therefore, digestive organs are protected from auto-
digestion
 Digestion of Proteins
1. Mechanical digestion in the mouth
2. Chemical digestion in the stomach with the denaturation of
protein by gastric hydrochloric acid
• The stomach also secretes a proenzyme, pepsinogen
• This is converted by stomach acidity to the active form, pepsin
• Pepsin hydrolyzes protein into smaller polypeptides
• However, most of the digestion occurs in the small intestine
by pancreatic and intestinal proteases.
• A major pancreatic enzyme is trypsin.
 Digestion of Proteins

• The end products of intestinal digestion of proteins are a

mixture of free amino acids and small peptides, mainly di- and
tripeptides
• Some di- and tripeptides can be transported intact across the
membrane of the epithelial cells where they are hydrolysed to
amino acids by the peptidases.
 Absorption of Proteins
• Accomplished through active transport mechanisms, which
require energy and special sodium-dependent carriers (or
• "pumps"), together with vitamin B-6.
• Two major carrier systems:
1. One for free amino acids
2. One for small peptides (di- and tri-peptides)
• Once inside the mucosal cells, the amino acids are released
from the carriers.
• The amino acids then migrate to the capillaries of the portal
blood system and transported to the liver
• Only free amino acids normally enter the general blood
circulation at the portal vein
Essential and Non-essential amino
acids
• About 20 amino acids required by the human body
– 9 are essential and are required in the diet by the human
adult
– Some essential amino acids can be synthesized in the body
but not necessarily in sufficient quantity
• Non-essential amino acids are produced endogenously (i.e in
the body) from other dietary amino acids which have not
been used for protein synthesis, or from carbohydrate
• Although non-essential amino acids can be endogenously
produced, they are also provided by dietary proteins along
with essential amino acids
 Factors that Determine Protein
Quality
1. Completeness and adequacy of essential amino acids (EAA)
– lf one essential amino acid is present at an inadequate
level, that amino acid will determine how much protein
can be produced; all the other amino acids will be in
relative excess.
– Since they cannot be used for protein synthesis and amino
acids are not stored, the excess will be converted to
carbohydrate or fat.
– The amino group will first be removed (deaminated) and
converted to urea. This will be excreted in the urine.
 Factors that Determine Protein
Quality
2. Digestibility of the Protein
– Depends on protein’s source and the other foods eaten with it
A complete protein - contains all the essential amino acids in
roughly the proportions needed by the human body for protein
synthesis.
Complete protein sources:
‒ proteins from animal sources-meat, fish, poultry eggs
Variable protein sources:
‒ Proteins from plant foods-legumes, cereals, vegetables
Fairly complete protein sources:
‒ Rice, soybean and potatoes are fairly complete.
Incomplete Sources: Corn protein
 Protein Quality - Measures
• Biological value
– Egg protein has the highest biological value and
has been designated the reference protein to
which other proteins are compared
• ln Western countries ---→ diet typically has both an excess of
protein and a wide variety of different types of protein.
• In many Third World countries ---→ food protein is of low
quality Highest Biological Protein Value
Protein - Mutual Supplementation
Mutual supplementation:
Avoiding protein deficiency - lf an incomplete protein is eaten
and at around the same time another protein is also eaten
which supplies the amino acid deficient in the first protein, this
is effectively the same as eating a single complete protein. ln
this case the proteins are said to be complementary
Examples:
• An animal protein, such as meat, milk or eggs, combined with any plant
protein
• Grains, such as wheat, oat, corn and rice, combined with legumes, such as
soybeans, dried peas and dried beans.
• Legumes combined with protein in seeds, such as sunflower or sesame
seeds
• Leafy vegetables combined with grains
 Determination of Protein
Requirements
Nitrogen Balance Studies
• Protein Utilization = By measuring and comparing N
consumption and N loss
• N consumption -----→ analyzing all the foods consumed over
a given time
• N loss ---→N losses through urine, faeces, skin, hair, nails,
sweat, tears, menses, mucus, and so on (Generally, only the
urinary and faecal losses of nitrogen are measured)
. lf the amount of nitrogen consumed = amount of nitrogen lost,
------------→ "nitrogen equilibrium," which means
body losses are being replaced by dietary intake
 Nitrogen Balance
• Healthy adults -----→ N equilibrium
• The minimum amount of protein required to maintain N
equilibrium is the protein requirement
• However, it is also necessary to have an adequate energy
intake, otherwise dietary protein would be used by the body
to produce energy
• When protein intake is high ---→ the body achieves
equilibrium by excreting more N
 Nitrogen Balance
• Growing children, pregnant women and patients recovering
from illness or tissue injury ---→ in positive N balance
• Negative nitrogen balance
– Occurs during fasting, or in illness involving tissue break-
down or injury (such as cancer, burns, surgery, and
infection).
– Severe emotional stress and prolonged immobilization or
bed-rest can produce negative balance
– Diets containing proteins of poor quality or quantity will
also result in negative nitrogen balance
 Proteins - Functions and Health
Effects
• When required, can serve as a source of energy
• Primary cause of world malnutrition
– Protein deficiency along with energy deficiency
• Functions ---→categorized into 3 main groups
1. Structural growth and maintenance of body tissues.
‒This is the primary function of proteins, because they constitute the
building blocks of cells
Protein Functions
collagen formation of scars, tendons,
ligaments,
bones and teeth
contractile proteins formation of muscle tissues
cell membrane proteins formation of a barrier around
cells
 Proteins - Functions and Health
Effects
2. Compounds in regulation of body functions
Protein Body Functions
enzymes catalysts for metabolic reactions
proteins in blood Fluid balance and acid-base balance
antibodies immunity
some hormones insulin regulation of blood glucose
thyroid hormone regulation of body's metabolic rate
Transport proteins
haemoglobin Oxygen transport in blood
Lipoproteins Fat transport
transferrin Iron transport
prothrombin, fibrin clotting of blood
some neurotransmitters nerve impulse transmission
 Proteins - Functions and Health
Effects
3. Source of Energy
• Although this is not the primary function of proteins, in
instances of carbohydrate and fat shortage, food protein and
body protein are broken down to supply energy

