ENVIRONMENT

and ECOLOGY
 -@②
Handout 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

A1. ENVIRONMENT
-living components; influences & events,

Environment is the natural component in which biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors interact among
themselves and with each other. These interactions shape the habitat and ecosystem of an organism.

Physical Factors Biological Factors Chemical Interactions

Environment biomolecules, organisms
Constitutes nutrients, water, air, green & non-green Chemical Cycles carbon
temperature, fire, gravity, soil plants, decomposers, cycle, nitrogen cycle etc
symbionts

All organisms or groups of organisms are dependent on the environment to carry out their natural life
processes and to meet their physical requirements (food, energy, water, oxygen, shelter etc.).

BIOSPHERE
Biosphere is the biological component
(supporting life) of earth (a narrow layer around
the surface of earth) which includes the
Lithosphere, Hydrosphere & Atmosphere.

Biosphere includes all living organisms on earth,

together with the dead organic matter produced
by them.

Biosphere is absent at extremes of the North &

South poles, the highest mountains and the
deepest oceans, since existing hostile conditions
there do not support life (life is the characteristic
feature of biosphere).

HABITAT
Habitat is the physical environment in which an ENVIRONMENT vs HABITAT
organism lives ( address of an organism).
A habitat always has life in it, whereas the
Many habitats make up the environment. environment does not necessarily have life in it.
All habitats are environments, but all
A single habitat may be common for more than environments are not habitats.
one organism which have similar requirements.
A habitat is always a preference of one species
o For E.g.: a single aquatic habitat may support (E.g. a freshwater fish may survive for a while in
a fish, frog, crab, phytoplankton and many brackish environment, but its habitats are in freshwater
others. bodies.)
The various species sharing a habitat thus have the
etc. An environment could be a preference of many
species that could eventually become many habitats.

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 ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem can be visualised as a structural & In the ecosystem, biotic and abiotic components
functional unit of nature or biosphere, where are linked together through nutrient cycles and
living organisms (producers, consumers & energy flows.
decomposers) interact among themselves and
also with the surrounding physical environment. Everything that lives in an ecosystem is
dependent on the other species and elements
An ecosystem can be of any size but usually that are also part of that ecological community.
encompasses specific and limited species. E.g.
Aquatic Ecosystem. This makes ecosystem In a healthy & sustainable ecosystem, every
different from environment. element is balanced. But if one part of an
ecosystem is damaged or disappears, it has an
impact on everything else.

Difference between environment, ecosystem, habitat

Habitat Area where an organism lives.
Ecosystem Producers, Consumers, Decomposers and their relationships (tiny environment). It is the
functional unit of the environment.
Environment Group of ecosystems. Can be almost everything or a small region.
Biosphere Region on earth that supports life.

COMPONENTS of AN ENVIRONMEN & ECOSYSTEM

The components of the ecosystem are categorized into Abiotic or non-living and Biotic or living components. Both
the components of the ecosystem and environment are the same.

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS spontaneous combustion and 0.038% carbon

dioxide helps primary producers in the
Abiotic components are the inorganic and non-living synthesis of carbohydrates.
parts which act as major limiting factors for the
survival & range of organisms. e) Organic compounds
a) Light Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids etc. are
The spectral quality of solar radiation is essential for energy transfer in the living
important for life. world.
The UV component of the spectrum is
harmful to many organisms. f) Inorganic compound
Carbon, carbon dioxide, water, sulphur,
b) Rainfall nitrates, phosphates, and ions of various
Majority of biochemical reactions take place metals are essential for organisms to survive.
in an aqueous medium.
Water also helps regulate body temperature. g) Altitude
c) Temperature Vertical zonation of vegetation is caused due
A few organisms can tolerate and thrive in a to altitude.
wide range of temperatures (they are called Change in temperature with altitude is a
Eurythermal). limiting factor.
A vast majority of them are restricted to a
narrow range of temperatures h) Buffering capacity of the earth
(Stenothermal). A neutral pH (pH of 7) is maintained in the soil
and water bodies due to the buffering
d) Atmosphere capacity of earth.
21% oxygen helps in the survival of many The neutral pH is conducive for the survival
organisms; 78% nitrogen prevents and sustenance of living organisms.

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i) Salinity Others are restricted to a narrow range of
Some organisms are tolerant of a wide range salinities (stenohaline).
of salinities (euryhaline).

BIOTIC COMPONENTS Secondary consumers feed on primary

consumers. E.g. wolves, dogs, snake, etc.
a) Primary producers or Autotrophs (self- Carnivores which feed on both primary and
nourishing) secondary consumers are called tertiary
Primary producers are green plants, certain consumers. E.g. lion (can eat wolves), snakes
bacteria and algae that carry out etc.
photosynthesis. Omnivores are organisms which consume
In the aquatic ecosystem, microscopic algae both plants and animals. E.g. man, bear, pig,
(plankton) are the primary producers. etc.

b) Consumers or Heterotrophs or Phagotrophs d) Micro consumers or Saprotrophs (decomposers

(other nourishing) or osmotrophs)
Consumers are incapable of producing their They are bacteria & fungi which obtain
own food. energy and nutrients from dead organic
They depend on organic food derived from substances (detritus).
plants, animals or both. Earthworm and certain soil organisms (such
Consumers can be divided into two broad as nematodes, and arthropods) are detritus
groups namely micro and macro consumers. feeders and help in the decomposition of
organic matter and are called detritivores.
c) Macro consumers
Herbivores are primary consumers which
feed mainly on plants. E.g. sheep, rabbit, etc.

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 A2. ECOLOGY
ECOLOGY scientific study of the relationship of the living organisms with each other and with their

It deals
with ways in which organisms are moulded by their environment, how they make use of environmental resources
including energy flow & mineral cycling.

LEVELS OF ORGANISATIONS in ECOLOGY

Ecology encompasses the study of individual, organisms, population, community, ecosystem, biome & biosphere
which form the various levels of ecological organisation.

1) Individual & Species 4) Ecosystem

Organism is an individual living being that has An ecosystem is a community of organisms
the ability to act or function independently. interacting with each other and with their
Species are a group of living organisms environment such that energy is exchanged
consisting of similar individuals capable of and system-level processes, such as the
exchanging genes or of interbreeding. cycling of elements, emerge.
2) Population
5) Biome
Population is a community of interbreeding
A biome is a large naturally occurring
organisms (same species), occupying a
community of flora and fauna occupying a
defined area during a specific time.
major habitat. E.g. Rainforest biome or
Population growth rate can be positive due to
tundra biome.
birth and/or immigration or negative due to
Plants and animals in a biome have common
death and/or emigration.
characteristics due to similar climates and
3) Community can be found over a range of continents.
Communities in most instances are named Biomes are distinct from habitats because
after the dominant plant form. any biome can comprise a variety of habitats.
For E.g.: a grassland community is dominated
by grasses, though it may contain herbs, 6) Biosphere
trees, etc. The biosphere includes all living organisms
on earth, together with the dead organic
Major Communities
matter produced by them.
These are large sized and relatively
independent.
They depend only o
outside. E.g. Tropical evergreen forests.

Minor Communities

These are dependent on neighbouring

communities and are often called societies.
They are secondary aggregations within a
major community. E.g. A mat of lichen on a
cow dung pad.

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 PRINCIPLES of ECOLOGY
a) ADAPTATION d) MUTATION
behaviour
Mutation (a change in genetic material that results
or structure or mode of life of an organism that
from an error in replication of DNA) causes new
allows it to survive
genes to arise in a population. Further, in a sexually
Adaptation may be:
reproducing population, meiosis and fertilisation
o Morphological when trees grew higher,
produce a new combination of genes every
the giraffe's neck got longer;
generation, which is termed recombination. Thus,
o Physiological in the absence of an external
source of water, the kangaroo rat in North
are not identical.
American deserts is capable of meeting all
its water requirements through its internal e) NATURAL SELECTION
fat oxidation (in which water is a by-
product). Natural Selection is the mechanism proposed by
o Behavioural animals migrating Darwin & Wallace. Natural selection is the process by
temporarily to a less stressful habitat. which species adapt to their environment. It is an
E.g. thick cuticle, spiny leaves & deeply located evolutionary force that selects among variations, i.e.
stomata of desert plants ; shorter ears & limbs for genes that help the organism to better adapt to its
mammals in cold regions; environment. Such genes are reproduced more in a
population due to natural selection. Those offspring
b) VARIATIONS which are suited to their immediate environment
have a better chance of surviving, reaching
Variations are induced by changes in genetic reproductive age and passing on the suitable
makeup due to addition or deletion of certain genes. adaptations to their progeny.
Mutations, change in climate, geographical barriers
E.g.: Malaria endemic African nations have sickle cell
etc induce variations over a period of time. The
anaemia conditions more prevalent.
difference in the colour of skin, type of hair; curly or
straight, eye colour, blood type among different f) EVOLUTION
ethnic groups represents variation within human
species. Evolution is the change which gives rise to new
species. It happens in order to make the organism
c) SPECIATION better suitable to the present environment. Evolution
involves the processes of natural selection,
Speciation is the process by which new species
adaptation, variation etc.
are formed. Evolution is the mechanism by which
speciation is brought about. A species comprises of g) EXTINCTION
many populations. Often different populations of a
species remain isolated due to some geographic The primary reason behind extinctions is
barrier such as mountain, ocean, river, etc. environmental change or biological competition.
Extinction occurs when species cannot evolve fast
enough to cope with the changing environment. At
present, the 6th Mass Extinction (Anthropogenic
Extinction human induced) is in progress.

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 A3. ECOTONE
ECOTONE is a zone of junction or a transition area between two biomes (diverse ecosystems). It is the zone
where two communities meet and integrate.

Mangrove Grassland Estuary Riverbank / Marshland

between marine & between forest and between fresh water and
between dry and wet
terrestrial ecosystem desert salt water

CHARACTERISTICS of AN ECOTONE

It may be narrow (between grassland and forest)

or wide (between forest and desert).
It has conditions intermediate to the adjacent
ecosystems. Hence it is a Zone of Tension.
Usually, the number and the population density
of the species of an outgoing community decreases
as we move away from the community or
ecosystem.
A well-developed ecotone contains some
organisms which are entirely different from that of
the adjoining communities.

ECOCLINE
Ecocline is a zone of gradual but continuous
change from one ecosystem to another when
there is no sharp boundary between the two in
terms of species composition.
Ecocline occurs across the environmental
gradient (gradual change in abiotic factors such as
altitude, temperature (thermocline), salinity
(halocline), depth, etc.).

EDGE EFFECT EDGE SPECIES

Edge effect refers to the changes in population
or community structures that occur at the (E.g. birds in grasslands). This is called Edge
boundary of two habitats (ecotone). Effect.
Sometimes the number of species and the The organisms which occur primarily or most
population density of some of the species in the abundantly in this zone are known as Edge
ecotone is much greater than either community Species.

ECOLOGICAL NICHE

NICHE refers to the unique functional role & position of a species in its habitat or ecosystem.

but they perform different functions:

habitat.

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a) Habitat niche where it lives, how it feeds (food ays an important role in the conservation of
niche) what is eats or decomposes & what organisms. If we have to conserve species in its native
species it competes with habitat, we should have knowledge about the niche
b) Reproductive niche how and when it requirements of the species.
reproduces.
c) Physical & chemical niche temperature, land
shape, land slope, humidity & another
requirement.

Fig: Feeding Niche of Wading Birds in the same Habitat

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 B) FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM
The function of an ecosystem includes:

1. Ecological Succession or Ecosystem Development 3. Energy flow through the Food Chain

2. Homeostasis (or Cybernetic) or Feedback Control 4. Nutrient Cycling (Biogeochemical Cycles)

Mechanisms

B1) ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION The process by which communities of plant and animal species in an area are
replaced or changed into another over a period of time is known as ecological succession.

Succession is a universal process of directional The process involves a progressive series of

change in vegetation, on an ecological time scale. changes with one community replacing another
Succession occurs due to large scale changes or until a stable, mature, climax community
destruction (natural or manmade). develops.

STAGES
The first plant to colonize an area is called the Succession is characterized by the following
Pioneer Community. increased productivity, the shift of nutrients
The final stage of succession is called the Climax from the reservoirs, increased diversity of
Community. A climax community is stable, organisms, and a gradual increase in the
mature, more complex and long-lasting. complexity of food webs.
The stage leading to the climax community is Succession would occur faster in area existing in
called successional stages or Seres. the middle of the large continent. This is because
Each transitional community that is formed and here seeds of plants belonging to the different
replaced during succession is called a stage in seres would reach much faster.
succession or a Seral Community.

PRIMARY SUCCESSION

Primary succession takes place an over where no and lava flows, glacial moraines (muddy area
community has existed previously. exposed by a retreating glacier), etc.
Such areas include rock outcrops, newly formed In primary succession on a terrestrial site, the
deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano islands new site is first colonised by a few hardy pioneer

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 species that are often microbes, lichens and The new conditions may be conducive to the
mosses. establishment of additional organisms that may
The pioneers over a few generations alter the subsequently arrive at the site. As the community
habitat conditions by their growth and of organisms continues to develop, it becomes
development. The pioneers through their death more diverse, and competition increases, but at
any decay leave patches of organic matter in the same time, new niche opportunities develop.
which small animals can live.
The organic matter produced by these pioneer The pioneer species disappear as the habitat
species produce organic acids during conditions change and invasion of new species
decomposition that dissolve and etch the progresses, leading to the replacement of the
substratum releasing nutrients to the preceding community.
substratum.

SECONDARY SUCCESSION

Secondary succession is the sequential dominate the ecosystem for some years along
development of biotic communities after the with mice, rabbits, insects and seed-eating birds.
complete or partial destruction of the existing Eventually, some trees come up in this area,
community. seeds of which may be brought by wind or
A mature or intermediate community may be animals. And over the years, a forest community
destroyed by natural events such as floods, develops.
droughts, fires, or storms or by human Thus, an abandoned land over a period becomes
interventions such as deforestation, agriculture, dominated by trees and is transformed into a
overgrazing, etc. forest.
This abandoned land is first invaded by hardy Unlike in the primary succession, the secondary
species of grasses that can survive in bare, sun- succession starts on a well-developed soil already
baked soil. These grasses may be soon joined by formed at the site. Thus, secondary succession is
tall grasses and herbaceous plants. These relatively faster.

AUTOGENIC & ALLOGENIC SUCCESSION Autogenic succession is driven by the biotic

components of an ecosystem.
When succession is brought about by living
Allogenic succession is driven by the abiotic
inhabitants of that community itself, the process
components (fire, flood) of the ecosystem.
is called autogenic succession, while change
brought about by outside forces is known as
allogenic succession.

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AUTOTROPHIC & HETEROTROPHIC SUCCESSION rooted hydrophytes, sedges, grasses and finally
trees.
Succession in which, initially the green plants are The climax again would be a forest. With time
much greater in quantity is known as autotrophic the water body is converted into land.
succession.
Another important fact is to understand that all
Succession in which the heterotrophs are greater succession whether taking place in water or on
in quantity is known as heterotrophic succession. land, proceeds to a similar climax community
the mesic.
SUCCESSION IN PLANTS
Succession that occurs on land (dry areas) where
moisture content is low for e.g. on a bare rock is
known as xerarch.
Succession that takes place in a water body, like
ponds or lake is called hydrarch.
Both hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to
medium water conditions (mesic) neither too
dry (xeric) nor too wet (hydric) i.e. with time the
xerophytic habitat gets converted into a
mesophyte (plat needing only a moderate
amount of water).

SUCCESSION IN WATER
In primary succession in water, the pioneers are
the small phytoplankton, and they are replaced
with time by free-floating angiosperms, then by

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 B2) HOMEOSTASIS IN ECOSYSTEM
HOMEOSTASIS is the maintenance of stable equilibrium, especially through physiological (through bodily part)
functions. E.g. Cooling your body through sweating processes.

Organisms try to maintain the constancy of its When the number of zooplanktons is reduced
internal environment despite varying external because of starvation, the phytoplankton
environmental conditions that tend to upset their population starts increasing. After some time, the
homeostasis. population size of zooplankton also increases,
In ecology, the term homeostasis applies to the and this process continues at all the trophic levels
tendency for a biological system to resist of the food chain.
changes. In a homeostatic system, it is the negative
Ecosystems are capable of maintaining their state feedback mechanism induced by the limiting
of equilibrium. They can regulate their own resource (here its scarcity of food) which is
species structure and functional processes. This responsible for maintaining stability in an
capacity of the ecosystem of self-regulation is ecosystem.
known as homeostasis. However, the homeostatic capacity of
For E.g.: in a pond ecosystem, if the population ecosystems is not unlimited as well as not
of zooplankton increases, they consume a large everything in an ecosystem is always well
number of the phytoplankton and as a result, regulated.
food would become scarce for zooplankton.

Regulators Conformers Migrate Suspend

In bacteria, fungi and
An overwhelming
Some organisms can These organisms lower plants, various
majority of animals
maintain homeostasis by can move away kinds of thick-walled
(fishes, insects,
physiological temporarily from spores are formed
reptiles) and nearly
(sometimes behavioural) the stressful which help them to
all plants cannot
means which ensures habitat to a more survive unfavourable
maintain a constant
constant body hospitable area conditions.
internal environment.
temperature, constant and return when a In higher plants, seeds
Their body
osmotic concentration, stressful period is and some other
temperature changes
etc. over. vegetative
with the ambient
All birds and mammals Every winter the reproductive
temperature.
and a very few lower India hosts structures serves this.
In aquatic animals,
vertebrate and thousands of In animals, bears go
the osmotic
invertebrate species are migratory birds into hibernation
concentration of the
indeed capable of such coming from during winter; snails
body fluids changes
regulation Siberia and other and fish go into
with that of the
(thermoregulation & extremely cold aestivation to avoid
ambient water
osmoregulation). northern regions. summer-related
concentration.
problems

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 B3) ENERGY FLOW THROUGH ECOSYSTEM (TROPHIC LEVELS)
TROPHIC LEVEL is the representation of energy flow in an ecosystem (trophe = nourishment)

The trophic level of an organism is the position it 1) Food Chain

occupies in a food chain. 2) Food Web
Trophic level interaction deals with how the 3) Ecological Pyramids
members of an ecosystem are connected based
on nutritional needs.
Energy flows through the trophic levels from
producers to subsequent trophic levels is
unidirectional.
Energy level decreases from the first trophic level
upwards due to loss of energy in the form of heat
at each trophic level. This energy loss at each
trophic level is quite significant. Hence there are
usually not more than four-five trophic levels
(beyond this the energy available is negligible to
support an organism).
The trophic level interaction involves three Fig: Trophic Levels

concepts namely:

1) FOOD CHAINS
FOOD CHAIN Transfer of food energy from green plants (producers) through a series of organisms with
repeated eating and being eaten link
Hawk/Eagle.

Each step in the food chain is called trophic level. Types of Food Chains:
A food chain starts with producers and ends with 1) Grazing food chain
top carnivores. The trophic level of an organism is 2) Detritus food chain
the position it occupies in a food chain.

Grazing Food Chain Detritus Food Chain

The consumers which start the food chain, utilising

the plant or plant part as their food, constitute the
This type of food chain starts from organic matter
grazing food chain.
of dead and decaying animals and plant bodies
In a Terrestrial ecosystem the grass is eaten by a
from the grazing food chain.
caterpillar, which is eaten by lizard and lizard is
Dead organic matter or detritus feeding organisms
eaten by a snake.
are called detrivores or decomposers.
In an Aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton (primary
The detrivores are eaten by predators.
producers) are eaten by zooplanktons which are
eaten by fishes and fishes are eaten by pelicans.

In a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of

In an aquatic ecosystem, the grazing food chain is
energy flows through the detritus food chain than
the major conduit for energy flow.
through the grazing food chain.

Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into

simpler inorganic substances. This process is called
catabolism.

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 2) FOOD WEB
FOOD WEB Multiple interlinked food chains make a food web.

Food web represents all the

possible paths of energy
flow in an ecosystem.
If any of the intermediate
food chains is removed, the
succeeding links of the chain
will be affected largely.
The food web provides more
than one alternative for
food to most of the
organisms in an ecosystem
and therefore increases
their chance of survival.

TYPES OF INTERACTIONS IN A FOOD WEB

Interaction Combination Effects Examples

Type Species 1 Species 2
Positive Interactions
Suckerfish & Shark suckerfish
One species (the commensal)
get protection, a free ride as well
benefits, while the other species
Commensalism 0 + as a meal from the leftover of
(the host) is neither harmed nor
inhibited.
unaffected.
Sea Anemone & Hermit Crab
anemone gets transport &
new food; crab gets
Mutualism + + Benefits both species.
camouflage & protection.
Symbiosis of Zooxanthella &
Coral polyps.

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 Negative Interactions
Fungi Penicillium produce
One species is inhibited while
Amensalism 0 -- penicillin, that inhibits the
the other species is unaffected.
growth of variety of bacteria.
Competition occurs when two
populations or species, both
Competition -- -- Harmful for both species.
need a vital resource that is in
short supply.
One species (predator) benefits Predators like leopards, tigers
while and cheetahs use speed, teeth
Predation + --
the second species (prey) is and claws to hunt and kill their
harmed and inhibited. prey.
Tap worm, roundworm, malarial
Beneficial to one species
parasite, many bacteria, fungi,
(parasite) and
Parasitism + -- and viruses are common
harmful to the other species
parasites of humans deriving
(host).
nourishment and often shelter.

3) ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID The pyramidal representation of trophic levels of different organisms based on their
ecological position (producer to final consumer) is called as an ecological pyramid.

The pyramid consists of a number of horizontal This type of pyramid can be seen in the Grassland
bars depicting specific trophic levels. The length ecosystem & Pond ecosystem.
of each bar represents the total number of The grasses occupy the lowest trophic level (base)
individuals or biomass or energy at each trophic because of their abundance. The next higher
level in an ecosystem. trophic level is primary consumer herbivores
The food producer forms the base of the like a grasshopper. The individual number of
pyramid and the top carnivore forms the tip. grasshoppers is less than that of grass.
Other consumer trophic levels are in between. The next energy level is a primary carnivore like
The ecological pyramids are of three categories: rats. The number of rats is less than grasshoppers
1) Pyramid of Numbers, because they feed on grasshoppers.
2) Pyramid of Biomass, and The next higher trophic level is secondary
3) Pyramid of Energy or Productivity. carnivore like snakes. They feed on rats. The next
higher trophic level is the top carnivore like Hawk.
1) PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

Pyramid of numbers represents the total number

of individuals of different species (population) at
each trophic level.
Depending upon the size, the pyramid of
numbers may not always be upright, and may
even be completely inverted.
It is very difficult to count all the organisms, in a
pyramid of numbers and so the pyramid of
number does not completely define the trophic
structure for an ecosystem.

UPRIGHT PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

In this pyramid, the number of individuals is

decreased from lower level to higher trophic
level.

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INVERTED PYRAMID OF NUMBERS INVERTED PYRAMID OF BIOMASS

In this pyramid, the number of individuals is In contrast, in Many Aquatic ecosystems, the
increased from lower level to higher trophic level. pyramid of biomass may assume an inverted
E.g. Tree ecosystem. form. (In contrast, a pyramid of numbers for the
aquatic ecosystem is upright).
This is because the producers are tiny
phytoplankton that grows and reproduces
rapidly.
Here, the pyramid of biomass has a small base,
with the consumer biomass at any instant
exceeding the producer biomass and the pyramid
assumes an inverted shape.

2) PYRAMID OF BIOMASS

Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by

collecting all organisms occupying each trophic
level separately and measuring their dry weight.
This overcomes the size difference problem
because all kinds of organisms at a trophic level
are weighed.
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living
material at a particular time called the Standing
Crop. The standing crop is measured as the mass
of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a 3) PYRAMID OF ENERGY
unit area. To compare the functional roles of the trophic
UPRIGHT PYRAMID OF BIOMASS levels in an ecosystem, an energy pyramid is most
suitable.
For Most ecosystems on Land, the pyramid of An energy pyramid represents the amount of
biomass has a large base of primary producers energy at each trophic level and loss of energy at
with a smaller trophic level perched on top. each transfer to another trophic level.
The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the The usable energy decreases from sunlight to
maximum. The biomass of next trophic level i.e. producer to herbivore to carnivore. Hence the
primary consumers is less than the producers. energy pyramid is always upward, with a large
The biomass of next higher trophic level i.e. energy base at the bottom.
secondary consumers is less than the primary
consumers. The top, high trophic level has very
less amount of biomass.

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ECOLOGICAL EFFICIENCY BIOACCUMULATION

ECOLOGICAL EFFICIENCY describes the efficiency Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of

with which energy is transferred from one trophic pollutants, chemicals (chronic poisoning) or other
level to the next. substances in an organism.

The number of trophic levels in the grazing food Bioaccumulation occurs when the rate of loss of
chain is restricted as the transfer of energy the substance from the body of the organism
follows 10 per cent law only 10 per cent of the through catabolism (breakdown of complex
energy is transferred to each trophic level from molecules in living organisms), or excretion is
the lower trophic level. lower than the rate of accumulation of the
The decrease at each subsequent trophic level is substance.
due to two reasons: As persistent organic pollutants like DDT are long-
o At each trophic, a part of the available lasting, the risk of bioaccumulation is high even if
energy is lost in respiration or used up in the environmental levels of the pollutant are not
metabolism. high.
o A part of the energy is lost at each
transformation.
BIOMAGNIFICATION
POLLUTANTS & TROPHIC LEVEL Biomagnification refers to progressive
Pollutants move through the various trophic bioaccumulation (increase in concentration) at each
levels in an ecosystem. tropical level with the passage of time.
Non-degradable pollutants (persistent In order for biomagnification to occur, the
pollutants), which cannot be broken down by pollutant must have a long biological half-life
detrivores, not only move through the various (long-lived), must not be soluble in water but
trophic levels but also remain in that tropic level must be soluble in fats. E.g. DDT.
for a very long duration. If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (Organochlorides) are excreted by the organism.
the most damaging non-degradable pollutants Pollutants that dissolve in fats are retained for a
that are long-lasting. long time. Hence it is traditional to measure the
Movement of these pollutants involves two main amount of pollutants in fatty tissues of organisms
processes: such as fish.
1) Bioaccumulation In mammals, milk produced by females is tested
2) Biomagnification for pollutants since the milk has a lot of fat in.

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 B4. BIO-GEO-CHEMICAL CYCLES or NUTRIENT CYCLES
Energy is lost as heat forever in terms of the Carbon cycle involves a continuous exchange of
usefulness of the system. On the other hand, carbon between the atmosphere and organisms.
nutrients of food matter never get used up. They Carbon from the atmosphere moves to green
are recycled again and again indefinitely. plants by the process of photosynthesis, and then
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen & to animals.
phosphorus as elements and compounds By process of respiration & decomposition of
makeup 97% of the mass of our bodies and are dead organic matter, it returns to the
more than 95% of the mass of all living organisms. atmosphere. It is usually a short-term cycle.
These elements or mineral nutrients are always in Some carbon also enters a long-term cycle. It
circulation moving from non-living to living and accumulates as un-decomposed organic matter
then back to the non-living components of the in the peaty layers of marshy soil or as insoluble
ecosystem in a more or less circular fashion. This carbonates in bottom sediments of aquatic
circular fashion is known as biogeochemical systems which take a long time to be released.
cycling (bio for living; geo for atmosphere). In deep oceans, such carbon can remain buried
for millions of years till geological movement may
TYPES OF NUTRIENT CYCLES lift these rocks above sea level. These rocks may
be exposed to erosion, releasing their carbon
Based on the replacement period, nutrient cycles
dioxide, carbonates and bicarbonates into
can be:
streams and rivers.
1) Perfect Nutrient Cycle is one in which
Fossil fuels such as coals, oil and natural gas etc.
nutrients are replaced as fast as they are
are organic compounds that were buried before
utilized. Most gaseous cycles are generally
they could be decomposed and were
considered as perfect cycles.
subsequently transformed by time and geological
2) Imperfect Nutrient Cycle -- as some nutrients
processes into fossil fuels. When fossil fuel is
are lost from the cycle and get locked into
burned the carbon stored in them is released
sediments and so become unavailable for
back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
immediate cycling. Sedimentary cycles are
considered imperfect.
Based on the nature of the reservoir, nutrient
cycles can be:
1) Gaseous Cycle the reservoir is the
atmosphere or the hydrosphere water
cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, etc.
2) Sedimentary Cycle the reservoir is the
earth's crust (soluble elements mostly found
phosphorous cycle,
sulphur cycle, calcium cycle, magnesium cycle
etc.

1) CARBON CYCLE (GASEOUS CYCLE)

Carbon is a minor constituent of the atmosphere
as compared to oxygen and nitrogen present in
the atmosphere, mainly in the form of carbon
dioxide (CO2).

2) NITROGEN CYCLE (GASEOUS CYCLE) organisms. Nitrogen is a constituent of amino

acids, proteins, hormones, chlorophylls and many
Apart from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, of the vitamins.
nitrogen is the most prevalent element in living

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 Plants compete with microbes for the limited NITRIFICATION AMMONIA to NITRATES
nitrogen that is available in the soil. Thus,
Ammonium ions can be directly taken up as a
nitrogen is a limiting nutrient for both natural
source of nitrogen by some plants.
and agricultural ecosystems.
Others absorb nitrates which are obtained by
In nature, lightning & ultraviolet radiation
oxidising ammonia and ammonium ions.
provide enough energy to convert nitrogen to
Ammonia and ammonium ions are oxidised to
nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2, N2O).
nitrites or nitrates by two groups of specialized
Industrial combustions, forest fires, automobile
bacteria:
exhausts & power-generating stations are also
o Nitrosomonas | Nitrococcus first oxidises
sources of atmospheric nitrogen oxides.
Ammonium Nitrite.
NITROGEN FIXING NITROGEN to AMMONIA (N2 TO o Nitrobacter oxidises Nitrite Nitrate.
NH3)
These steps are called nitrification.
There is an inexhaustible supply of nitrogen in the The nitrate thus formed is absorbed by plants and
atmosphere, but the elemental form cannot be is transported to the leaves, where they are
used directly by most of the living organisms. reduced to amino acids & proteins.
converted to
ammonia, nitrites or nitrates, before it can be
DENITRIFICATION NITRATE to NITROGEN
taken up by plants.
Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished in Nitrate present in the soil is reduced to nitrogen
three different ways: by the process of denitrification.
a) By Microorganisms (bacteria & blue-green Pseudomonas & Thiobacillus are special
algae), denitrifying bacteria present in soil & oceans that
b) By Human using industrial processes converts Nitrite/Nitrate Elemental Nitrogen.
(fertiliser factories) This nitrogen escapes into the atmosphere, thus
c) Lightning to a limited extent. completing the cycle.

NITROGEN FIXERS the enzyme, Nitrogenase Step 1: N2 Fixing Nitrogen Ammonia or

which is capable of nitrogen reduction is present Ammonium Ions
exclusively in prokaryotes. Such microbes are
Step 2: Nitrification Ammonia or Ammonium Ions
called N2-fixers capable of fixing atmospheric
Nitrite Nitrate
nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3) and
ammonium (NH4+). These include: Step 3: Ammonification Dead Matter + Animal
Non-Symbiotic/Free-Living Soil Bacteria
ions
Azotobacter & Beijemickia (aerobic);
Clostridium & Rhodospirillum (anaerobic) Most of the ammonia escapes into the
Symbiotic Bacteria Rhizobium (living in atmosphere. Rest is Nitrified (Step 2) to
association with leguminous plants and non- nitrates.
leguminous root nodule plants) Some of the nitrates is available for plants.
Cyanobacteria Nostoc, Anabaena, Spirulina Rest is Denitrified (Step 4).
(blue-green algae, fixing nitrogen in ocean)
Step 4: Denitrification Nitrate Nitrogen

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3) PHOSPHORUS CYCLE (SEDIMENTARY CYCLE) rise from the seafloor and expose the phosphates
on land.
Phosphorus plays a central role in aquatic After more time, weathering will release them
ecosystems and water quality. from rock, and the cycle's geochemical phase
Unlike carbon and nitrogen, which come begins again.
primarily from the atmosphere, phosphorus
occurs in large amounts as a mineral in
phosphate rocks and enters the cycle from
erosion & mining activities.
This is the nutrient considered to be the main
cause of excessive growth of rooted and free-
floating microscopic plants (phytoplankton) in
lakes (leads to eutrophication).

The main storage for phosphorus is in the earth's

crust. On land, phosphorus is usually found in the
form of phosphates.
By the process of weathering and erosion,
phosphates enter rivers, streams and finally
oceans.
In the ocean, phosphorus accumulates on
continental shelves in the form of insoluble
deposits. After millions of years, the crustal plates

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4) SULPHUR CYCLE (SEDIMENTARY CYCLE) fossil fuels (coal, diesel etc.), from the surface of
the ocean and gases released by decomposition.
The sulphur reservoir is in the soil and sediments Atmospheric hydrogen sulphide also gets
where it is locked in organic (coal, oil and peat) oxidised into sulphur dioxide. Atmospheric
and inorganic deposits (pyrite rock & sulphur sulphur dioxide is carried back to the earth after
rock) in the form of sulphates, sulphides and being dissolved in rainwater as weak sulphuric
organic sulphur. acid (acid rain).
It is released by weathering of rocks, erosional Whatever the source, sulphur in the form of
runoff and decomposition of organic matter and sulphates is taken up by plants and incorporated
is carried to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in through a series of metabolic processes into
salt solution. sulphur bearing amino acid which is incorporated
The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except in the proteins of autotroph tissues. It then
two of its compounds, hydrogen sulphide (H2S) passes through the grazing food chain.
and sulphur dioxide (SO2), which add a gaseous Sulphur bound in a living organism is carried back
component. to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes and
Sulphur enters the atmosphere from several seas through excretion and decomposition of
sources like volcanic eruptions, combustion of dead organic material.

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 -0A
Handout 2

NATURAL ECOSYSTEM & TYPES

A natural ecosystem is an assemblage of plants There are two main categories of ecosystems:
and animals which functions as a unit and is 1) Terrestrial ecosystem
capable of maintaining its identity. 2) Aquatic ecosystem.

A) TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS (BIOMES)

The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible temperature mainly), vegetation, animal life and
into enormous regions called biomes. general soil type.
No two biomes are alike. They are characterized, The climate determines the boundaries of a
by distinct climate (precipitation and biome and abundance of plants and animals
found in each one of them.

BIOMES

1. Arctic Tundra
TUNDRA
2. Alpine Tundra

1. Taiga or Boreal Biome (Evergreen Coniferous forests)

2. Temperate Deciduous Biome (North Western Europe British Type Climate)
3. Temperate Rainforest Biome
4. Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate)
FOREST
5. Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA
6. Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)
7. Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome
8. Tropical Rain Forest Biome

1. Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome

GRASSLAND
2. Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome (Tropical Shrublands & Grasslands)

1. Tropical
DESERT
2. Mid Latitude Desert Biome

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 A1) TUNDRA
There are two types of tundra arctic and alpine. The soil is frozen for most part of the year and
Located in latitudes of 55° to 70° North, arctic only the top 0.5-meter melts during the short
tundra is mainly found along the north polar summers in the arctic tundra. The permanently
regions of the world. frozen soil below is known as permafrost.
Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above Flora There are no trees in the tundra (due to
the tree line. E.g. High ranges of the Himalayas, permafrost). The lowest form of vegetation like
Andes, Alps etc. mosses, lichens are sparsely found on bare rocks.
Fauna Animals like the reindeer, arctic fox,
wolves, musk-ox, caribou, polar bear, lemming,
arctic hare, arctic willow live in tundra region.
Reptiles & amphibians are almost absent.
Most of the plants have long life, e.g. arctic
willow has a life span of 150 to 300 years. On the
other hand, insects have short life cycles which
are completed during the favourable period of
the year.
Flora & fauna are protected from chillness by the
presence of thick cuticle and epidermal hair or
fur. Birds migrate during winters.
Mammals have a large body size and small tail &
ear to avoid the loss of heat from the surface.
Sometimes they hibernate.

A2) TAIGA or BOREAL BIOME

Boreal coniferous forest is a land of lakes, bogs spruce, fir and pine. The conifers require little
and marshes with high rainfall, seasonal climates moisture are best suited to this type of sub-Arctic
of long cold winters and short summers. climate.
This circumpolar belt of coniferous forests Fauna animals found in this region include
stretches across North America to Eurasia. Siberian tiger, wolverine, lynx, wolf, bear, red
Flora the predominant vegetation is an fox, squirrel, and amphibians like Hyla, Rana, etc.
evergreen coniferous forest with species such as

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 The productivity & communal stability of boreal o Low levels of moisture (excessively drained)
forest is lower than those of any other forest o Poor drainage due to subsoil cementation.
ecosystem. This is because: o Acidic Soil a low pH is due to excessive leaching
boreal forest soils are characterized by thin of alkaline matter.
podzols that are rather poor.
Hence, most Podzols are poor soils for agriculture.
litter derived from conifer needle (leaf) is
They are mostly used for grazing.
decomposed very slowly and is not rich in
nutrients (humus content is low).
Conifers do not shed their leaves frequently.
Weathering process is comparatively slower
in cold climates.

Podzol Soil

o Podzols are the typical soils of a coniferous or

boreal biome.
o Top layer of the soil is very thin and is overlain
over sandy or loamy subsurface which has no
organic matter (lost due to leaching of nutrients
to the bottom layers).

A3) TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS - BIOME

They are found in North-Western Europe (British maple, sycamore. Trees shed their leaves in fall
type climate), Eastern United States, Canada, (autumn season), are bare over winters (to
Europe, China, and Japan. protect from winter & frost). New foliage growth
These forest regions are exposed to warm and begins in spring.
cold air masses, which causes it to have moderate
temperatures on average that change during four
distinct seasons - long, warm growing season
being distinct.
They have long summers, not too severe winters
and abundant precipitation spread over the
whole year.
The soil is typically podzolic is rich and fairly deep.
Trees shed their leaves during winter, that
provide a steady source of organic material.
Flora broad-leaved deciduous species like oak,
elm, ash, birch, beech, and poplar, hickory,

A4) TEMPERATE RAINFOREST BIOME

This is a small biome in terms of area covered. Mountain hemlock, Western hemlock, Sitka
The main stretch of this habitat is along the spruce and Lodgepole pine.
Pacific coast of North America from northern In addition to the trees, mosses and lichens are
California through southern Alaska. There are very common, often growing as epiphytes.
also small areas in southern Chile, New Zealand, Fauna compared to tropical rainforest biomes,
Australia and a few other places around the temperate rainforest biomes have very few
world. mammals due to the absence of a series of
Flora Big coniferous trees dominate this sophisticated layers. Grizzly bears are the
habitat, including Douglas fir, Western red cedar, common mammals found in Alaska.

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 A5) SUB-TROPICAL DECIDUOUS BIOME
They are found in Eastern China and South On the highlands, various species of conifers such
Eastern USA. as pines and cypresses are important.
Supports luxuriant vegetation. Perennial plant growth is not checked by either a
The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved dry season or a cold season.
forests and deciduous trees (hardwood).

A6) TEMPERATE SHRUBLANDS (MEDITERRANEAN BIOME)

These regions have a Mediterranean type of Regions with adequate rainfall are inhabited by
climate i.e., hot dry summers and cool wet low, broad-leafed evergreen trees (mostly
winters. These are found in the coastal mountains evergreen oaks).
of California in USA and in Chile; at the tip of Fire is an important hazardous factor in this
Africa and south western Australia. However, in ecosystem, and the adapted to this. Some plants
USA such communities are called Chaparral. producing seeds that only germinate after a hot
Flora These are areas where woody shrubs fire. The ashes left behind after a fire are rich in
predominate rather than trees. , shrubs grow nutrients like nitrogen that fertilize the soil and
close together having typically leathery leaves promote quick plant regrowth after being burnt.
and never very tall.

A7) TROPICAL DECIDUOUS BIOME (MONSOON CLIMATE)

Tropical deciduous or seasonal forests are also Vertical stratification in the vegetation is
known as monsoon forests found in South East somewhat simple with a single understory tree
Asia, in Central & South America, Northern layer. The trees loose leaves in one season but
Australia, Western Africa and the Pacific. ground vegetation remains evergreen. Trees are
of 20-30 m height, sometimes reaching a height
Rainfall is high, Sometimes higher than tropical over 40 m in this biome.
rain forests but seasonal. There are pronounced
wet and dry periods, and so are winter and
summer seasons. The soils are brown in colour
and rich in nutrients.

Flora 'Teak' and 'Sal' forests are good

examples of this type of biome. Neem, shisham,
sandalwood, khair, mulberry are other
important species. Bamboo is also one of the
climax shrubs in these areas.

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 A8) TROPICAL RAINFOREST BIOME
Tropical rainforests are found on both sides of the An incredible number of animal species thrive in
equator in South, East Asia, Africa, South and this biome, many of which have become adapted
Central America, North East Australia. to life in the specific layers of the canopies and
Climate becomes increasingly hot and seasonal subcanopies (arboreal adaptation). Amongst
variation in climate decreases (practically the animal species insects & birds are particularly
same climate throughout the year). Both abundant.
temperature and humidity are very high and Tropical rainforests cover about 7 % of the earth's
constant. Rainfall exceeds 200 cm a year and is surface but house approximately 40 % of the
distributed over the year. plant and animal species.
Soil is nutrient poor because in spite of the high
rate of decomposition the nutrients do not
remain in the soil. They are absorbed rapidly by
plants or the rains wash them away thus making
the soil virtually useless for agriculture.
The dominant plants in these forests are tall, 25-
30 meters high with slender trunks that branch
only near the tops forming a dense canopy of
leathery evergreen leaves. The equatorial
vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen
trees, e.g. mahogany, ebony, dyewoods etc. In
the coastal areas and brackish swamps,
mangrove forests thrive. Epiphytes & liana are
very common.