• The nitrogen part of amino acids is removed and excreted as

urea via the urine, and the remaining, carbon-containing
fragment is metabolized to produce energy; it can also be
converted to carbohydrate or fat.
 Protein Deficiency
• Symptoms as
– wasting of body tissues,
– weakness,
– loss of vigor(energy)
– oedema
– increased susceptibility to infections.
• Protein deficiency is seen more often in children than in
adults because, in relation to body weight, children have
higher protein requirements.
 Protein Deficiency
Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM)
‒ Protein deficiency occurs in conjunction with energy
deficiency
‒ most widespread form of malnutrition among children in the
Third World.
‒ Two forms
‒ Children who are thin for their height may have acute PEM
due to recent severe food restriction
‒ Children who are short for their age may have chronic PEM
 Protein Deficiency
Marasmus
• Simple PEM
• Often have ketosis caused by the body's attempts to conserve
protein
• May appear to have just skin and bone
• Sick because resistance is low
• The muscles, including the heart muscle, are weakened
• The body temperature is low because of sluggish metabolism and
lack of fat under the skin for insulation
• Occurs most commonly in children aged from 6 to 18 months
• At this time of life the brain is still growing. As a result there may
be a permanent impairment of learning ability. Children with
marasmus need warmth
• Love is also needed as they have often been deprived of maternal
attention
 Protein Deficiency
Kwashiorkor
• Deficiency state where there the diet has adequate food
energy but is severely short of protein
• Often happens when a child is given watery cereal after
weaning
• A major symptom ----→ apathy as the person cuts down on
activity
• Growth ceases, hair grows without the pigment, the skin also
loses its colour, sores fail to heal and the digestive tract
deteriorates and absorption fails
• Anaemia (due to lack of haemoglobin) and poor resistance to
infections (due to lack of antibodies)
 Protein in the Diet
• Protein intake can be expressed in three ways:
1. Total grams per day – 48g for women, 60 g for men
2. Percentage of total energy intake 12% from total energy
3. Grams per kilogram body weight per day – 0.75g per kg
 Protein Requirements
Factors that are considered when daily protein
intake recommendations are established
1. Age or physiological state.
‒ Protein needs based on body weight are highest during the first
year of life, adolescence, pregnancy and lactation
2. Lean body mass.
‒ Recommended intakes for protein are based on individuals of
average weight in each age group, with proportional lean
body mass.
‒ Protein need increases as the amount of muscle
increases, because protein is needed to maintain muscle
tissues.
Cont…..
3. Protein quality.
‒ lf dietary protein is of lower quality, more protein will be needed to
supply the essential amino acids
4. Energy intake
‒ Proteins can be efficiently utilized only when sufficient
energy is available from carbohydrates and lipids
5. Health status
‒ Any severe physiological or psychological stress, such as
burns, fever or surgical trauma, can increase protein
requirement.
Thank you….