A9) DESERT BIOME

Deserts are hot and low rain areas suffering from plants. Three plant life forms are most adapted to
water shortage and high wind velocity. They show the desert environment:
extremes of temperature. Globally deserts a) Annuals that avoid drought, growing when
occupy about 1/7th of there is adequate moisture.
b) Succulents -- (e.g. cactus), that have
Flora and fauna The predominant vegetation adaptation for water storage and avoid water
of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic loss.
or drought-resistant. Cacti, Acacia, Euphorbia c) Hardy desert shrubs having short stem,
and prickly pears are some of the common desert number of branches and thick leaves, long
root systems, chlorophyll on stems etc.

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The animals of deserts are primarily arthropods, c) They conserve water by excreting
reptiles, birds and mammals. Large animals are concentrated urine.
uncommon. Small rodents are the most common d) Animals and birds usually have long legs to
mammals, along with small foxes. Among the keep the body away from the hot ground.
herbivores, insects are dominant. Desert animals e) Lizards are mostly insectivorous and can live
include shrew, fox, wood rats, rabbits, camels and without drinking water for several days.
burrowing rodents insects. The animals are f) Herbivorous animals get sufficient water
physiologically and behaviourally adapted to from the seeds which they eat.
desert conditions: Desert soils are rich in nutrients but water is a
a) They are fast runners. serious limiting factor.
b)
heat during daytime.

A10) TEMPERATE GRASSLAND BIOME

Temperate grasslands are found throughout The soils under grasslands are rich and fertile
central North America (known as Prairies), in packed with the roots and rhizomes
Eurasia (known as Steppes), in South America (underground stems).
(Pampas). The dominant vegetation tends to consist of
Temperate grasslands have pronounced annual grasses. Prairie usually has taller grasses than a
fluctuations in temperature with hot summers steppe. They are practically treeless. Poleward,
and cold winters. Plant growth is possible during an increase in precipitation gives rise to a
the spring, summer, and fall when the transitional zone of wooded steppes where some
temperature is warm enough. During winter conifers gradually appear.
temperatures are low and water, which is stored Grassland biomes generally support large
in the form of ice, is not available for plant number of herbivores, whereas carnivores are
growth. very few (coyotes, weasels, badgers, foxes, owls
and rattlesnakes).

A11) SAVANNA OR TROPICAL WET & DRY BIOME

These are special kinds of grasslands that often combination of grassland with scattered or
border tropical rain forests. Savanna is a clumped trees.

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The climate is warm having 100-150 cm annual excessive loss of water through transpiration, e.g.
rainfall, with prolonged dry season in which fires acacias.
are common. The rains are erratic. Trees usually have broad trunks, with water-
These grasslands have scattered trees, that do storing devices to survive through the prolonged
not form canopy in any part of savanna. The drought. Many trees are umbrella shaped,
savanna landscape is typified by tall grass & short exposing only a narrow edge to the strong winds.
trees. The trees are deciduous, shedding their Savanna biome is rich in mammal, bird and reptile
leaves in the cool, dry season to prevent diversity.

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 B) AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
An aquatic ecosystem includes a group of substances emerging above the bottom mud such
interacting organisms which are dependent on as sessile algae.
one another and their water environment for Plankton Microscopic floating organisms such
nutrients and shelter. i.e. plant and animal as algae, diatoms, protozoans and larval forms
communities occurring in water bodies. are called plankton. This group includes both
Aquatic ecosystems are classified into following microscopic plants like algae (phytoplankton)
subgroups: and animals like crustaceans and protozoans
(zooplankton). The locomotory power of the
1) Freshwater ecosystems water on land which is planktons is limited so that their distribution is
continuously cycling and has low salt content controlled, largely, by currents.
(always less than 5 ppt) such as rivers, lakes, Nekton This group contains powerful swimmers
ponds. They are further classified into 2: that can overcome the water currents.
Benthos The benthic organisms are those found
a. Lentic Ecosystem includes stationary or
living at the bottom of the water mass.
relatively still water ecosystems. Pond, lake,
bogs and swamps are examples. These
ecosystems are home to algae, crabs,
shrimps, amphibians such as frogs and
salamanders, for both rooted and floating-
leaved plants and reptiles including alligators
and other water snakes are also found here.
b. Lotic Ecosystem includes rapidly flowing
waters that move in a unidirectional way
including the springs, mountain brooks, rivers
and streams. They have numerous species of
insects such as beetles, mayflies, stoneflies
and several species of fishes including trout, FACTORS LIMITING THE PRODUCTIVITY OF
eel, minnow, etc. Apart from these aquatic AQUATIC HABITATS
species, these ecosystems also include
various mammals such as beavers, river 1) SUNLIGHT
dolphins and otters. Sunlight penetration rapidly diminishes as it
2) Marine ecosystems water bodies containing passes down the column of water.
salt concentration equal to or above that of The depth to which light penetrates a lake
seawater (i.e., 35 ppt or above). E.g. shallow seas determines the extent of plant distribution.
and open ocean. Suspended particulate matters such as clay, silt,
phytoplankton, etc. make the water turbid.
3) Brackish water ecosystems these water bodies
Turbidity limits the extent of light penetration
have salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt. e.g.
and photosynthetic activity in a significant way.
estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps and
Based on light penetration and plant distribution
forests.
they are classified as photic and aphotic zones.
AQUATIC ORGANISMS
Photic zone
The aquatic organisms are classified on the basis of
o Photic (or "euphotic") zone is the portion that
their zone of occurrence.
extends from the lake surface down to where
Neuston These organisms live at the air-water the light level is 1% of that at the surface. The
interface, e.g. floating plants. depth of this zone depends on the
Periphyton These are organisms which remain transparency of water.
attached to stems and leaves of rooted plants or o Photosynthetic activity is confined to the
photic zone.

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 o Both photosynthesis and respiration activity Dissolved oxygen escapes the water body
take place. through the air-water interface and respiration of
organisms (fish, decomposers, zooplankton, etc.).
Aphotic zone
The amount of dissolved oxygen retained in
o The lower layers of the aquatic ecosystems, water is also influenced by temperature. Oxygen
where light penetration and plant growth are is less soluble in warm water. Warm water also
restricted forms the aphotic zone (profundal enhances decomposer activity. Therefore,
zone). increasing the temperature of a water body
o Only respiration activity takes place in this increases the rate at which oxygen is depleted
zone. from the water.
o The aphotic zone extends from the end of the When the dissolved oxygen level falls below 3-5
photic zones to bottom of the lake. ppm, many aquatic organisms are likely to die.

Winterkill

o An ice layer on the top of a water body can

effectively cut off light. Photosynthesis stops but
respiration continues in such water body.
o If the water body is shallow, the oxygen gets
depleted, and the fish die. This condition is known
as winterkill.

3) TEMPERATURE
Since water temperatures are less subject to
change, the aquatic organisms have narrow
2) DISSOLVED OXYGEN temperature tolerance limit.
As a result, even small changes in water
In freshwater the average concentration of
temperature are a great threat to the survival of
dissolved oxygen is 10 parts per million by
aquatic organisms when compared to the
weight. This is 150 times lower than the
changes in air temperatures in the terrestrial
concentration of oxygen in an equivalent volume
organisms.
of air.
Oxygen enters the aquatic ecosystem through the
air-water interface and by the photosynthetic
activities of aquatic plants.

ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
An estuary is a place where a river or a stream Estuaries are formed due to rise in sea level,
opens into the sea (mouth of the river). movement of sand and sandbars, glacial
It is a partially enclosed coastal area of brackish processes and tectonic processes.
water (salinity varies between 0-35 ppt) with one All the plants and animals in the estuaries are
or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with subjected to variations in salinity to which they
a free connection to the open sea. are adapted (osmoregulation).
At the estuaries, freshwater carrying fertile silt Estuaries are greatly influenced by tidal action.
and runoff from the land mixes with the salty sea They are periodically washed by sea water once
water. or twice a day based on the number of tides.
Estuaries form a transition zone (ecotone) In some narrow estuaries, tidal bores are
between river environments and maritime significant. Tidal bores cause great damage to the
environments. E.g. of estuaries are river mouths, estuarine ecology.
coastal bays, tidal marshes, lagoons and deltas.

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 IMPORTANCE OF ESTUARIES They are deep and well protected from marine
transgressions, and hence they are ideal
They are the most productive waterbodies (more
locations for the construction of ports and
productive than wetlands) in the world because
harbours.
of the mixing of freshwater and saline water zone
The banks of estuarine channels form a favoured
where marine organisms of both the ecosystems
location for human settlements, which use the
meet.
estuaries for fishing and commerce but nowadays
(Ecotone regions (transitional zones) like also for dumping civic and industrial waste.
mangroves, wetlands, estuaries, grasslands etc.
have far greater productivity compared to natural ESTUARINE VEGETATION
ecosystems like a forest ecosystem, ocean
ecosystem, pond ecosystem, riverine ecosystem, Only certain types of plants and animals adapted
desert ecosystem etc. This is because of the wide- to the "brackish" estuarine waters flourish in the
ranging species from the adjacent ecosystems estuaries. Factors influencing the distribution of
being present in the ecotone.) organism in an estuary are its salinity and the
amount of flooding.
Also, an estuary has very little wave action, so it In general, the phytoplankton of estuaries are
provides a calm refuge from the open sea and diatoms, dinoflagellates, green algae, blue-
hence becomes ideal for the survival of numerous green algae.
aquatic species. Towards the seacoast of the estuaries, there are
Estuaries are most heavily human populated large algae and seagrasses. Near the mouth of
areas throughout the world, with about 60% of the rivers and deltas, there are mangrove forests.
the world's population living along estuaries and Estuaries are homes to all king of terrestrial or
the coast. land-based plants and animals, such as wood
The vast mangrove forests on the seaward side of storks, pelicans, coniferous and deciduous trees
an estuary act as a barrier for the coastal habitat & butterflies.
to check the wind speed during cyclones and high Estuaries are also home to unique aquatic plants
velocity landward winds. and animals, such as sea turtles, sea lions, sea
Mangroves act as a filter trapping suspended catfish, saltwort, eelgrass, salt grasses,
mud and sand carried by rivers which leads to cordgrasses, seagrass, sedge, bulrush etc.
delta formations around estuaries. Precipitation
of clay and alluvium particles in the estuarine
region is high because of the exposure to saline
water (saline water precipitates fine alluvium).
Estuaries store and recycle nutrients, traps
sediment and forms a buffer between coastal
catchments and the marine environment.
They also absorb, trap and detoxify pollutants,
acting as a natural water filter.
Estuaries with their wetlands, creeks, lagoons,
mangroves and sea-grass beds are rich in natural
resources including fisheries.

MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM
Mangroves represent a characteristic littoral Mangroves grow below the highwater level of
forest (near the seashore) ecosystem. spring tides.
These are mostly evergreen forests that grow in The best locations are where abundant silt is
sheltered low lying coasts, estuaries, mudflats, brought down by rivers or on the backshore of
tidal creeks backwaters (coastal waters held accreting sandy beaches.
back on land), marshes and lagoons of tropical Mangroves are highly productive ecosystems,
and subtropical regions. and the trees may vary in height from 8 to 20 m.

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They protect the shoreline from the effect of
cyclones and tsunamis.
They are breeding and spawning ground for
many commercially important fishes.
Since mangroves are located between the land
and sea, they represent the best example of
ecotone.
Mangroves are shrubs or small trees that grow
in coastal saline or brackish water.
Mangroves are salt tolerant trees, also called
halophytes, and are adapted harsh coastal
conditions.
Mangrove vegetation facilitates more water loss. Mangroves exhibit Viviparity mode of
Leaves are thick and contain salt-secreting reproduction. i.e. seeds germinate in the tree
glands. Some block absorption of salt at their itself (before falling to the ground).
roots itself. They contain a complex salt filtration This is an adaptive mechanism to overcome the
system and complex root system to cope with problem of germination in saline water.
saltwater immersion and wave action.
They are adapted to the anoxic conditions (low
oxygen) of waterlogged mud. They produce
pneumatophores (breathing roots) to overcome
the respiration problem in the anaerobic soil
conditions.
Mangroves occur worldwide in the tropics and
subtropics, mainly between latitudes 25° N and
25° S. This is because they require high solar
radiation to filter saline water through their
roots.
Mangroves occur in a variety of configurations. IMPORTANCE OF MANGROVES
Some species (e.g. Rhizophora) send arching
prop roots down into the water. o Mangrove plants have (additional) special roots
Adventitious roots which emerged from the such as prop roots, pneumatophores which help
main trunk of a tree above ground level are to impede water flow and thereby enhance the
called stilt roots. deposition of sediment in areas (where it is
already occurring), stabilise the coastal shores,
provide a breeding ground for fishes.
o Mangroves moderate monsoonal tidal floods and
reduce inundation of coastal lowlands. They
prevent coastal soil erosion.
o They protect coastal lands from tsunami,
hurricanes and floods.
o Mangroves enhance the natural recycling of
nutrients.
o Mangrove supports numerous florae, avifauna
and wildlife.
o They supply woods, firewood, medicinal plants
and edible plants to local people.
o They provide numerous employment
opportunities to local communities and augments
their livelihood.
o Mangroves are important carbon sink.

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 THREATS TO MANGROVES Mining, oil spills, aquacultural (shrimp farming),
use of chemical pesticides & fertilisers, industrial
They are destroyed for conversion of the area for
purposes.
agricultural purpose, fuel, fodder and,
salinisation.

CORAL ECOSYSTEM
Coral reefs are made up of thousands of tiny Clear salt water: Clear salt water is suitable for
animals . Polyps are shallow coral growth, while both fresh water and highly
water organisms which have a soft body covered saline water are harmful.
by a calcareous skeleton living in colonies Abundant Plankton: Adequate supply of oxygen
fastened to the rocky sea floor. and microscopic marine food, called plankton
Zooxanthellae live symbiotically within the coral [phytoplankton], is essential for growth. As the
polyp tissues and assist the coral in nutrient plankton is more abundant on the seaward side,
production through its photosynthetic activities. corals grow rapidly on the seaward side.
These activities provide the coral with fixed Little or no pollution: Corals are highly fragile and
carbon compounds for energy, enhance are vulnerable to climate change and pollution
calcification, and mediate elemental nutrient and even a minute increase in marine pollution
flux. can be catastrophic.
The host coral polyp in return provides its
zooxanthellae with a protected environment to CORAL REEF CLASSIFICATION
live within, and a steady supply of carbon dioxide
The coral reefs are classified depending on their
for its photosynthetic processes.
locations into fringing, patch, barrier and atoll.
The tissues of corals themselves are actually not
the beautiful colours of the coral reef but are o Fringing reefs are contiguous with the shore and
instead clear (white). The corals receive their they are the most common - by occurring reef
coloration from the zooxanthellae living within form, found in Andamans.
their tissues. o Patch reefs are isolated and discontinuous
There are two types of corals: hard corals and soft patches, lying shoreward of offshore reef
corals, such as sea fans and gorgonians. Only hard structures as seen in the Palk bay, Gulf of Mannar
corals build reefs. and Gulf of Kutch.
While the majority of coral reefs are found in o Barrier reefs are linear offshore reef structures
tropical and sub-tropical water, there are also that run parallel to coastlines and arise from
deep-water corals in colder regions. submerged shelf platforms. The water body
between the reef and the shore is termed as
IDEAL CONDITIONS FOR THE GROWTH OF CORALS lagoon. Barrier reefs are seen in Nicobar and
Lakshadweep.
Stable climatic conditions: Corals are highly o Atolls are circular or semi-circular reefs that arise
susceptible to quick changes. They grow in from subsiding sea floor platforms as coral reef
regions where climate is significantly stable for a building keeps ahead of subsidence. The
long period of time. examples are the atolls of Lakshadweep and
Perpetually warm waters: Corals thrive in Nicobar.
tropical waters [30°N and 30°S latitudes, The
temperature of water is around 20°C] where
diurnal and annual temperature ranges are very FUNCTIONS OF CORAL REEFS
narrow. This explains why coral reefs are absent Coral reefs are natural protective barriers against
on west coast of tropical continents. erosion and storm surge.
Shallow water: Coral require fairly good amount
The coral polyps are highly adapted for capturing
of sunlight to survive. The ideal depths for coral
plankton from the water, thereby capturing
growth are 45 m to 55 m below sea surface,
nutrients.
where there is abundant sunlight available.

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Largest biogenic calcium carbonate producer THREATS TO CORAL REEFS
therefore a carbon sink.
Natural causes may be due to the outbreak of
They provide substrate for mangroves.
reef destroying
Coral reefs provide habitat for a large variety of
depletion of essential symbionts. Natural
animals and plants including avifauna.
disturbances which cause damage to coral reefs
include violent storms, flooding, high and low
temperature extremes, El Nino Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) events, subaerial exposures,
predatory outbreaks and epizootics.
Anthropogenic causes may be due to chemical
pollution (pesticides, cosmetics, etc), industrial
pollution, mechanical damage, nutrient loading
or sediment loading, dredging, shipping, tourism,
mining or collection, thermal pollution, intensive
fishing, etc.
Coral reef bleaching is a common stress response
of corals to many of the various disturbances
mentioned above.
(Coral Bleaching discussed in Climate Change )

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 C) INDIAN NATURAL ECOSYSTEM
India is a vast country and possess many types of in the Himalayan region the vegetal cover
natural ecosystems. On the basis of certain common changes with altitude from tropical to sub-
features such as predominant vegetation type, tropical, temperate and finally alpine.
topography and climatic regions, the following can Soil is an equally determining factor in few
be considered to be part of Indian biome & aquatic regions. Mangrove forests, swamp forests are
ecosystems. some of the examples where soil is the major
factor.
Temperature is the major factor in Himalayas and
Topography is responsible for certain minor types
other hilly regions with an elevation of more than
e.g. alpine flora, tidal forests, etc.
900 metres. As the temperature falls with altitude

Annual Rainfall Type of Vegetation Forest Type in India % Area

More than 200 Tropical Moist Deciduous 37
Evergreen Rain Forests
cm
Tropical Dry Deciduous 28
200 100 cm Monsoon Deciduous Forests
Tropical Wet Evergreen 8
100 50 cm Drier Deciduous or Tropical Savanna
Moist Montane 6
50 25 cm Dry Thorny Scrub (Semi-arid) Tropical Semi-Evergreen 4
Below 25 cm Desert (Arid) Rest <4

Champion and Seth divided into 5 main types and 16 sub-types as given below.

A. Moist Tropical Forests

B. Dry Tropical Forests
Tropical Wet Evergreen
Tropical Dry Evergreen
Tropical Semi-Evergreen
Tropical Dry Deciduous
Tropical Moist Deciduous
Tropical Thorn
Littoral and Swamp

C. Montane Sub-tropical Forests D. Montane Temperate Forests E. Alpine Forests

Sub-tropical broad-leaved hill Montane Wet Temperate Sub-Alpine
Sub-tropical moist hill (pine) Himalayan Moist Temperate Moist Alpine scrub
Sub-tropical dry evergreen Himalayan Dry Temperate Dry Alpine scrub

C1. MOIST FORESTS tropical rain forest appears like a thick canopy of
foliage, broken only where it is crossed by large
1) TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN FORESTS OR RAIN rivers or cleared for cultivation; All plants struggle
FORESTS upwards (most epiphytes) for sunlight resulting
in a peculiar layer arrangement; Less
Climatic Conditions annual rainfall exceeds 250 undergrowth: The sun light cannot reach the
cm; annual temperature is about 25°-27°C; dry ground due to thick canopy. The undergrowth is
season is distinctly short. formed mainly of bamboos, ferns, climbers,
Characteristics Evergreen: Due to high heat orchids, etc.
and high humidity, the trees of these forests do Distribution Western side of the Western
not shed their leaves together; Mesosphytic: Ghats, Some regions in the Purvanchal hills,
Plants adopted to neither too dry nor too wet Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
type climate; Lofty: The trees often reach 45 60
metres in height; Thick Canopy: From the air, the

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 The important species of these forests are The main species found in these forests are Teak,
mahogany, mesua, white cedar, jamun, canes, Sal, laurel, rosewood, amla, jamun, bamboo,
bamboo etc. etc.

2) TROPICAL SEMI EVERGREEN FORESTS 4) LITTORAL & SWAMP FORESTS

They are transitional forests between tropical They can survive and grow both in fresh as well
wet evergreen forests and tropical deciduous as brackish water.
forests. They are comparatively drier areas Occur in and around the deltas, estuaries and
compared to tropical wet evergreen forests. creeks prone to tidal influences (delta or tidal
Climatic Conditions annual rainfall is 200-250 forests).
cm; mean annual temperature varies from 24°C
Littoral (relating to or on the shore of the sea or a
to 27°C; dry season is not short like in tropical
lake) forests occur at several places along the
evergreen forests.
coast.
Characteristics semi-evergreen forests are less
dense; are more gregarious [living in flocks or Swamp forests are confined to the deltas of the
colonies more pure stands] than the wet Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna
evergreen forests; forests are characterized by and the Cauvery.
many species; trees usually have buttressed Dense mangroves occur all along the coastline in
trunks with abundant epiphytes. sheltered estuaries, tidal creeks, backwaters, salt
Distribution Western coast, Assam, Lower marshes and mudflats. It provides useful fuel
slopes of the Eastern Himalayas, Odisha and wood.
Andamans.
The most pronounced and the densest is
Main species are white cedar, hollock and kail.
the Sundarbans in the Ganga delta where the
predominant species is Sundri (Heritier). It
3) TROPICAL MOIST DECIDUOUS provides hard and durable timber, which is used
Climatic Conditions annual rainfall 100 to 200 for construction, building purposes and making
boats.
cm; mean annual temperature of about 27°C;
Spring (between winter and summer) and The important species found in these forests are
summer are dry. Sundri, agar, Rhizophora, screw pines, canes and
Characteristics trees drop their leaves during palms, etc.
the spring and early summer when sufficient
moisture is not available; general appearance is
C2. DRY TROPICAL FORESTS
bare in extreme summers (April-May); these
forests present irregular top storey [25 to 60 m]; 1) TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS
heavily buttressed trees and fairly complete
Climatic Conditions annual rainfall of 100 cm
undergrowth; these forests occupy a much larger [mostly from the north-east monsoon winds in
area than the evergreen forests but large tracts October December]; mean annual temperature
under these forests have been cleared for is about 28°C.
cultivation. Characteristics Short statured trees, up to 12 m
Distribution Belt running along the Western high, with complete canopy; Bamboos and
Ghats surrounding the belt of evergreen forests; grasses not conspicuous.
along the Shivalik range including terai and Distribution along the coasts of Tamil Nadu.
bhabar; Manipur and Mizoram; Hills of eastern
The important species are jamun, tamarind,
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh; Chotanagpur
neem, etc.
Plateau; Most of Odisha, parts of West Bengal
and Andaman and Nicobar islands. Most of the land under these forests has been
cleared for agriculture or casuarina plantations.

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2) TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS Characteristics Forests of evergreen species;
Climbers and epiphytes are common; It is a
Climatic Conditions annual rainfall is 100-150 n- and is not so luxuriant as
cm. the true tropical evergreen.
Characteristics these are similar to moist Distribution Eastern Himalayas to the east of
deciduous forests and shed their leaves in dry 88°E longitude at altitudes varying from 1000 to
season. The major difference is that they can 2000 m. These forests are not so distinct in the
grow in areas of comparatively less rainfall; they southern parts of the country. They occur only in
represent a transitional type moist deciduous the Nilgiri and Palni hills, higher parts of the
on the wetter side and thorn forests on the drier Western Ghats such as Mahabaleshwar, the
side; they have closed but uneven canopy ; the summits of the Satpura and the Maikal Range,
forests are composed of a mixture of a few highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the Aravali
species of deciduous trees rising up to a height of Range carry sub-types of these forests.
20 metres; Undergrowth: Enough light reaches
Commonly found species are evergreen oaks,
the ground to permit the growth of grass and
chestnuts, ash, beech, Sal and pines.
climbers.
Distribution they occur in an irregular wide strip
running from the foot of the Himalayas to
2) SUB-TROPICAL MOIST PINE FORESTS
Kanyakumari except in Rajasthan, Western Ghats
and West Bengal. Distribution Western Himalayas at elevations
The important species are teak, axle wood, between 1000 to 2000 metres above sea level,
rosewood, common bamboo, red sanders, some hilly regions of Arunachal Pradesh,
laurel, satinwood, etc. Manipur, Naga Hills and Khasi Hills.
Large tracts of this forest have been cleared for Chir is the most dominant tree which forms pure
agricultural purposes. These forests have stands. It provides valuable timber for furniture,
suffered from over grazing, fire, etc. boxes and buildings. It is also used for producing
resin and turpentine.
3) TROPICAL THORN FORESTS
3) SUB-TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS
Climatic Conditions annual rainfall less than 75
cm; mean temperature is 25°-30°C. Distribution found in the Bhabar, the Shivalik
Characteristics trees are low (6 to 10 metres and the western Himalayas up to about 1000
maximum) and widely scattered; Acacias and metres above sea level.
Euphorbias are very prominent; The Indian wild Characteristics Low scrub forest with small
date is common. Some grasses also grow in the evergreen stunted trees and shrubs.
rainy season. Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia are the most
Distribution Rajasthan, south-western Punjab, predominant species.
western Haryana, Kachchh and neighbouring
parts of Saurashtra. Here they degenerate into C4) MONTANE TEMPERATE FORESTS
desert type in the Thar desert; Such forests also
grow on the leeside of the Western Ghats 1) MONTANE WET TEMPERATE FORESTS
covering large areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Climatic Conditions ; Mean annual rainfall is 150
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
cm to 300 cm; Mean annual temperature is about
The important species are neem, babul, cacti,
11°C to 14°C.
etc.
Distribution Grows at a height of 1800 to 3000
m above sea level; Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and
C3) MONTANE SUB-TROPICAL FORESTS Kerala, in the Eastern Himalayan region.
1) SUB-TROPICAL BROAD-LEAVED HILL FORESTS Characteristics These are closed evergreen
forests. Trunks have large girth. Branches are
Climatic conditions mean annual rainfall is 75 clothed with mosses, ferns and other epiphytes.
cm to 125 cm; average annual temperature is 18°- The trees rarely achieve a height of more than 6
21°C. metres.

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 Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch, plum, Distribution Such forests are found in the inner
machilus, cinnamomum, litsea, magnolia, blue dry ranges of the Himalayas where south-west
pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are important species. monsoon is very feeble. Such areas are in Ladakh,
Lahul, Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim.

2) HIMALAYAN MOIST TEMPERATE FORESTS

C5) ALPINE FORESTS
Climatic Conditions annual rainfall varies from
150 cm to 250 cm. Altitudes ranging between 2,900 to 3,500.
Distribution Occurs in the temperate zone of These forests can be divided into:
the Himalayas between 1500 and 3300 metres.
(1) sub-alpine The sub-alpine forests occur lower
Cover the entire length of this mountain range in
alpine scrub and grasslands. It is a mixture of
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
coniferous and broad-leaved trees in which the
Darjeeling and Sikkim.
coniferous trees attain a height of about 30 m
Characteristics Mainly composed of coniferous
while the broad-leaved trees reach only 10 m. Fir,
species. Species occur in mostly pure strands.
spruce, rhododendron, etc. are important
Trees are 30 to 50 m high.
species.
Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc. are most
important trees. (2) moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen dense
They form high but fairly open forest with growth of rhododendron, birch etc. which occurs
shrubby undergrowth including oaks, from 3,000 metres and extends upto snowline.
rhododendrons and some bamboos. (3) dry alpine scrub is the uppermost limit of scrub
3) HIMALAYAN DRY TEMPERATE FORESTS xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, over 3,500 metres
above sea level and found in dry zone. Juniper,
Climatic Conditions Precipitation is below 100 honeysuckle, artemisia etc. are important
cm and is mostly in the form of snow. species.
Characteristics Coniferous forests with
xerophytic shrubs in which deodar, oak, ash,
olive, etc are the main trees.

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 INDIA ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
The Country has 14 major, 44 medium and 162 Reclaiming the fringed areas for intensive
minor rivers drains into the sea through various aquaculture in pens.
estuaries. Obstructing the migratory routes of fish and
Major estuaries occur in the Bay of Bengal. Many prawn recruitment (e.g., Chilka, Pulicat).
estuaries are locations of some of the major Polluting the environment through feeding of
seaports. stocked fish and prawn in pens (Chilka).
Most of India's major estuaries occur on the east Destruction of biodiversity through prawn seed
coast. In contrast, the estuaries on the west coast collection and operation of small-meshed nets
are smaller (in environmental studies, deltas are (e.g., Hooghly, Chilka, Pulicat).
considered as subsections of estuaries). Submergence of catchment areas due to rising in
Two typical examples of estuaries on the west water level.
coast are the Mondovi and Zuari estuaries.

ISSUES OF INDIAN ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM

Modifications of the estuarine catchments result

in changes in water flow in various estuaries,
either far in excess or much lower than required
(E.g. Hooghly, Godavari, Pulicat etc.)
Pollution through industries and combined city
sewage discharge.
Recreational boating and fishing.
Navigation, dredging and shipping (e.g. Hooghly).
Expansion of urban and rural settlements, mining
& industries, agriculture and dumping of solid
wastes.
Overexploitation of target fish stock due to
increased demand.

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 INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT 2019
It is the 16th biennial assessment o (79.63%) > Meghalaya (76.33%) > Manipur
forests by Forest Survey of India, an organisation (75.46%) > Nagaland (75.31%).
MoEFCC. Top five States (UT) in terms of increase:
In the current ISFR, a new chapter Karnataka>Andhra Pradesh>Kerala>Jammu &
has been added. Kashmir>Himachal Pradesh.
According to the Global Forest Resource Forest cover in the hill districts is 40.30% and in
Assessment (FRA) done by Food and Agriculture the tribal districts is 37.54% of the geographical
Organisation (FAO) once every five years, India area of these districts.
has 2% of the Global forest area, standing at 10th Total forest cover in the North Eastern region is
position among the top ten countries. Russia 65.05% of its geographical area. And except
Federation tops the list with 20% of the global Assam and Tripura, all the States in the region
forest cover. show decrease in forest cover.
National Forest Policy of India, 1988 envisages a The mangrove cover in India is 4,975 sq km, which
goal of achieving 33% of geographical area of the is 0.15%
country under forest and tree cover. Mangrove cover in the country has increased by
1.10% as compared to the previous assessment.
There are 62,466 wetlands covering 3.8% of the
KEY FINDINGS
area. Gujarat has the largest area of wetlands
The Total Forest and Tree cover is 24.56% of the within RFA in the country followed by West
geographical area of the country. Bengal.
o Total Forest cover is 21.67%. In India, bamboo grows naturally throughout the
o Tree cover is 2.89%. country except in Kashmir region. India is home
Compared to ISFR 2017 the current assessment to about 125 indigenous and 11 exotic species of
shows an increase of: bamboo from 23 genera. The extent of bamboo
o 0.56% of forest cover bearing area of the country has been estimated
o 1.29% of tree cover 16 million ha showing an increase of 0.32 million
hectare.
Largest forest cover in India: Madhya Pradesh > Total carbon stock in the country's forest:
Arunachal Pradesh > Chhattisgarh > Odisha > estimated to be 7,124.6 million tonnes. There is
Maharashtra an increase of 42.6 million tonnes in the carbon
Forest cover as percentage of total geographical stock of the country as compared to the last
area: Mizoram (85.41%) > Arunachal Pradesh assessment of 2017.

Very Dense Forest

3.02%
(canopy density of 70% and above)
Moderately Dense Forest
9.39%
(canopy density of 40% and more but less than 70%.)
Open Forest
9.26%
(canopy density of 10% and more but less than 40 %.)
Scrub Forest
1.41%.
(canopy density less than 10%)
Non-forest 76.92%.

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 off
Handout 4

CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate is the long- years which are predominantly results of human
weather events. activities since the mid-20th century and
Earth's climate has changed throughout history. proceeding at a rate that is unprecedented over
Just in the last 650,000 years there have been decades to millennia.
seven cycles of glacial advance and retreat, with Climate change is usually measured in major
the abrupt end of the last ice age about 11,700 shifts in temperature, rainfall, snow, and wind
years ago marking the beginning of the modern patterns lasting decades or more.
climate era and of human civilization. We will study climate change under the following
Most of these climate changes are attributed to 3 heads:
1) Global Warming due to Green House Gas
the amount of solar energy our planet receives. Emission
But when today we it 2) Ozone Depletion due to Emission of ODS
means the changes in climate over the last 100 3) Land Degradation & Desertification

I. GLOBAL WARMING
Global Warming long- -industrial
period (between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by
increased levels of carbon dioxide, GHGs

persistent long-term climate change trend. 2016,

2019 and 2020 are the top three warmest years
on record.
Ice cores drawn from Greenland, Antarctica, and
tropical mountain glaciers, tree rings, ocean

responds to changes in greenhouse gas levels.

The heat-trapping nature of Green House Gases
(GHGs) like carbon dioxide and other gases was
demonstrated in the mid-19th century. This is
explained by means of the Green House Effect.

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

A greenhouse is a structure whose roof and walls
are made chiefly of transparent material, such as
glass, in which plants requiring regulated climatic
conditions are grown.
In a greenhouse, the short-wave incident solar
radiation (the visible & adjacent portions of the
Earth has warmed at an unprecedented rate over infrared and ultraviolet ranges of the spectrum)
the last hundred years and particularly over the passes through the glass roof and walls and is
last two decades. absorbed by the floor, earth, and the plants.
Since the pre-industrial period, human activities These objects re-emit energy in the form of long-
wave infrared radiations.
average temperature by about 1°C, a number But the glass and other materials used for
that is currently increasing by 0.2°C per decade. greenhouse walls do not transmit infrared
Datasets surveyed by WMO concur that 2011- radiation, so the infrared energy waves cannot
2020 was the warmest decade on record, in a escape via radiative transfer or via convection,

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 thus are trapped inside and increases the GREEN HOUSE GASES
temperature of the greenhouse. This is referred
to as Green House Effect (GHE). Atmospheric gases that are capable of trapping
the out-going long-wave infrared radiation from
the
IMPORTANCE OF A NATURAL GREENHOUSE
greenhouse effect are known as greenhouse
EFFECT
gases.
The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring These include gases like carbon dioxide,
phenomenon occurring for millions of years on methane, nitrous oxide (N2O), water vapour, and
the earth. chlorofluorocarbons.
Water vapour, Carbon dioxide and other Green
NOTE: Oxides of Nitrogen with general formula NOx
House Gases (GHG) have the capability to trap
NO, NO2 Nitrogen oxide, Nitrogen dioxide etc.
the out-going long-wave infrared radiation from
are global cooling gasses. On the other hand Nitrous
thereby causing the
oxide (N2O) is a greenhouse gas.
greenhouse effect.
This natural greenhouse effect blankets the earth 1) WATER VAPOUR (H2O)
lower atmosphere and warms it, maintaining the
temperature suitable for living things to survive. Water vapour is a big contributor to the
In the absence of naturally occurring greenhouse greenhouse effect which the humans are not
effect, the average temperature of the earth directly responsible for emitting. But humans
surface would be -19°C instead of present value activities have sometimes altered the rate of
of 15°C and the earth would be a frozen lifeless evapo-transpiration, thus impacting its
planet. concentrations in the atmosphere.
Water vapour decreases from the equator
HUMAN-INDUCED GLOBAL WARMING towards the poles. It also decreases with
increasing altitude.
However, human-generated greenhouse gas
In the warm and wet tropics, it may account for
emissions upset the natural balance and lead to
4% of the air by volume, while in the dry and cold
increased warming of the climate systems.
areas of desert and polar regions, it may be less
The atmospheric concentration of greenhouse than 1% of the air.
gases has increased significantly over the past One unique feature about this greenhouse gas is
two centuries, largely due to human-generated that it absorbs both incoming (a part of
carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil incoming) and outgoing solar radiation.
fuels, deforestation.
2) CARBON DI OXIDE (CO2)
This increase has amplified the natural
greenhouse effect by trapping more of the Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse
energy emitted by the Earth. This change causes gas emitted through human activities.
to increase. CO2 is transparent to the incoming solar
radiation but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial
radiation. i.e. It absorbs a part of terrestrial
radiation and reflects back some part of it
This is largely
responsible for the greenhouse effect.
Its
surface as it is denser than air.
Carbon dioxide is naturally present in the

But human activities are altering the carbon cycle

both by adding more CO2 to the atmosphere
and by reducing the natural sinks, (by
deforestation) that removes the CO2 from the
atmosphere.

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 Pre-industrial level of CO2 was at 280 parts per and industrial processes are increasing the
million by volume (ppmv), and current levels are amount of N2O in the atmosphere.
greater than 380 ppmv and increasing at a rate of NO and NO2 (nitric oxide or nitrogen oxide and
1.9 ppmv per year since 2000. nitrogen dioxide) emissions cause global cooling
IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios through the formation of (OH) radicals that
(SRES) reports that by the end of 21st century, we destroy methane molecules, countering the
could expect to see CO2 concentrations effect of GHGs.
anywhere from 490 ppmv to 1260 ppmv (75 350
5) OZONE
% above pre-industrial concentrations).

BLACK vs BROWN CARBON Ozone is another important greenhouse gas. But

it is in very small proportions at the surface.
Black carbon (BC) is a solid particle or aerosol Most of it is confined to the stratosphere where
(though not a gas) that contributes to warming of it absorbs the harmful UV radiation.
the atmosphere. This particulate air pollutant, At ground level, pollutants like NO2 react with
produced via incomplete combustion, is volatile organic compounds in the presence of
commonly known as soot. It warms the earth by sunlight to produce ozone (tropospheric ozone).
absorbing heat in the atmosphere and by
reducing albedo when deposited on snow and 6) CARBON MONOXIDE
ice. BC is the strongest absorber of sunlight and
Carbon monoxide is a short-lived greenhouse gas
heats the air directly.
(it is less dense than air).
Brown carbon is a ubiquitous and unidentified
It has an indirect radiative forcing effect by
component of organic aerosol. Biomass burning
elevating concentrations of methane and
(possibly domestic wood burning) is shown to be
tropospheric ozone through chemical reactions
a major source of brown carbon.
with other atmospheric constituents (e.g., the
Brown carbon is generally referred for hydroxyl radical, OH.) that would otherwise
greenhouse gases and black carbon for particles destroy them.
resulting from impure combustion, such as soot
Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it
and dust.
is eventually oxidized to carbon dioxide.
3) METHANE (CH4)
7) FLUORINATED GASES
Methane is the most important greenhouse gas a) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) this anthropogenic
after carbon dioxide. compound is also a greenhouse gas, with a much
Wetlands are the largest source of methane and higher potential to enhance the greenhouse effect
is produced from the anaerobic decomposition of than CO2.
animal wastes and biological matter.
Smaller sources include termites, oceans, b) Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) used as refrigerants,
sediments, volcanoes, and wildfires. aerosol propellants, solvents, and fire retardants,
Human activities such as leakage from natural they were developed as a replacement for
gas systems and the raising of livestock are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Unfortunately, HFCs are
increasingly becoming larger contributors of CH4. potent greenhouse gases with long atmospheric
Natural processes in soil and chemical reactions lifetimes.
in the atmosphere help remove CH4 from the c) Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are produced as a by-
atmosphere. product in aluminium production and the
4) NITROUS OXIDE (N2O) manufacturing of semiconductors. They generally
have long atmospheric lifetimes and high global
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is naturally present in the warming potential.
nitrogen cycle
d) Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) -- is used in magnesium
and has a variety of natural sources.
processing and semiconductor manufacturing, as
However, human activities such as agriculture,
well as a tracer gas for leak detection. It is also used
fossil fuel combustion, wastewater management,

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in electrical transmission equipment, including
circuit breakers.

GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL

Global warming potential describes the impact of
each gas on global warming.
In terms of climate impact, how well the gas
absorbs energy (preventing it from immediately
escaping to space), and how long the gas stays in
the atmosphere determines the measure of the
total energy that a gas absorbs over a particular
period of time (usually 100 years), compared to
carbon dioxide.

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Contact us : 8089166792 [email protected]
 IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
1) MELTING OF THE ICE CAPS & RISE IN SEA LEVELS to 2°C ) are likely to have negative impacts for
major cereal crops.
Melting of the ice caps and glaciers will lead to Warming of more than 3°C is expected to have
rise in sea level by increased volumes of water negative effect on production in all regions.
reaching the world oceans & seas. Available
Third Assessment Report of the IPCC claims that
records suggest that the Gangotri glacier is in South Asia losses of many regional staples,
retreating about 28 m per year.
such as rice, millet and maize could top 10 per
Thermal expansion also contributes to sea level cent by 2030.
rise.
If agricultural production in the low-income
Climate Refugees Global temperature increases developing countries of Asia and Africa is
of 3 4°C could result in 330 million people being adversely affected by climate change, the
permanently or temporarily displaced through livelihoods of large numbers of the rural poor will
flooding putting a greater pressure on the civic be put at risk and their vulnerability to food
amenities. insecurity will be manifold.
Many of its famous beaches and tourist Indian agriculture being largely rainfed would be
infrastructure will be lost. disproportionately affected by the changes (both
Fertile agricultural lands on the coast will be a decrease and increase) in monsoonal
submerged and saline water intrusions will precipitation. It would pose a serious threat to
degrade the neighbouring land & waterbodies. agriculture, and therefore to the economy and
Ground water in such regions will become food security.
useless. Increased frequencies of droughts, floods, storms
Small Island Nations & Populous cities lying on and cyclones are likely to increase agricultural
the coasts will be submerged under the sea. production variability.
Glacial Lake Outburst Flooding (GLOF) in
Himalayas and Ganga plains will become more 3) EXTREME CLIMATIC EVENTS
common. It may even affect the perineal nature
of Himalayan rivers in the future. Warming seas will also fuel more intense tropical
People living in the Ganges Delta share the flood storms.
risks associated with rising sea levels. Increased likelihood of extreme events such as
heat wave, flooding, hurricanes, etc. will offset all
the economic advancements made.
2) AGRICULTURE & FOOD INSECURITY Changes in rainfall patterns (E.g. 2015 Chennai
Due to global warming arable land along the floods, 2018 & 2019 Kerala floods) will severely
coast lines are bound to be reduced as a result of impact human life & agriculture.
rising sea level and saline water inundations. At
the same time as a result of thawing of snow, the 4) WATER STRESS & WATER INSECURITY
amount of arable land in high-latitude region is
likely to increase by reduction of the amount of Climate change is expected to exacerbate current
frozen lands. stresses on water resources.
Global Warming can affect crop yield as well as Climate change exacerbates water stress areas
the types of crops that can be grown in certain of extremely limited water resources leading to
areas, by impacting agricultural inputs such as increased competition for water, even conflict. By
water for irrigation, amounts of solar radiation 2040, almost 1 in 4 children will live in areas of
that affect plant growth, as well as the prevalence extremely-high water stress (UNICEF).
of pests. By 2050s freshwater availability in Central, South,
Moderate warming (increase of 1 to 3°C in mean East and South-East Asia, particularly in large
temperature) is expected to benefit crop yields in river basins, is projected to decrease.
temperate regions. A warmer climate will accelerate the hydrologic
While in lower latitudes especially seasonally dry cycle, altering rainfall, magnitude and timing of
tropics, even moderate temperature increases (1 run-off.

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 In coastal areas, sea level rise will exacerbate The mangrove forests (wetlands) of the rivers and
water resource constraints due to increased the coasts acts as carbon sink as well as a habitat
salinisation of groundwater supplies. for a unique and diverse species of plants and
animals. Rise in sea-level has led to these
ecosystems being pushed to more saline water.
5) ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
For those organisms that are adapted to brackish
Global warming & climate change has the water ecosystems, they are pushed to extinction.
Loss of Plankton due to warming of seas will
potential to cause immense biodiversity loss,
adversely affects marine food chain. The most
affecting both individual species and their
explicit event in the perspective of global
ecosystems that support economic growth and warming affecting the marine ecosystem is the
human well-being. example of coral bleaching (discussed later).
Many species may be unable to move to new
areas quickly enough to survive changes that 6) RISING HEALTH RELATED ISSUES
rising temperatures will bring to their historic
habitats. Spread of diseases (like malaria, etc.) in tropics
Widespread vanishing of animal populations due will put more pressure on the health care sector.
to habitat loss will add more species to the It is anticipated that there will be an increase in
the number of deaths due to greater frequency
Mountain ecosystems are hot spots of and severity of heat waves and other extreme
biodiversity. Increasing global temperatures, weather events.
receding glaciers, GLOF events, Forest Fires etc Lack of freshwater during droughts and
leads to the loss of several endemic species. E.g. contamination of freshwater supplies during
in Himalayan ecosystem. floods compromise hygiene, thus increasing rates
The Indian desert fauna is extremely rich in diseases like cholera, diarrhoea etc.
species diversity of mammals and winter 7) Ocean Acidification
migratory birds. Changes in natural attributes of
a desert region due to excessive desertification & 8) Coral Bleaching
land degradation, flash flooding etc are adversely
affecting its biodiversity.
OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by the increased uptake of
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere, thereby changing the ocean chemistry.

Ocean acidification has been called the In the 200-plus years since the industrial
and revolution began, the pH of surface ocean waters
has fallen by 0.1 pH units (on the logarithmic
An estimated 30 40% of the carbon dioxide from scale i.e. a 30% rise in acidity).
human activity released into the atmosphere Future predictions indicate that the oceans will
dissolves into oceans, rivers and lakes. continue to absorb carbon dioxide, further
To achieve chemical equilibrium, some of it reacts increasing ocean acidity. On a business-as-usual
with the water to form carbonic acid. emission scenarios, by the end of this century the
Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules surface waters of the ocean could have acidity
react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate levels nearly 150 percent higher, resulting in a pH
ion and a hydronium ion, thus increasing ocean
acidity (H+ ion concentration). than 20 million years.
As levels of atmospheric CO2 increase from Rate of ocean acidification increases with
human activity such as burning fossil fuels (e.g., increase on ocean temperatures.
car emissions) and changing land use (e.g., Impact of Acid rain having a pH between 1 and
deforestation), the amount of carbon dioxide 6, acid rain can have similar impact of ocean
absorbed by the ocean also increases. acidification locally & regionally and not globally.

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Impact of Eutrophication increased nutrient Saturation Horizon is the level below which
flow & subsequent cultural eutrophication will calcium carbonate minerals undergo dissolution.
lead to algal bloom. Its collapse and aerobic While surface waters are over saturated with
decomposition decrease the O2 concentration carbonate ions and do not readily dissolve shells
and an increase in CO2 (a decline in pH). of calcifying organisms, the colder waters below
the saturation horizon causes shells of most
EFFECTS OF OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
calcifying organisms to dissolve. Ocean
Oceans are an important reservoir for CO2, acidification causes the saturation horizon to rise
absorbing a significant quantity of it produced by upwards (catastrophic harm to many more
anthropogenic activities (produce carbonic acid organisms that are now exposed).
(H2CO3), bicarbonate (HCO3--) and carbonate Increasing acidity depresses metabolic rates and
ions (CO32-))and effectively buffering climate immune responses in some organisms.
change. For certain marine plants & phytoplankton,
These carbonate ions are essential to the growth and level of photosynthesis may increase
calcification process that allows certain marine with higher CO2 levels. While for certain others,
organisms to build their calcium carbonate shells higher CO2 and rising acidity may have either
and skeletons (e.g. hard tropical corals, cold negative or neutral effects on their physiology.
water corals, molluscs, crustaceans, sea urchins, Commercial fisheries are threatened because
certain types of plankton, lobsters, etc). acidification harms calcifying organisms which
However, the increase in atmospheric CO2 levels form the base of the Arctic food webs.
lead to a decrease in pH level, an increase in the Increasing acidity accentuates coral bleaching as
concentration of carbonic acid and bicarbonate corals are very sensitive to changes in water
ions, causing a decrease in the concentration of composition.
carbonate ions. In acidified ocean water, phytoplankton produces
Thus carbonate ions are less available and less DMS (dimethylsulfide, that acted as
calcification is therefore harder to achieve and condensation nuclei for cloud formation). This
may be prevented altogether. reduction of sulphur may lead to decreased cloud
formation, raising global temperatures.

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 CORAL BLEACHING
When corals are stressed by changes in conditions such as temperature, light, or nutrients, they expel the symbiotic
algae living in their tissues, causing them to turn completely white. This is called Coral Bleaching.

Bleaching occurs when: 4. Inorganic Nutrients

o densities of zooxanthellae decline and/or
Rather than causing coral reef bleaching, an
o concentration of photosynthetic pigments
increase in ambient elemental nutrient
within the zooxanthellae falls.
concentrations (e.g. ammonia and nitrate)
actually increases zooxanthellae densities 2-3
When corals bleach, they commonly lose 60-90%
times.
of their zooxanthellae and each zooxanthella may
Although eutrophication is not directly involved
lose 50-80% of its photosynthetic pigments.
in zooxanthellae loss, it could cause secondary
When corals bleaches, it is not dead. Corals can
adverse effects such as lowering of coral
survive a bleaching event, but they are under
resistance and greater susceptibility to diseases.
more stress and are subject to mortality. If the
stress-evet that is causing the bleaching is not too 5. Xenobiotics
severe and if it decreases in time, the affected
corals usually regain their symbiotic algae within When corals are exposed to high concentrations
several weeks or a few months. of chemical contaminants like copper, herbicides
and oil, coral bleaching happens.
If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if the stress
continues and depleted zooxanthellae 6. Epizootics
populations do not recover, the coral host
eventually dies. Pathogen induced bleaching is different from
other sorts of bleaching.
CAUSES OF CORAL BLEACHING Most coral diseases cause patchy or whole
1) Temperature colony death and sloughing of soft tissues,
resulting in a white skeleton (not to be confused
Coral species live within a relatively narrow with bleached corals).
temperature margin, and anomalously low and
high sea temperatures can induce coral 7. Sedimentation
bleaching. Relatively few instances of coral bleaching have
While the rising temperatures have increased the been linked solely to sediment. It is possible, but
frequency and intensity of bleaching, acidification has not been demonstrated, that sediment
has reduced corals calcifying ability. loading could make zooxanthellate species more
Summer seasons, El Nino & La Nina, times of low likely to bleach.
wind velocity, clear skies, calm seas and low
turbidity are the conditions that favour localised
heating and high ultraviolet (UV) radiation and o Scientists believe that the oldest known
thereby more localised bleaching events.
bleaching was that of the Late Devonian,
2. Sub-aerial Exposure triggered by the rise of sea surface temperatures.
It resulted in the demise of the largest coral reefs
Sudden exposure of coral reef to the atmosphere in the Earth's history.
during events such as extreme low tides, ENSO- o
related sea level drops or tectonic uplift can (Caribbean/ Western Atlantic, Eastern Pacific,
potentially induce bleaching due to zooxanthellae Central and Western Pacific, Indian Ocean,
loss. Arabian Gulf, Red Sea) experienced some degree
3. Fresh Water Dilution of coral bleaching and mortality since the 1980s.
o Prior to the 1980s, most mass coral moralities
Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm- were related to non-thermal disturbances such as
generated precipitation and runoff has been storms, aerial exposures during extreme low
demonstrated to cause coral reef bleaching. tides, and Acanthaster outbreaks.

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o According to UNEP, the longest and most o In 2016, bleaching of coral on the Great Barrier
destructive coral bleaching event was because of Reef killed between 29 and 50 percent of the
the El Niño that occurred from 2014 2017. reef's coral.
During this time, over 70% of the coral reefs o The average interval between bleaching events
around the world have become damaged. have halved between 1980 and 2016.

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 GLOBAL WARMING MITIGATION | CLIMATE-ENGINEERING
Climate engineering (aka Geo Engineering) is the of natural ecosystems and is a vital part of the
intentional large- global carbon cycle. Afforestation and
climate system to counter climate change. These reforestation are measures that can be taken to
mitigation strategies include: enhance green carbon sequestration.
o techniques to remove of heat-trapping GHGs Blue Carbon refers to coastal, aquatic and marine
(primarily CO2 ) from the atmosphere. carbon sinks held by the indicative vegetation,
o technologies to rapidly cool the Earth by marine organism and sediments such as tidal
reflecting solar energy back to space. marshes, mangroves, seagrasses, coral reefs etc.

1) CO2 REMOVAL (CDR) TECHNIQUES or CARBON

2) SOLAR RADIATION MANAGEMENT (SRM)
SEQUESTRATION

Carbon capture and storage, also known as CCS

or carbon sequestration, describes the
by
technologies designed to tackle global warming
increasing the reflectivity to insolation from the sun.
by capturing CO2 at power stations, industrial
sites or even directly from the air and a) Simulating a Volcanic Eruption
permanently storing it underground.
By injecting the atmosphere with sulphur
trapping & separating the CO2 from other gases aerosols, some scientists believe they could block
transporting captured CO2 to a storage location solar radiation and potentially cool the planet.
storage underground or deep ocean Those droplets can scatter the
into space. H2S is even better than SO2 for
CO2 can be dissolved into a liquid such as water atmospheric seeding.
or oil (Solubility Trapping). It can also react with
b) Space Mirrors
the minerals, fluids, and organic matter in a
Large mirrors orbiting the earth in space can be
geologic formation to form stable
launched to deflect a part of the insolation,
compounds/minerals (Mineral Carbonation).
thereby reducing the amount of energy entering
the ecosystem of the Earth.
TYPES OF SEQUESTRATION
c) Ocean Iron Fertilisation
a) Ocean Sequestration Carbon stored in oceans This involves adding nutrients (micronutrients
through direct injection or fertilization. (e.g., iron) and macronutrients (e.g., nitrogen)) to
b) Geologic Sequestration Natural pore spaces in the upper (sunlit) layers of the ocean to stimulate
geologic formations serve as reservoirs for long- phytoplankton activity (photosynthesis) in an
term carbon dioxide storage. attempt to draw down atmospheric CO2 levels.
c) Terrestrial Sequestration A large amount of
carbon is stored in soils and vegetation, which d) Marine Cloud Whitening
are our natural carbon sinks. Increasing carbon stimulate the
fixation through photosynthesis, slowing down formation of low-altitude clouds over the
or reducing decomposition of organic matter, ocean, enhance their reflectivity and extend their
and changing land use practices can enhance lifetimes.
carbon uptake in these natural sinks. e) Cirrus Cloud Thinning
Cirrus clouds are different that on average,
Geologic Sequestration is thought to have the
infrared absorption outweighs sunlight
largest potential for near-term application.
reflection, resulting in a net warming effect.
GREEN & BLUE CARBON SINKS Therefore, thinning or removing these clouds
would reduce their heat trapping capacity,
Green carbon is carbon removed by
resulting in a cooling effect on Earth's climate.
photosynthesis and stored in the plants and soil

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 GLOBAL RESPONSE TO GLOBAL WARMING

UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON THE HUMAN 11) Convention of Migratory Species (CMS)
ENVIRONMENT (1972) 12) African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement
(AEWA)
Held in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972 marked the
emergence of international environmental law.
Stockholm Declaration / The Declaration on the II) INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE
Human Environment set out the principles for CHANGE (IPCC)
various international environmental issues, IPCC is a scientific intergovernmental body under
natural resource management, pollution the auspices of the United Nations.
prevention and the relationship between the It was first established in 1988 by two United
environment & development. Nations organizations World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) & UN Environment(UNEP).
I) UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT Membership of the IPCC is open to all members
of the WMO and UNEP.
PROGRAMME (UNEP) or UN ENVIRONMENT
IPCC Assessment Reports IPCC produces
UNEP is an agency of the United Nations. reports that support the UNFCCC. IPCC reports
It was founded as a result of the United Nations cover all relevant information to understand the
Conference on the Human Environment 1972. risk of human-induced climate change, its
potential impacts and options for adaptation and
It assists developing countries in implementing mitigation.
environmentally sound policies and practices. Special Reports have been prepared on topics
UNEP's activities cover a wide range of issues such as aviation, regional impacts of climate
regarding the atmosphere, marine and terrestrial change, technology transfer, emissions scenarios,
ecosystems, environmental governance and land use, land use change and forestry, carbon
green economy. dioxide capture and storage and on the
UN Environment is one of several Implementing relationship between safeguarding the ozone
Agencies for the Global Environment Facility layer and the global climate system, Special
(GEF) and the Multilateral Fund for the Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15).
Implementation of the Montreal Protocol. IPCC does not carry out its own original research.
It is also a member of the United Nations Thousands of scientists and other experts
Development Group. contribute on a voluntary basis.
UNEP has registered several successes, such as The aims of the IPCC are to assess scientific
the 1987 Montreal Protocol, and the 2012 information relevant to:
Minamata Convention. o Human-induced climate change,
o Impacts of human-induced climate
CONVENTIONS UNDER UNEP change,
1) Rotterdam Convention o Options for adaptation and mitigation.
2) Stockholm convention
3) Tehran Convention GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY (GEF)
4) Minamata Convention GEF unites 183 countries in partnership with
5) Bamako Convention international institutions, civil society
6) Basel Convention organizations (CSOs), and the private sector to
7) Convention on International Trade in Endangered address global environmental issues while
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) supporting national sustainable development
8) Multilateral Fund Secretariat for the initiatives.
Implementation of the Montreal Protocol (MFS) An independently operating financial
9) African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement organization, the GEF provides grants for projects
(AEWA) related to biodiversity, climate change,
10) Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

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 international waters, land degradation, the ozone 1. United Nations Framework Convention on
layer, and persistent organic pollutants. Climate Change (UNFCCC) that in turn led
to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris
GEF also serves as financial mechanism for the
Agreement.
following conventions:
2. Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD)
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 3. United Nations Convention to Combat
United Nations Framework Convention on Desertification (UNCCD)
Climate Change (UNFCCC)
UN Convention to Combat Desertification IV) UNFCCC: UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK
(UNCCD) CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants (POPs) International environmental treaty that came
Minamata Convention on Mercury into existence under the aegis of UN.
Supports implementation of Montreal Protocol UNFCCC is negotiated at the Earth Summit 1992.
(though not formally linked to it) Signed in 1992, New York City.
UNFCCC has 197 parties including all UN
member states, State of Palestine, UN non-
III) UNCED or EARTH SUMMIT 1992, RIO DE member states Niue & the Cook Islands and
JANEIRO BRAZIL European Union.
UNFCCC provides a framework for negotiating
Earth Summit 1992 is also known as The United
specific international treaties (called "protocols")
Nations Conference on Environment and
that aim to set binding limits on greenhouse
Development (UNCED).
gases.
It succeeded in raising public awareness of the
Objective of UNFCCC: Stabilize greenhouse gas
need to integrate environment and
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that
development.
would prevent dangerous consequences.
190 countries pledged their commitment to
Legal Effect: Treaty is considered legally non-
achieve by 2010, a significant reduction in the
binding.
current rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional
The treaty itself sets no binding limits on
and local levels.
greenhouse gas emissions for individual
As a follow-up, the World Summit on Sustainable
countries.
Development (Rio+10) was held in 2002 in
Johannesburg, South Africa. HISTORY OF UNFCCC
In 2012, the United Nations Conference on
o 1988- IPCC was set up.
Sustainable Development was also held in Rio
o 1992- Based on the reports of IPCC, Rio Earth
and is also commonly called Rio+20 or Rio Earth
Summit was held.
Summit 2012.
o 1994- UNFCCC came into force.
o 995- First COP of UNFCCC @ Berlin.
Earth Summit resulted in the following
o 1997- Idea of Kyoto Protocol was formulated.
Documents:
o 2001- Adaptation Fund was set up to implement
1. Rio Declaration principles intended to
Kyoto Protocol (2008 launched COP 14, Poznan
guide countries in future sustainable
(Poland))
development.
o 2002- UNFCCC India COP.
2. Agenda 21 non-binding action plan of the
o 2005- Kyoto Protocol came into force.
United Nations with regard to sustainable
o 2010- GCF was set up in Cancun Summit.
development.
o 2012- Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol.
3. Forest Principles Non-legally binding
o 2015- Paris Climate Agreement.
document on Conservation and Sustainable
o 2018- Katowice Climate Package.
Development of All Types of Forests.
CONFERENCES OF THE PARTIES (COP) UNFCCC
Earth Summit resulted in following Landmark
Agreements: The COP is the decision-making body of UNFCCC.

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 All States that are Parties to the Convention are COP 16 (2010) Cancun -- Resulted in the Cancun
represented at the COP. Agreements, Green Climate Fund, the
They review the implementation of any legal Technology Mechanism and the Cancun
instruments that the COP adopts. Adaptation Framework are established.
They promote the effective implementation of COP 19 (2013) Warsaw Warsaw Framework for
the Convention. REDD Plus and the Warsaw International
The first COP meeting was held in Berlin, Mechanism for Loss and Damage.
Germany in March 1995. The parties to the COP 20 (2014) Lima, Peru urged parties to take
convention have met annually since 1995. national pledges by finalizing INDCs.
In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol (3rd COP) was COP 21 (2015) was held in Paris in 2015.
concluded and established legally binding COP 22 (2016) was held at Marrakesh, Morocco.
obligations for developed countries to reduce COP 23 (2017) was held at Bonn, Germany.
their greenhouse gas emissions. COP 24 (2018) was held at Katowice, Poland.
COP 13 (2007) Bali Bali Road Map and Bali COP 25 (2019) was to be conducted at Santiago,
action plan, which charted the way towards a Chile during Nov-Dec 2019, but happened in
post-2012 outcome. Madrid, Spain.
COP 15 (2009) Copenhagen Copenhagen Accord COP 26 (Nov 2021) will be held in Glasgow,
drafted. Developed countries pledge up to USD Scotland.
30 billion.

KYOTO PROTOCOL 1997 (UNFCCC COP 3)

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, The Protocol is based on the principle of Common
in 1997. But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) --
India ratified Kyoto Protocol in 2002. = Every country (developing &
The Kyoto Protocol came into force in February developed) must take part in the fight against
2005. ferentiated
Goal: Fight global warming by reducing = Historically biggest polluters
greenhouse gas concentrations in the (developed countries) should do more (binding
a level that would prevent targets & fund contribution) compared to the
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the recent polluters (developing countries of China,
climate system India, Brazil etc).
Kyoto protocol aimed to cut emissions of Kyoto Protocol is the only global treaty with
greenhouse gases across the developed world by binding limits on GHG emissions.
about 5% by 2012 compared with 1990 levels.

CLASSIFICATION OF PARTIES & THEIR COMMITMENTS KYOTO PROTOCOL

ANNEX I
43 Parties, classified as industrialized (developed) countries (US, UK, NON-ANNEX I
EU, Russia etc) and "economies in transition" (EITs) (Ukraine, Turkey, Parties to the
LDC
some eastern European countries etc). UNFCCC not listed
Least-
in Annex I of the
ANNEX II developed
Convention
24 Annex I Developed countries (Annex II is a subset of Annex I). countries
(mostly low-
Required to provide financial and technical support to the EITs No
income developing
and developing countries to assist them in reducing their binding
countries).
greenhouse gas emissions. targets to
No binding targets
reduce
to reduce GHG
ANNEX B GHG
emissions.
Annex I Parties with first (2008-12) or second (2013-20) round emissions.
Only Voluntary
Kyoto greenhouse gas emissions targets.
Targets
Have Compulsory binding targets to reduce GHG emissions.

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 Under Kyoto Protocol, there are two
commitment periods:
1) 2008 2012
2) 2013 2020.
The second commitment period was agreed on in
2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the
Kyoto protocol.
During first commitment period (2008-12), more
than 35 countries had binding targets.
USA never ratified Kyoto Protocol. Canada
withdrew in 2012.
Japan, New Zealand and Russia have
participated in Kyoto's first-round but have not
taken on new targets in the second commitment
period.
Doha Amendment, which establishes the Kyoto
Joint Implementation (JI) allows an Annex B Party
-2020 second commitment
(country with an emission reduction
period, has received the required number of
commitment) to earn Emission Reduction Units
ratifications (now have 145 countries, India
(ERU) from an emission-reduction project in
being 80th country to ratify) to enter into force
another Annex B Party, each equivalent to one
on October 1, 2020. Amendment sets a goal of
tonne of CO2.
reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 18%
compared to 1990 levels for participating Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows an
countries. Annex B Party (country with an emission-
limitation commitment) to implement an
KYOTO PROTOCOL EMISSION TARGET GASES emission-reduction project in developing
countries to earn saleable Certified Emission
o Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Reduction (CER) Credits, each equivalent to one
o Methane (CH4)
tonne of CO2 equivalent.
o Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Emission Trading allows countries to sell unused
o Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
emission units to countries that have exceeded
o Hydro fluorocarbons (HCFs)
their targets. Carbon is tracked and traded like
o Per fluorocarbons (PFCs)
any other commodity in a "carbon market".
FLEXIBLE MARKET MECHANISMS under KYOTO Offset Trading is a variant of Emission Trading or
PROTOCOL Carbon Trading.
If a country does not meet the requirements for
Countries bound to Kyoto targets have to meet measurements and reporting, the country loses
them largely through domestic action that is, the privilege of gaining credit through joint
to reduce their emissions onshore. implementation (JI) projects.
But they can meet part of their targets through If a country goes above its emissions cap and does
market-based mechanisms not try to make up the difference through any of
The Kyoto Flexible Market Protocol mechanisms the mechanisms available, then said country
include: must make up the difference plus an additional
1) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) thirty percent during the next period. The
2) Emission Trading country could also be banned from participating
3) Joint Implementation (JI) in the 'cap and trade' program.

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 PARIS CLIMATE CHANGE CONFERENCE 2015 (UNFCCC COP 21)
Since no agreement was reached in Lima (COP climate finance by 2020 and agreed to continue
20), all agreements and decisions were reserved mobilizing finance at the level of $100 billion a
for Paris Summit 2015. year until 2025.
Paris Summit is one of the most important
What is an INDC?
environmental conference because of the INDC
commitments made by major polluters. During Warsaw Summit 2013 (COP 19), countries
The conference objective is to achieve a legally agreed to publicly outline what actions they
binding and universal agreement on climate to intend to take under a global agreement well
be signed in 2015 and implemented by 2020. before the Paris Summit 2015.
Prior to the conference, 146 national climate COP 20 (2014) Lima, Peru urged parties to take
panels publicly presented draft national climate national pledges by finalizing INDCs.
contributions (so-called Intended Nationally The countries mad voluntary national
Determined Contributions, INDCs). However, no commitments to limit GHG emissions and they
detailed timetable or country-specific goals for are known as Intended Nationally Determined
emissions were incorporated into the Paris Contributions (INDCs).
Agreement as opposed to the previous Kyoto
Protocol. OTHER MEASURES
There will be neither a mechanism to force a CLIMATE NEUTRAL NOW
country to set a target by a specific date nor
enforcement measures if a set target is not met. o The UNFCCC secretariat launched its Climate
Neutral Now initiative in 2015.
PARIS AGREEMENT o The following year, the secretariat launched a
The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement, new pillar under its Momentum for Change
a global agreement on the reduction of climate Initiative focused on Climate Neutral Now.
change. o Climate Neutral Now is aiming at encouraging
and supporting all levels of society to take climate
It entered into force in November 2016 after
action to achieve a climate neutral world by mid-
(ratification by 55 countries that account for at
century, as enshrined in the Paris Agreement.
least 55% of global emissions) had been met.
As of February 2021, 194 states and the European
FOREST CARBON PARTNERSHIP FACILITY
Union have signed & 191 members of the
UNFCCC have ratified the agreement. The United o It is a global partnership of governments,
States withdrew from the agreement in 2020 but businesses, civil society, and Indigenous Peoples
accepted it again and officially re-joined it in focused on reducing emissions from
February 2021. deforestation and forest degradation, forest
India signed and ratified in 2016. carbon stock conservation, the sustainable
The expected key result was an agreement to set management of forests, and the enhancement of
a goal of limiting global warming to "well below forest carbon stocks in developing countries
2 °C" compared to pre-industrial levels. (activities commonly referred to as REDD+).
The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic o World Bank assumes the functions of trustee and
greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during secretariat.
the second half of the 21st century. o The World Bank, the Inter-American
In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement, Development Bank and United Nations
the parties will also "pursue efforts to limit the Development Programme are Delivery Partners
temperature increase to 1.5 °C under the Readiness Fund and responsible for
The 1.5 °C goal will require zero emissions providing REDD+ readiness support.
sometime between 2030 and 2050, according to
some scientists. CLIMATE & CLEAN AIR COALITION (CCAC)
The developed countries reaffirmed the
o 2012: a few nations, along with the United
commitment to mobilize $100 billion a year in
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), came

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 together to form the Climate & Clean Air deforestation and forest degradation in
Coalition. developing countries (REDD+), and from
o It is a partnership of governments, public and sustainable agriculture, as well as smarter land-
private sector, scientific institutions, civil society use planning, policies and practices.
organizations, etc. committed to protecting the
climate through actions to reduce short-lived GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE ALLIANCE + (GCCA+)
climate pollutants.
o (GCCA+) is a European Union initiative.
BIOCARBON FUND INITIATIVE o GCCA+ initiatives help mainly Small Islands
Developing States (SIDS) and Least Developed
o The Bio-Carbon Fund Initiative for Sustainable Countries (LDCs) increase their resilience to
Forest Landscapes (ISFL) is a multilateral fund, climate change.
supported by donor governments and managed o It also supports these group of countries in
by the World Bank. implementing their commitments resulting from
o It seeks to promote reduced greenhouse gas the 2015 Paris Agreement on Climate Change
emissions from the land sector, from (COP21).

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 INDIAN RESPONSE TO GLOBAL WARMING
This includes 100 GW from solar, 60 GW from
wind, 10 GW from bio-power and 5 GW from
Emission Intensity Target To reduce the small hydro power.
emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 % by
2030 from 2005 level. Objectives of National Solar Mission
Renewable Energy Target To achieve about
o To establish India as a global leader in solar
40% cumulative electric power installed capacity
energy, by creating the policy conditions for
from non- fossil fuel-based energy resources by
its diffusion across the country as quickly as
2030, with the help of transfer of technology and
possible.
low-cost international finance, including from
o To create an enabling policy framework for
Green Climate Fund.
the deployment of 100,000 MW of solar
Carbon Sink To create an additional carbon sink
power by 2022.
of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent
o To create favourable conditions for solar
through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.
manufacturing capability, particularly solar
thermal for indigenous production and
INDIA'S NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE market leadership.
CHANGE (NAPCC)
II. NATIONAL MISSION FOR ENHANCED ENERGY
NAPCC was published in 2008 by the then-Prime EFFICIENCY (NMEEE)
Minister's Council on Climate Change.
The implementation of National Action Plan Objective: Promote the market for energy
hinges on the development and use of new efficiency by fostering innovative policies and
technologies, public private partnerships and civil effective market instruments.
society action. A recent World Bank study has estimated the
There are Eight National Missions which form the country's energy efficiency market to be at 1.6
core of the National Action Plan. lakh crores.
1) National Solar Mission NMEEE includes four specific energy efficiency
2) National Mission for Enhanced Energy initiatives under its umbrella:
Efficiency 1) Perform Achieve and Trade (PAT)
3) National Mission on Sustainable Habitat Assigning energy reduction targets to large
4) National Water Mission energy intensive industries and distributing
5) National Mission for Sustaining the Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts) on
Himalayan Ecosystem achievement of the targets. These ESCerts
6) National Mission for A Green India (GIM) can then be traded (bought by customers
7) National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture who do not meet the targets).
8) National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for 2) Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency
Climate Change (NMSKCC) (MTEE) Promoting adoption of energy
9) National Bio-Energy Mission efficient equipment and appliances through
innovative business models. Programs that
were developed under this scheme include:
I. NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION a. Domestic Efficient Lighting Program:
Unnat Jeevan by Affordable LEDs for All
Committed to Nationally Determined (UJALA) program to promote the use of
Contributions (Paris Accord), India made a pledge more efficient LED lighting for
that by 2030, 40% of installed power generation households.
capacity shall be based on clean sources. b. Super-Efficient Equipment Program
It was determined that 175 GW of renewable (SEEP): Under this program, the
energy capacity will be installed by 2022. manufacturers are incentivized by the
government to elevate the efficiency
standards of the equipment. Bureau of

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 Energy Efficiency (BEE) launched the Objective is to ensure integrated water resource
program (Star-Rating). management helping to conserve water,
minimize wastage and ensure more equitable
3) Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP) distribution both across and within states.
It provides a platform for financial The Mission, in line with National Water Policy,
institutions, investors and project developers aims to:
to increase their confidence in supporting o increase water use efficiency by 20%.
energy conservation and efficiency projects. o ensure that a considerable share of the water
4) Framework For Energy Efficiency Economic needs of urban areas are met through
Development (FEEED) Promoting energy recycling.
efficiency initiatives by hedging against o ensure that the water requirements of
investment risks. BEE institutionalized two coastal cities are met through modern
types of funds in order to protect the desalination technologies.
confidence of banks and investors in energy o ensure basin level management strategies by
efficiency projects and to avoid the stalling of working with states to deal with variability in
projects due to lack of funds. rainfall.
a. Partial Risk Guarantee Fund for Energy The Mission aims to achieve its objectives
Efficiency (PRGFEE) through:
b. Venture Capital Fund for Energy o Increasing efficiency through regulatory
Efficiency (VCFEE) mechanisms (differential entitlements and
pricing).
III. NATIONAL MISSION ON SUSTAINABLE HABITAT o Enhanced storage both above and below
ground, rainwater harvesting.
It seeks to promote:
o Incentivising water-neutral or water-positive
o Improvements in energy efficiency in
technologies, and adoption of large-scale
buildings by extending energy conservation
irrigation programmes which rely on
building code to new and large commercial
sprinklers, drip irrigation and ridge and
buildings.
furrow irrigation.
o Better urban planning and efficient and
convenient public transport to facilitate the V. NATIONAL MISSION FOR SUSTAINING THE
growth of medium and small cities. HIMALAYAN ECOSYSTEM (NMSHE)
o Improved management of solid and liquid
waste, e.g. recycling of material and urban The primary objective of the Mission is to
waste management (like producing power o develop a sustainable model to continuously
from waste). assess the health status of the Himalayan
o Improved ability of habitats to adapt to Ecosystem, and
climate change and measures for improving o enable policy bodies in their policy-
advance warning systems for extreme formulation as also to assist States in the
weather events. Indian Himalayan Region with
o Conservation through appropriate changes in implementation of actions selected for
legal and regulatory framework. sustainable development.

The Mission is being implemented through the The NMSHE will attempt to address a variety of
following programmes of Ministry of Urban important issues:
Development: o Himalayan glaciers and associated
1) Atal Mission on Rejuvenation and Urban hydrological consequences.
Transformation (AMRUT) o Prediction and management of natural
2) Swachh Bharat Mission hazards.
3) Smart Cities Mission o Biodiversity conservation and protection.
4) Urban Transport Programme o Wildlife conservation and protection.
o Traditional knowledge societies and their
IV. NATIONAL WATER MISSION (NWM) livelihood.

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VI. NATIONAL MISSION FOR A GREEN INDIA (GREEN Soil Health Management (SHM)
INDIA MISSION)
o Soil Health Management (SHM) is one of the
It aims at components under NMSA.
o o SHM aims at:
diminishing forest cover and promoting Integrated Nutrient Management
o responding to climate change by a (INM) through judicious use of chemical
combination of adaptation and mitigation fertilizers including secondary and micro-
measures. nutrients in conjunction with organic
o Enhanced annual CO2 sequestration by 50 to manures and bio fertilizers and
60 million tons in the year 2020. fertilizer testing facilities to improve soil test-
based recommendations to farmers.
The mission will be implemented on both public
as well as private lands. o Soil Health Card Scheme is under
The mission will involve local communities in implementation since 2015 to provide Soil Health
planning, decision making, implementation and Card to all farmers. It will provide information to
monitoring. farmers on soil nutrients status of their soil and
recommendation on appropriate dosage of
The intended major outcomes of the project nutrients to be applied for improving soil health
o Improved ecosystem services and reversal of land and its fertility.
degradation.
o Augmentation of the shared natural resources on VIII. NATIONAL MISSION ON STRATEGIC
which extreme poor communities depend. KNOWLEDGE FOR CLIMATE CHANGE (NMSKCC)
o Enhance connectivity between Protected Areas NMSKCC seeks to build a knowledge system that
(PA) through biological corridors. supports national policy and action for
o Inclusive growth by reaching the communities responding effectively to climate change
living around remote forest areas. challenges, while not compromising on the
o Increased wage labour opportunities during the .
lean agriculture season.
Mission Objectives:
o Formation of knowledge networks among the
VII. NATIONAL MISSION FOR SUSTAINABLE existing knowledge institutions engaged in
AGRICULTURE (NMSA) research and development relating to climate
science.
NMSA has been formulated for enhancing o Development of national capacity for
agricultural productivity especially in rainfed modelling the regional impact of climate
areas. change on different ecological zones.
o Establishing research networks and
accounts for 40% of the total food production. encouraging research in the areas of climate
The focus areas are integrated farming, water use change impacts on important socio-economic
efficiency, soil health and resource conservation. sectors like agriculture, health, natural
Stated dimensions of NMSA: ecosystems, biodiversity, coastal zones, etc.

a) Improved crop seeds, livestock and fish cultures IX. NATIONAL BIO-ENERGY MISSION
b) Water Use Efficiency
c) Pest Management The aim of the mission is to push sustainable
d) Improved Farm Practices development of the renewable energy sector.
e) Nutrient Management The national mission will aim at improving energy
f) Agricultural insurance efficiency in traditional biomass consuming
g) Credit support industries, seek to develop a bio-energy city
h) Markets project and provide logistics support to biomass
i) Access to Information processing units.
j) Livelihood diversification

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 It will also propose a GIS-based National Biomass Most of the 122 countries are sunshine countries,
Resource Atlas to map potential biomass regions which lie either completely or partly between the
in the country. Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
According to estimates, biomass from agro and ISA is now extended to all members of UN and is
agro-industrial residue can potentially generate now a treaty-based inter-governmental
25,000 MW of power in India. organization.
Countries that do not fall within the Tropics can
NATIONAL ADAPTATION FUND ON CLIMATE join the alliance with the exception of voting
CHANGE (NAFCC) rights.
The primary objective of the alliance is to work for
efficient exploitation of solar energy to reduce
dependence on fossil fuels.
Money obtained from coal cess goes into NAFCC. Headquarters: Gurugram, Haryana, India.
Objective: Assist States and Union Territories that
are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects INDIAN NETWORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
of climate change in meeting the cost of ASSESSMENT
adaptation.
Launched by MoEFCC in an effort to promote
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
domestic research on climate change.
Development (NABARD) has been appointed as
Reports prepared by the INCCA will form a part of
National Implementing Entity (NIE) responsible
India's National Communication (Nat Com) to the
for implementation of adaptation projects under
United Nations Framework Convention on
the (NAPCC).
Climate Change (UNFCCC).
INTERNATIONAL SOLAR ALLIANCE (ISA)
NATIONAL COMMUNICATION (NATCOM)
The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an alliance
In pursuance of the implementation of the
was initiated by India & France.
provisions of UNFCCC, India's Initial National
It was initiated at the India Africa Summit, and a
Communication (NATCOM) has been initiated in
meeting of member countries ahead of the Paris
2002 funded by the Global Environment Facility.
Summit.
It is a project for communicating to the UNFCCC
The framework agreement opened for signatures
about anthropogenic emissions of GHGs from
in Marrakech in 2016, and 122 countries have
various sources and their removal by sinks
joined.
towards fulfilment of obligation under the
UNFCCC (Biennial Update Reports).

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 -88g
Handout 5

CLIMATE CHANGE II
OZONE DEPLETION
WHAT IS THE OZONE LAYER? When undisturbed, the balance between the
natural processes of ozone production and
The ozone layer is a region of high ozone destruction maintains a consistent ozone
concentration in the stratosphere, 20 to 30 concentration in the stratosphere.
kilometres above Earth's surface. The ozone layer
acts as an invisible shield and protects us from
ANTHROPOGENIC INFLUENCE: OZONE HOLE
harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun.
In particular, the ozone layer protects us from the
harmful UV radiation, known as UV-B, which no ozone is present but is actually a region of
causes sunburn. (UV-C is also prevented by exceptionally depleted ozone in the
ozone layer) stratosphere over the Antarctic that happens at
Long-term exposure to high levels of UV-B can the beginning of Southern Hemisphere spring
severely damage most animals, plants and (August October).
microbes, so the ozone layer protects all life on From the historical record we know that total
Earth. Ozone absorbs UV radiation from the sun. column ozone values of less than 220 Dobson
Units were not observed prior to 1979. From an
aircraft field mission over Antarctica we also
know that a total column ozone level of less than
220 Dobson Units is a result of catalysed ozone
loss from chlorine and bromine compounds.
For these reasons, we use 220 Dobson Units as
the boundary of the region representing ozone
loss.

OZONE DEPLETING SUBSTANCES (ODS)

Ozone depleting substances are man-made gases
NATURAL BALANCED FORMATION & DESTRUCTION that destroy ozone once they reach the ozone
OF OZONE IN STRATOSPHERE layer.
They have been used as refrigerants (in
Ozone is being produced and destroyed all the
commercial, home & vehicle air conditioners and
time.
refrigerators), foam blowing agents, a
The sun also produces another form of ultraviolet
component in electrical equipment, Industrial
light, UV-C. When UV-C light reaches the
solvents, solvents for cleaning (including dry
stratosphere, it is completely absorbed by oxygen
cleaning), aerosol spray propellants, fumigants.
molecules and never reaches the Earth's surface.
Ozone depleting substances include:
UV-C splits oxygen molecules into oxygen atoms. 1) Chloro-Fluro-carbons (CFCs)
These single atoms then react with other oxygen
2) Hydro-Chloro-Fluro-carbons (HFCs)
molecules to form ozone. With these reaction 3) Hydro-Bromo-Fluro-carbons (HBFCs)
processes, ozone becomes more and more. 4) Halons
But ozone is not the only gas in the stratosphere. 5) Methyl Bromide
Other gases containing nitrogen and hydrogen 6) Carbon tetrachloride
are also in the stratosphere and participate in 7) Methyl chloroform
reaction cycles that destroy ozone converting it
back into oxygen. With these reaction processes, Chlorofluorocarbons
ozone becomes less and less.
o Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were widely used as
refrigerants until the 1980s.

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o They are also considered greenhouse gases Northern Canada. Sometimes, however, they
(GHGs) that cause climate change. occur as far south as England.
o There are still CFCs left in older industrial air o They contain water, nitric acid and/or sulfuric
conditioning and refrigeration systems. acid.
o They are formed mainly during the event of polar
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
vertex in winter; more intense at south pole.
o Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) have been o The chloride (Cl) ion catalysed ozone depletion
used as a substitute for CFCs. is dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar
o They do less damage to the ozone layer than stratospheric clouds (PSCs)
CFCs.

Halons
Chlorine atoms freed from CFCs do ultimately
o Halons are halocarbon gases that were originally destroy ozone, the destruction doe
developed for use in fire extinguishers. immediately.
o Production and consumption of halons ended in They actually become part of two chemicals
1994 in developed countries. (hydrochloric acid, and chlorine nitrate) that
under normal atmospheric conditions are so
HOW DO ODS DEPLETE OZONE ? stable that scientists consider them to be long-
Depletion of ozone is due to increase in term reservoirs for chlorine.
halocarbons in the atmosphere. ODSs escape into But in the long months of polar darkness over
the atmosphere from refrigeration and Antarctica in the winter, atmospheric conditions
propellant devices and processes. are unusual. An endlessly circling whirlpool of
In the lower atmosphere, they are so stable that stratospheric winds called the polar vortex
they persist for years, even decades. This long isolates the air in the center.
lifetime allows some of the ODSs to eventually Because it is completely dark, the air in the vortex
reach the stratosphere. gets so cold that clouds form, even though the
Photodissociation of ODSs In the stratosphere, Antarctic air is extremely thin and dry.
ultraviolet light breaks the bond holding halogen Unusual reactions can occur only on the surface
atoms (Cl, F,) to the CFC molecule. of polar stratospheric cloud particles where it
A free chlorine atom goes on to participate in a converts the inactive chlorine reservoir chemicals
series of chemical reactions that both destroy into more active forms, especially chlorine gas
ozone and return the free chlorine atom to the (Cl2).
atmosphere unchanged, where it can destroy When the sunlight returns to the South Pole in
more and more ozone molecules. October, UV light rapidly breaks the bond
between the two chlorine atoms, releasing free
ROLE OF POLAR STRATOSPHERIC CLOUDS IN chlorine into the stratosphere, where it takes part
OZONE DEPLETION in reactions that destroy ozone molecules while
regenerating the chlorine (known as a catalytic
POLAR STRATOSPHERIC CLOUDS reaction).
This catalytic reaction allows a single chlorine
o Extend from 12 km 22 km above the surface.
atom to destroy thousands of ozone molecules.
o They are nacreous clouds.
Bromine is involved in a second catalytic reaction
o They are mostly visible within two hours after
with chlorine that contributes a large fraction of
sunset or before dawn.
ozone loss.
o They form in frigid regions of the lower
stratosphere, some 15 25 km high and well The ozone hole grows throughout the early spring
above tropospheric clouds. They are bright even until temperatures warm and the polar vortex
after sunset and before dawn because at those weakens, ending the isolation of the air in the polar
heights there is still sunlight. vortex. As air from the surrounding latitudes mixes
o They are seen mostly during winter at high into the polar region, the ozone-destroying forms of
latitudes like Scandinavia, Iceland, Alaska and

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chlorine disperse. The ozone layer stabilizes until the
following spring.

CONSEQUENCES OF OZONE DEPLETION

Damage to human health
Severe damage to marine life
Reduced plant growth and crop yields
Disruption of cycling of carbon, nutrients and
other elements in the atmosphere
Damage to outdoor materials
Eye damage
Immune system damage
Reduction in phytoplankton in the oceans

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 RESPONSE TO OZONE DEPLETION
In the 1980s, the global community decided to do As a result of the international agreement, the
something about ozone depletion. With growing ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering.
evidence that CFCs were damaging the ozone layer Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer
and understanding of the many consequences of will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and
uncontrolled depletion, scientists and policy makers 2070.
urged nations to control their use of CFCs. India has agreed on a lenient schedule as it
consumes only 3% of HFCs as compared to the
In response, the Vienna Convention for the
other nations like the USA (37%) and China (25%).
Protection of the Ozone Layer was adopted in
1985.
This was followed by the Montreal Protocol on MULTILATERAL FUND
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in 1987.
o The Fund is dedicated to reversing the
They are the first international environmental
deterioration of the Earth's ozone layer. It was
treaties to be universally endorsed by 198
established by a decision of the Second Meeting
nations of the world.
of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol (London,
VIENNA CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION June 1990) and began its operation in 1991.
OF THE OZONE LAYER o The main objective of the Fund is to assist
developing country parties to the Montreal
The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Protocol whose annual level of consumption of
Ozone Layer (Vienna Convention) was agreed in the ozone depleting substances (ODS)
1985. chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons is less
It established global monitoring and reporting on than 0.3 kilograms per capita to comply with the
ozone depletion. control measures of the Protocol.
It also created a framework for the development o Currently, 147 of the 197 Parties to the Montreal
of protocols for taking more binding action. Protocol meet these criteria. They are referred to
The Convention did not require countries to take as Article 5 countries. Financial and technical
specific actions to control ozone-depleting assistance is provided in the form of grants or
substances. The specific actions are spelled out concessional loans and is delivered primarily
by the Montreal Protocol. through 4 implementing agencies:
United Nation Environment Programme
MONTREAL PROTOCOL ON SUBSTANCES
(UNEP)
THAT DEPLETE THE OZONE LAYER United Nations Development Programme
The Montreal Protocol under the Vienna (UNDP)
Convention (the protocol) was agreed in 1987. United Nations Industrial Development
It facilitates global cooperation in reversing the Organization (UNIDO)
rapid decline in atmospheric concentrations of World Bank
ozone. KIGALI AMENDMENT TO MONTREAL
Under the protocol countries agreed to phase out
PROTOCOL 2016
the production and consumption of certain
chemicals that deplete ozone. Kigali is the capital city of Rwanda.
The Protocol provides a set of practical, Although the Montreal Protocol was designed to
actionable tasks to phase out ozone-depleting phase out the production and consumption of
substances that were universally agreed upon. ODSs, some replacements of these substances,
The Protocol is unique in having the flexibility to known as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), have
respond to new scientific information. proven to be powerful greenhouse gases.
The Vienna Convention and its Montreal Protocol In the 28th meeting of the Parties (2016) to the
are the first and only global environmental Montreal Protocol, negotiators from 197 nations
treaties to achieve universal ratification, with have signed an agreement to amend the
197 parties. Montreal Protocol in Kigali.

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 The parties are expected to reduce the HFO refrigerants are composed of hydrogen,
manufacture and use of Hydrofluorocarbons fluorine and carbon atoms, but contain at least
(HFCs) by roughly 80-85% from their respective one double bond between the carbon atoms.
baselines, till 2045.
This phase down is expected to arrest the global
average temperature rise up to 0.5 °C by 2100.
It is a legally binding agreement between the
signatory parties with non-compliance measures.
It came into effect from 1st January 2019.

HFO ALTERNATIVES TO HFCS

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are used since as an
alternative to CFCs and HCFCs.
HFCs do not contribute to ozone depletion.
However, they are potent greenhouse gases with
high global warming potential.

HFO Alternatives to HFCs

HFO stands for Hydro-Fluro-Olefin.

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 The India Cooling Action seeks to

The rules are framed under the jurisdiction of o Reduce cooling demand across sectors by 20% to
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. 25% by 2037-38
These Rules set the deadlines for phasing out of o Reduce refrigerant demand by 25% to 30% by
various ODSs, besides regulating production, 2037-38
trade import and export of ODSs and the product o Reduce cooling energy requirements by 25% to
containing ODS. 40% by 2037-38
These Rules prohibit the use of CFCs in o Recognize "cooling and related areas" as a thrust
manufacturing various products beyond 1st area of research under national S&T Programme
January 2003 except in metered dose inhaler and o Training and certification of 100,000 servicing
for other medical purposes. sector technicians by 2022-23, synergizing with
Similarly, use of halons is prohibited after 1st Skill India Mission.
January 2001 except for essential use. THE THEMATIC AREAS IDENTIFIED ARE AS FOLLOWS
Other ODSs such as Carbon Tetrachloride and
Methyl-Chloroform and CFC for metered dose o Space Cooling in Buildings
inhalers can be used upto 1st January 2010. o Cold-chain and Refrigeration
Further, the use of methyl bromide has been o Transport Air-conditioning
allowed upto 1st January 2015. o Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Servicing
Since HCFCs are used as interim substitute to Sector
replace CFC, these are allowed up to 1st January o Refrigerant Demand and Indigenous Production
2040. o R&D and Production sector Alternative
Refrigerants

INDIA COOLING ACTION PLAN (ICAP) BENEFITS

The following benefits would accrue to the society

India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP) is launched by Ozone
over and above the environmental benefits:
Cell of Union Minister for Environment, Forest and
Climate Change(MoEFCC). India is one of the first o Thermal comfort for all - provision for cooling for
countries in the world to develop a comprehensive EWS and LIG housing
Cooling Action plan. o Sustainable cooling low GHG emissions related
to cooling.
CAP aims to provide sustainable cooling while
o Doubling Farmers Income better cold chain
keeping in mind, at the same time, the need to
infrastructure better value of produce to
protect the ozone layer.
farmers, less wastage of produce
It provides a 20-year perspective, with
o Skilled workforce for better livelihoods and
projections for cooling needs in 2037-38.
environmental protection
ICAP GOALS o Make in India domestic manufacturing of air-
conditioning and re .
The overarching goal of ICAP is to provide sustainable o Robust R&D on alternative cooling technologies
cooling and thermal comfort for all while securing to provide push to innovation in cooling sector.
environmental and socio-economic benefits for the
society.

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 Handout 6

CLIMATE CHANGE III

LAND DEGRADATION & DESERTIFICATION
Land degradation is a process in which the value Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and
of the biophysical environment is adversely Karnataka etc. are facing this problem.
affected by a combination of human-induced
EFFECTS OF SALINITY & ALKALINITY
processes acting upon the land.
It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the o Salinity and alkalinity have an adverse effect on
land perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. soil and reduce soil fertility.
Overall, more than 36 types of land degradation o Cultivation is not possible on saline soils unless
can be assessed, all are induced or aggravated by they are flushed out with large quantities of
human activities. It encompasses: irrigation water to leach out the salts.
a) Physical degradation Soil Erosion; o Choice of crops is limited to salinity-tolerant
Desertification crops like cotton, barley etc.
b) Chemical degradation Salinization & o Quality of fodder and food produced is of poor
Alkalinization; Soil Pollution quality.
c) Biological deterioration Soil pollution & o Salinity and alkalinity create difficulties in
Deterioration of Vegetal building and road construction (corrosion).
Cover(Deforestation). o These cause floods due to reduced percolation of
water.
A) SOIL SALINITY & SOIL ALKALINITY
STEPS TO TREAT SALINITY & ALKALINITY
In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the topsoil is saturated
with saline and alkaline efflorescence. o Providing outlets for lands to drain out excess
water and lower water table.
Undecomposed rock fragments, on weathering, o Sealing the leakages from canals, tanks and other
give rise to sodium, magnesium and calcium salts water bodies by lining them.
and sulphurous acid. o Making judicious use of irrigation facilities.
Some of the salts are transported in solution by o Improve vegetal cover to avoid further
the rivers. degradation by planting salt-tolerant vegetation.
In regions with low water table (due to over o Crop rotation.
irrigation in canal irrigated areas), the salts o Liberal application of gypsum to convert the
percolate into the subsoil, and in regions with alkalis into soluble compounds.
good drainage, the salts are wasted away by o Alkali can be removed by adding sulphuric acid or
flowing water. acid forming substances like sulphur and pyrite.
In arid regions injurious salts are transferred from o Organic residues such as rice husks and rice straw
below by the capillary action as a result of can be added to promote the formation of mild
evaporation in the dry season. acid as a result of their decomposition.
In canal irrigated areas plenty of the water is
available, and the farmers indulge in over B) WATERLOGGING
irrigation of their fields. Under such conditions, The flat surfaces and depressions result in
the groundwater level rises and saline and waterlogging. Waterlogged soils are soaked with
alkaline efflorescence consisting of salts of water accumulated during the rainy season or
sodium, calcium and magnesium appear on the due to leakage from various water sources.
surface as a layer of white salt through capillary
The extent of waterlogged soils is about 12
action.
million hectares in India half of which lies along
Vast tracts of canal irrigated areas in Uttar the coast and the other half in the inland area.
Pradesh. Punjab and Haryana; arid regions of
Waterlogging is believed to be one of the chief
Rajasthan, semi-arid areas of Maharashtra,
causes of salinity.

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 Proper layout of drainage schemes is the only way open drainage system with an adequate
to overcome the menace of waterlogging. outlet.
The basic methods of removing excess water (b) Vertical Drainage any bore or well from
from waterlogged soils are (a) surface drainage which the underlying water is extracted is
and (b) vertical drainage. defined as vertical drainage. It works well in
(a) Surface Drainage involves the disposal of Indo-Gangetic plain where the pumped water
excess water over ground surface through an is used for irrigating the neighbouring
regions.

C) DESERTIFICATION
Desertification is the process by which the biological productivity of drylands (arid and semiarid lands) is reduced
due to natural or manmade factors including climatic variations and human activities.

It represents the spread of desert-like conditions Displacement of fertile soil, Water erosion. It
in arid or semi-arid areas due to man's influence results into Badlands Topography which itself is
or climatic change. an initial stage of desertification.
The process of desertification is attributed to Wind Erosion Sand encroachment by wind
uncontrolled grazing, reckless felling of trees, reduces fertility of the soil making the land
unsustainable agriculture and growing susceptible to desertification.
population. Anthropogenic climate change has
ECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF DESERTIFICATION
accentuated the spread of deserts.
1. Environmental impacts:
CAUSES FOR DESERTIFICATION
a. Destruction of Vegetation
Man-Made Causes: b. Soil infertility
c. Increased soil erosion
Overgrazing It reduces the usefulness, d. Increased vulnerability to natural disasters
productivity, and biodiversity of the land. India e. Land degradation
lost 31% of grasslands between 2005 and 2015. f. Water pollution
Deforestation forest acts as a carbon sink. g. Loss of biodiversity & extinction of species
Deforestation releases carbon dioxide back into 2. Economic impacts:
the atmosphere contributing to the greenhouse a. Increased occurrences of natural hazards like
effect. Floods, Landslides, Draughts.
Farming Practices Slash and burn agriculture b. Threatens agricultural productivity.
exposes state to soil erosion hazards. Heavy tilling c. Repercussive impacts increase poverty.
and overirrigation disturbs mineral composition d. Overall productivity of the economy
of the soil. decreases.
Urbanization as urbanization increases, the 3. Social Impacts:
demand for resources increases drawing more a. Rise of famine, poverty, social conflicts.
resources and leaving lands that easily succumb b. Forces mass migrations i.e. environmental
to desertification. migration.
Climate Change It exacerbate desertification c. Food Security Issues
through alteration of spatial and temporal 4. Political Impacts:
patterns in temperature, rainfall, solar radiation a. Repercussive impacts also lead to political
and winds. instability.
Overexploitation of Resources Increasing
demand for land resources due to issues like MEASURES OF CONTROLLING DESERTIFICATION
overpopulation leaves land vulnerable to o Intensive tree plantation in the transition zones.
desertification. o Mulching shifting sand dunes in deserts with
Natural Causes: different plant species. Mulches serve as an
effective physical barrier to the moving sand.
Natural Disasters Natural Disasters like Floods, o Grazing should be controlled, and new pastures
Droughts, landslides result into Water Erosion, should be developed.

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o Indiscriminate felling of trees should be banned. Combat Desertification (UNCCD), India is losing
o Alternative sources of fuel can reduce the around 30% of total geographical area because
demand for fuelwood. of degradation.
o Sandy and wastelands should be put to proper The extent of degraded land in India is over 105
use by judicious planning. million hectares or about 32% of India's areas.
India has witnessed an increase in the level of
STATUS OF DESERTIFICATION IN INDIA
desertification in 26 of 29 states between 2003-
05 and 2011-13.
presented to the United Nations Convention to
lies in just nine states.

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 GLOBAL MEASURES TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION
UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION TO COMBAT UNCCD & SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
DESERTIFICATION (UNCCD) Goal 15 of Sustainable Development Goals(SDG),
The Convention stemmed from a direct ermined to protect the
recommendation of the Rio Conference's planet from degradation, including through
Agenda 21. sustainable consumption and production, sustainably
UNCCD is a Convention to combat desertification managing its natural resources and taking urgent
and mitigate the effects of drought through action on climate change, so that it can support the
national action programs (NAP). needs of the present and future gene
National Action Programs (NAP) incorporate BONN CHALLENGE
long-term strategies supported by international
cooperation. The Bonn Challenge is a global effort to bring 150
It is the only internationally legally binding million hectares of deforested and degraded
framework set up to address desertification. land into restoration by 2020 and 350 million
It has 196 parties, making it truly global in reach. hectares by 2030.
2006 was declared "International Year of Deserts The 2020 target was launched at a high-level
and Desertification". event in Bonn in 2011 organised by the
The UN Convention to Combat Desertification has Government of Germany and IUCN and was later
established a Committee on Science and endorsed and extended to 2030 by the New York
Technology (CST). Declaration on Forests of the 2014 UN Climate
CST is composed of government representatives Summit.
competent in the fields of expertise relevant to The Bonn Challenge is an implementation vehicle
combating desertification and mitigating the for national priorities such as water and food
effects of drought. security and rural development while
UNCCD collaborates closely with Convention on simultaneously helping countries contribute to
Biological Diversity (CBD) and UNFCCC. the achievement of international climate change,
biodiversity and land degradation commitments.

UNCCD ESTIMATE OF DESERTIFICATION UNCCD: COP 14: NEW DELHI

Land & Drought: By 2025, 1.8 billion people will The 14th edition of the Conference of Parties
experience absolute water scarcity, and 2/3 of (COP-14) to the UN Convention to Combat
the world will be living under water-stressed Desertification (UNCCD) ended on 13th
conditions. September 2019.
o A complex and slowly encroaching natural Held in Greater Noida, this was the first time that
hazard with significant and pervasive socio- India hosted an edition of the UNCCD COP.
economic and environmental impacts to Restore land,
cause more deaths and displace more people .
than any other natural disaster. India being the global host for COP 14 has taken
Land & Human Security: By 2045 some 135 over the COP Presidency from China for the next
million people may be displaced as a result of two years till 2021.
desertification. India is among the select few countries to have
Land & Climate: Restoring the soils of degraded hosted the COP of all three Rio conventions on
ecosystems has the potential to store up to 3 climate change, biodiversity and land.
billion tons of carbon annually.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
o The land use sector represents almost 25% of
total global emissions. Its rehabilitation and o Delhi Declaration Commitment for a range of
sustainable management are critical to issues, including gender and health, ecosystem
combating climate change. restoration, taking action on climate change,
private sector engagement, Peace Forest

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 Initiative and recovery of five million hectares of natural wonder of the world stretching across the
degraded land in India. entire width of the continent.
o The country parties have agreed to make the
Sustainable Development Goal target of 2) Land Degradation Neutrality(LDN) A state
achieving land degradation neutrality by 2030, a whereby the amount and quality of land
national target for action. resources, necessary to support ecosystem
o Peace Forest Initiative It is an initiative of functions and services and enhance food security,
South Korea to use ecological restoration as a remains stable or increases within specified
peace-building process. It aims at addressing the temporal and spatial scales and ecosystems.
issue of land degradation in conflict-torn border To date, over 120 countries have engaged with
areas and would go a long way in alleviating the. It is a unique approach that counterbalances
tensions and building trust between communities the expected loss of productive land with the
living there and between enemy countries in recovery of degraded areas. It strategically places
particular. the measures to conserve, sustainably manage
o Drought Toolbox It is launched as a one-stop- and restore land in the context of land use
shop for all actions on drought. It is a sort of planning.
knowledge bank which contains tools that
strengthen the ability of countries to anticipate 3) Impact Investment Fund for Land Degradation
and prepare for drought effectively and mitigate Neutrality The LDN Fund is an impact
their impacts as well as tools that enable investment fund blending resources from the
communities to anticipate and find the land public, private and philanthropic sectors to
management tools that help them to build support achieving LDN through sustainable land
resilience to drought. management and land restoration projects.
o International Coalition for Action on Sand and Partners of the fund are The Rockefeller
Dust storms (SDS) The coalition will develop an Foundation, Government of France, Government
SDS source base map with the goal of improving of Luxembourg, and Government of Norway.
monitoring and response to these storms. SDS
affects approximately 77% of UNCCD country 4) The Global Land Outlook (GLO) The Global Land
Parties or approximately 151 countries. Outlook (GLO) is a strategic communications
o Initiative of Sustainability, Stability and Security platform and associated publications of the
(3S) Launched by 14 African countries to UNCCD secretariat that demonstrates the central
address migration driven by land degradation. It importance of land quality to human well-being.
aims at restoring land and creating green jobs for
migrants and vulnerable groups. 5) Land for Life Programme was launched at the
o Cooperation From Youth The global Youth tenth UNCCD Conference of the Parties (COP10)
Caucus on Desertification and Land convened its in 2011 in the Republic of Korea as part of the
first official gathering in conjunction with the Changwon Initiative. Every two years, the
UNCCD COP14 to bring together youth advocates programme presents the Land for Life Award
from different parts of the world, to build their which aims to provide global recognition to
capacity, share knowledge, build networks and to individuals and organizations whose work and
engage them meaningfully in the UNCCD initiatives have made a significant contribution to
processes. sustainable development through sustainable
land management (SLM).
UNCCD ACTIVITIES

1) The Great Green Wall Initiative Launched in 6) UNCCD Gender Action Plan UNCCD parties are
2007 by the African Union, this game-changing committed to improving the quality of life for
African- women worldwide. This represents a landmark
degraded landscapes and transform millions of opportunity to transform gender equality and
human rights into action. Its overall goal is to
Sahel. Once complete, the Wall will be the largest support and enhance the implementation of the
living structure on the planet an 8,000 km gender-related decisions and mandates adopted
in the UNCCD process.

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7) United Nations Decade for Deserts (2010-2020) o Strategic objective 1: To improve the condition of
and the fight against Desertification was affected ecosystems, combat desertification/land
declared by UNGA in 2007. The purpose of the degradation, promote sustainable land
Decade is to mobilize global action to fight land management and contribute to land degradation
degradation, promote sustainable management neutrality.
of land resources and ensure long-term ability of o Strategic objective 2: To improve the living
drylands to support the livelihoods of local conditions of affected populations.
populations. o Strategic objective 3: To mitigate, adapt to, and
manage the effects of drought in order to
enhance resilience of vulnerable populations and
UNCCD 2018 2030 STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK ecosystems.
o Strategic objective 4: To generate global
o It is the most comprehensive global commitment environmental benefits through effective
to achieve Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN). implementation of the UNCCD.
o In order to restore the productivity of vast o Strategic objective 5: To mobilize substantial and
expanses of degraded land, improve the additional financial and non-financial resources
livelihoods of more than 1.3 billion people, and to support the implementation of the Convention
reduce the impacts of drought on vulnerable by building effective partnerships at global and
populations. national level.

INDIAN MEASURES TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION

1. COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT 4. India became a signatory to the United Nations
o It was launched in 1974 to improve the irrigation Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
potential utilization and to optimize agricultural in 1994 and ratified in 1996.
production through efficient water management.
o The Ministry of Water Resources coordinates the 5. NATIONAL AFFORESTATION PROGRAMME
implementation of the program with respective o It is being implemented since 2000 for the
state governments. afforestation of degraded forest lands.
o It is being implemented by the Ministry of
2. INTEGRATED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Environment, Forest and Climate Change
PROGRAMME
o It was launched in 1989-90. 6. NATIONAL ACTION PROGRAMME (NAP) TO
o It aims to restore ecological balance by COMBAT DESERTIFICATION
harnessing, conserving and developing degraded o A 20 years comprehensive to combat
natural resources with the creation of Rural desertification in the country has been prepared
Employment. by MoEFCC which is the National Coordinating
o Now it is subsumed under Pradhan Mantri Krishi Agency for the implementation of the UNCCD in
Sinchai Yojana(PMKSY) (2015-16 to 2019-20) India.
which is being implemented by NITI Aayog. o The objectives are:-
community based approach to
3. DESERT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME development
o It was launched in 1995 to minimize the adverse activities to improve the quality of life of
effect of drought and to rejuvenate the natural the local communities,
resource base of the identified desert areas. awareness raising,
o It was launched for hot desert areas of Rajasthan, drought management preparedness and
Gujarat, Haryana and cold desert areas of Jammu mitigation,
& Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. R&D initiatives and interventions which
o It is implemented by the Ministry of Rural are locally suited,
Development. strengthening self-governance leading to
empowerment of local communities.

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7. FODDER AND FEED DEVELOPMENT SCHEME 8. DESERTIFICATION AND LAND DEGRADATION
o It was launched in 2010. ATLAS OF INDIA
o It aims to improve degraded grassland and also o It was released by ISRO in 2016.
the vegetation cover of problematic soils like o Combating desertification and land degradation
saline, acidic and heavy soil. is one of the thrust areas covered by it.
o It is being implemented by the Ministry of
Fisheries, Animal Husbandry, and Diaries.

WAY FORWARD

Ending desertification is the best chance the world has to stabilize the effects of climate change, save wildlife
species and protect our well-being. Protecting the forest is our mutual responsibility, which should be carried out
by people and governments worldwide.

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 D) DEFORESTATION
GLOBAL FOREST RESOURCES ASSESSMENT 2020 Deforestation accentuates soil erosion (soil
(FRA 2020) REPORT degradation).
Roots of trees and plants bind the soil particles
o FRA is released by the United Nations Food &
and regulate the flow of water, thus saving soil
Agriculture Organization (FAO).
from erosion. Deforestation makes soil
o FRA 2020 is based on the assessment of more
vulnerable to wind and water erosion.
than 60 forest-related variables in 236 countries
The large-scale damage to the soil in Shivalik
and territories in the period of 1990 2020.
range, the Chos of Punjab, the ravines of
KEY POINTS Chambal valley are due to deforestation.

o Total forest area MAJOR CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION

4.06 billion hectares (bha), which is 31% of the
Shifting cultivation This agricultural practice
total land area. This area is equivalent to 0.52
has become unsustainable due to rapid increase
hectares per person.
in population pressure in the forested areas.
o Top countries in forest cover the Russian
Federation, Brazil, Canada, the United States of Development project & Mining Opencast
America and China constituted more than 54% of mining has resulted in deforestation all over the
world.
o Forest loss: According to the report, the world Plantation Boom Increase in demand for cocoa,
has lost 178 million hectares (mha) of forest coffee, tea, sugar, palm oil, rubber etc. have
since 1990, an area the size of Libya. resulted in deforestation in the tropical
o Decline in rate of forest loss: The rate of net rainforests.
forest loss decreased substantially during the Raw Materials Wood is used as a raw material
period of 1990 2020. This is due to a reduction in by various industries for making paper, plywood,
deforestation in some countries, plus increases in furniture, match sticks, boxes, crates, packing
forest area in others through afforestation and cases, etc.
the natural expansion of forests. Industries also obtain their raw materials from
o Areas that witnessed forest loss: Africa had the plants such as drugs, scents and perfumes, resin,
largest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010 gums, waxes, turpentine, latex and rubber,
2020, at 3.9 mha, followed by South America, at tannins, alkaloids, bees wax.
2.6 mha. Other Causes
o Areas that witnessed forest gain: Asia had the Deforestation also results from overgrazing,
highest net gain of forest area in 2010 2020, agriculture, mining, urbanisation, flood, fire, pest,
followed by Oceania and Europe. However, diseases, defence and communication activities.
Oceania experienced net losses of forest area in
the decades 1990 2000 and 2000 2010. EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION
o Types of forest loss: The largest proportion of the
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Soil Erosion
boreal, temperate and subtropical.
Biodiversity Losses
o Plantation forest cover is 131 mha, about 3% of
Floods
the global forest area.
o Protected forest areas worldwide estimate Deforestation affects the biota and neighbouring
around 726 mha. South America has the highest ecosystems, soil erosion, land degradation,
share of forests in protected areas, at 31%. pollution and scarce.
Deforestation results in an immediate lowering of
groundwater level (low percolation due to the
The population explosion has created pressure on quick surface runoff on barren lands) and in long-
forest land and resources, and this causes term reduction of precipitation.
deforestation.

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 GLOBAL MEASURES TO CONSERVE FORESTS
UNITED NATIONS PROGRAMME ON REDUCING EMISSIONS FROM DEFORESTATION & FOREST
DEGRADATION (UN-REDD) & REDD+

UN-REDD REDD +

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest

United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions
degradation and the role of conservation,
from Deforestation and Forest Degradation.
sustainable management of forests and
Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.
Enhancement of forest carbon stocks in
Membership: 64 Partner Countries.
developing countries (REDD+)

It is a multilateral collaborative programme of: Voluntary climate change mitigation approach

o Food and Agriculture Organization of the that has been developed by Parties to the UNFCCC.
United Nations (FAO), It creates a financial value for the carbon stored in
o United Nations Development Programme forests by offering incentives for developing
(UNDP) countries to reduce emissions from forested lands
o United Nations Environment Programme and invest in low-carbon paths to sustainable
(UNEP). development.
It was created in 2008 in response to the UNFCCC Developing countries would receive results-based
decisions on the Bali Action Plan and REDD at payments for results-based actions.
COP-13.

It partners with developing countries to

o Direct support to the design and
implementation of National REDD+ REDD+ goes beyond simply deforestation and
Programmes; forest degradation.
o Complementary tailored support to national It aims to incentivize developing countries to
REDD+ actions; reduce emissions from deforestation and forest
o Technical capacity building support through degradation, conserve forest carbon stocks,
sharing of expertise, common approaches, sustainably manage forests and enhance forest
analyses, methodologies, tools, data, best carbon stocks.
practices and facilitated South-South
knowledge sharing.

In addition to the UN-REDD Programme, other initiatives assisting countries that are engaged in REDD+ include
the the Global Environment Facility(GEF), the Green Climate
Fund(GCF) etc.

(Please Refer to Previous Handouts for the Notes on FCPF, GEF & GCF )

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 INDIAN MEASURES TO CONSERVE FOREST
ACT INDIAN FOREST ACT, 1927

To consolidate laws relating to forests, the transit of forest produces and the duty
that can be levied on timber and other forest produce.
Objective/ Defines the procedure to be followed for declaring an area to be a Reserved Forest,
Basic Features a Protected Forest, or a Village Forest.

It defines what is a forest offence, what are the acts prohibited inside a Reserved
Forest, and penalties leviable on violation of the provisions of the Act.

It is the power of a State Government to issue a notification under the Act declaring
Power Distribution the land with details of its location, area, and boundary description, into a Reserved
Forest.

Was largely based on previous Indian Forest Acts implemented under the British.

In the colonial era, the British diverted abundant forest wealth of the nation to meet
Evolution & Comparison their economic needs by depriving the rights of forest dwellers.
with other acts
Therefore, procedure for settlement rights was provided under the Indian Forest
Act, 1927, so that they could easily exploit the Indian forests.

Concept Introduced Reserved Forest, a Protected Forest, or a Village Forest.

ACT FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT,1980(Amendment 1988)

It was enacted to consolidate the law related to forest, the transit of forest produces
and the duty livable on timber and other forest produce.
Objective/
The Act deals with the four categories of the forests, namely Reserved Forests,
Basic features Village Forests, Protected Forests & Private Forests.

Under the provisions of this Act, prior approval of the Central Government is
Power distribution
required for diversion of forestlands for non-forest purposes.

Ministry Involved Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

Evolution & Comparison The Act is conservation oriented and does not recognize the rights of Forest
with other acts Dwellers.

Reserved Forest A state may declare forestlands or waste lands as reserved

forest and may sell the produce from these forests. Any unauthorized felling
of trees quarrying, grazing and hunting in reserved forests is punishable with a
fine or imprisonment, or both.
Concept Introduced
Village Forests Reserved forests assigned to a village community are called
village forests.

Protected Forests The state governments are empowered to designate

protected forests and may prohibit the felling of trees, quarrying and the

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 removal of forest produce from these forests. The preservation of protected
forests is enforced through rules, licenses and criminal prosecution.

To slow deforestation caused by the conversion of forestlands to non-forest

Application
purposes.

THE SCHEDULED TRIBES AND OTHER TRADITIONAL FOREST DWELLERS

ACT
(RECOGNITION OF FOREST RIGHTS)ACT, 2006

The act recognizes and vest the forest rights and occupation in Forest land in
forest Dwelling Scheduled Tribes (FDST) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(OTFD) who have been residing in such forests for generations.
The act also establishes the responsibilities and authority for sustainable use,
Objective/ conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological balance of FDST and
Basic Features OTFD.
It strengthens the conservation regime of the forests while ensuring livelihood
and food security of the FDST and OTFD.
It seeks to rectify colonial injustice to the FDST and OTFD who are integral to the
very survival and sustainability of the forest ecosystem.

The Gram Sabha is the authority to initiate the process for determining the nature
Power Distribution
and extent of Individual Forest Rights (IFR) or Community Forest Rights (CFR).

Ministry Involved The Ministry of Tribal Affairs

Evolution &
A shift from absolute protection of forest to a people-centric conservation
Comparison with
approach by recognizing traditional rights of forest dwellers.
other acts
The ministry has exempted linear projects such as roads, railway lines,
Exemptions transmission lines passing through the area from taking permissions of gram
sabhas.
The act identifies four types of rights:
o Title rights: It gives FDST and OTFD the right to ownership to land farmed by
tribal or forest dwellers subject to a maximum of 4 hectares. Ownership is
only for land that is actually being cultivated by the concerned family and no
new lands will be granted.
o Use rights: The rights of the dwellers extend to extracting Minor Forest
Produce, grazing areas, to pastoralist routes, etc.
o Relief and development rights: To rehabilitation in case of illegal eviction or
Concept Introduced forced displacement and to basic amenities, subject to restrictions for forest
protection.
o Forest Management Rights: It includes the right to protect, regenerate or
conserve or manage any community forest resource which they have been
traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.
Act defines a Minor Forest Produce (MFP) as all non-timber forest produce of
plant origin and includes bamboo, brushwood, stumps, canes, Tusser, cocoon,
honey, waxes, Lac, tendu/Kendu leaves, medicinal plants and herbs, roots, tuber
and the like.
This Act is crucial to the rights of millions of tribals and other forest dwellers in
different parts of our country as it provides for the restitution of deprived forest
Application
rights across India, including both individual rights to cultivated land in forestland
and community rights over common property resources.

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 ACT COMPENSATORY AFFORESTATION FUND (CAF) ACT,2016

Objective/ The Act was enacted to manage the funds collected for compensatory
Basic Features afforestation

Permanent Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning

Authority (CAMPA)

It creates Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF) by the Ministry of

Environment and Forests

National Compensatory Afforestation Fund and a State Compensatory

Afforestation Fund under each State
Institutions Created
The National Fund will be under the central government and managed
by a National Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and
Planning Authority (CAMPA).

The central government will appoint a State CAMPA in each state.

The State CAMPA will be responsible for the management of the State
Fund

As per the act, 90% of the CAF money is to be given to the states while 10%
Power distribution
is to be retained by the Centre.

Ministry Involved Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

Compensatory afforestation means that every time forest land is diverted

Concept Introduced for non-forest purposes such as mining or industry, the user agency pays
for planting forests over an equal area of non-forest land, or when such
land is not available, twice the area of degraded forest land.
The funds can be used for treatment of catchment areas, assisted natural
generation, forest management, wildlife protection and management,
Application relocation of villages from protected areas, managing human-wildlife
conflicts, training and awareness generation, supply of wood saving
devices and allied activities.

ACT NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL ACT, 2010

Enables creation of National Green Tribunal(NGT) to handle the

expeditious disposal of the cases pertaining to environmental issues.

The specialized architecture of the NGT will facilitate fast track resolution
Objective/basic features of environmental cases and provide a boost to the implementation of many
sustainable development measures.

NGT is mandated to dispose the cases within six months of their respective
appeals.

National Green Tribunal

Institutions Created The Tribunal's dedicated jurisdiction in environmental matters shall provide
speedy environmental justice and help reduce the burden of litigation in the
higher courts.

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 The Tribunal shall not be bound by the procedure laid down under the Code
of Civil Procedure, 1908, but shall be guided by principles of natural justice.
The Chairperson of the NGT is a retired Judge of the Supreme Court

Ministry Involved Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.

Evolution & Comparison with provision of Article 21, which

other acts assures the citizens of India the right to a healthy environment.

i.e., a community at large is affected, damage to

Application
activ

NATIONAL REDD+ STRATEGY INDIA reflected in monitoring, including small scale

projects at JFMC/ EDC level, vi. to strengthen
Complying with the UNFCCC decisions on REDD+, coordination among sectors and stakeholders
India has prepared its National REDD+ having direct and indirect impacts on land use
STRATEGY and forestry.
f) To lay emphasis on achieving various thematic
The Strategy builds upon existing national elements of SMF by addressing the drivers of
circumstances which have been updated in line deforestation and forest degradation,
afforestation of degraded areas, protection
measures, etc. while implementing the REDD+
Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to programmes.
UNFCCC. g) To improve and enhance supply of forest
The strategy seeks to address drivers of products and ecological and environmental
deforestation and forest degradation and also services of the forests for comprehensively
developing a roadmap for enhancement of forest benefitting the society leading to increased
carbon stocks and achieving sustainable growing stock and the stored carbon in the
management of forests through REDD+ actions. forest.
h) To develop appropriate mechanism for
OBJECTIVES OF NATIONAL REDD+ POLICY:
channelizing REDD+ funding and transferring the
a) To create REDD+ architecture at National and accrued financial benefits to the communities in
Sub-National levels to support REDD+ actions. a fair, equitable and transparent manner.
b) To develop an appropriate REDD+ strategy and i) To provide adequate technical and financial
implementation frameworks at a nested level to resources to implement various phases and
represent the diversity of forests in the country. action plan of REDD+.
c) To manage the forests for a bouquet of
ecosystem services, including but not limited to JOINT FOREST M ANAGEMENT (JFM)
biodiversity, that are flowing to local JFM is an initiative to institutionalize participatory
communities from the forests and not for carbon governance
services only, involving the local communities living close to the
d) To safeguard the rights and interests of local forest.
communities including improvement of their This is a co-management institution to develop
livelihood. partnerships between forest fringe communities
e) To encourage and incentivize local communities and the Forest Department (FD) on the basis of
for their role in conservation by transferring the mutual trust and jointly defined roles and
financial benefits accrued on account of REDD+ responsibilities with regard to forest protection
to them based on their performance, as is and regeneration.

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JFM started in consonance with the National SOCIAL FORESTRY SCHEME CAN BE CATEGORIZED
Forest Policy 1988, which has recognized the INTO GROUPS
importance of involving the local communities
Farm forestry
and the government has issued necessary
resolutions and guidelines subsequently to o Individual farmers are being encouraged to plant
initiate such institutions and strengthen it trees on their own farmland to meet the
further. domestic needs of the family.
Most of the states in India have adopted JFM and o Non-commercial farm forestry is the main thrust
issued resolutions permitting such partnership as of most of the social forestry projects in the
per the prescribed guidelines though the country today.
institutional structure varies across the states. o It is to provide shade for the agricultural crops; as
Under JFM, both forest departments and local wind shelters; soil conservation or to use
communities come to an agreement to form the wasteland.
committee to manage and protect forests by
Community forestry
sharing the costs and benefits.
Forest departments take the initiative to form o It is the raising of trees on community land and
such committees directly by talking to the local not on private land as in farm forestry. All these
community or through the help of NGOs working programmes aim to provide for the entire
in specific areas. community and not for any individual.
NGOs are also involved for capacity building, o The government has the responsibility of
information dissemination, monitoring and providing seedlings, fertilizer but the community
evaluation and often act as the facilitators in has to take responsibility of protecting the trees.
constituting these participatory institutions.
Extension forestry
One of the key objectives of the JFM programme
is the rehabilitation of degraded forestlands with o Planting of trees on the sides of roads, canals and
involving Forest Protection railways, along with planting on wastelands is
Committees. known as ing the
JFM brings a win-win situation for both forest boundaries of forests.
departments as well as the local communities in o Under this project there has been creation of
terms of greater access to minor forest produces wood lots in the village common lands,
from these regenerated forests. government wastelands and panchayat lands.

SOCIAL FORESTRY Recreational forestry

The National Commission on Agriculture, o Raising of trees with the major objective of
Government recreation alone.

Agroforestry
It was then that India embarked upon a social
forestry project with the aim of taking the o In agroforestry, silvicultural practices are
pressure off the forests and making use of all combined with agricultural crops like legumes,
unused and fallow land. along with orchard farming and livestock
Government forest areas that are close to human ranching on the same piece of land.
settlement and have been degraded over the o It is defined as a sustainable land-use system that
years due to human activities needed to be maintains or increases the total yield by
afforested. combining food crop together with forest tree
Social forestry also aims at raising and livestock ranching on the same unit of land.
plantations by the common man so as to meet o This method of forestry helps in increasing the
the growing demand for food, fuel wood, fodder, productivity, economic benefits, social outcomes
fibre and fertilizer etc, thereby reducing the and the ecological goods and services.
pressure on the traditional forest area.

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 Bee
Handout 7

BIODIVERSITY & SPECIES CONSERVATION I

BASICS OF BIODIVERSITY
FACTS ensure that some species survive drastic changes
and thus carry-on desirable genes.
o According to IUCN (2004), the total number of
Species that differ from one another in their
plant and animal species described so far is
genetic makeup do not interbreed in nature.
slightly more than 1.5 million. Estimates place the
Closely-related species have in common much of
global species diversity at several million. A large
their hereditary characteristics. For instance,
proportion of the species waiting to be
about 98.4 per cent of the genes of humans and
discovered are in the tropics.
chimpanzees are the same.
o More than 70% of all the species recorded are
animals.
2. SPECIES DIVERSITY
o While plants (including algae, fungi, bryophytes,
It is the ratio of one species population over
gymnosperms and angiosperms) comprise no
total number of organisms across all species in
more than 22% of the total.
the given biome
o Among animals, insects are the most species-rich
diversity, and
taxonomic group, making up more than 70% of
present.
the total.
Species diversity is a measure of the diversity
o The number of fungi species in the world is more
within an ecological community that
than the combined total of the species of fishes,
incorporates both species richness (the number
amphibians, reptiles and mammals.
of species in a community) and the evenness of
Biological Diversity refers to "the variability among species.
living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, In general, species diversity decreases as we
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and move away from the equator towards the poles.
the ecological complexes of which they are part: this With very few exceptions, tropics (latitudinal
includes diversity within species, between species and range of 23.5° N to 23.5° S) harbour more species
of ecosystems." than temperate or polar areas.
UNCBD Bioprospecting: nations endowed with rich
biodiversity explore molecular, genetic and
BIODIVERSITY species-level diversity to derive products of
economic importance.
Biodiversity is the variety of plant and animal life in
the world or in a particular habitat.
3. ECOLOGICAL/COMMUNITY DIVERSITY
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY Biodiversity is Ecological diversity refers to different types of
considered to exist at three levels: genetics, species, habitats. A habitat is the cumulative factor of the
and ecosystems. climate, vegetation and geography of a region.
It includes various biological zones, like a lake,
1. GENETIC DIVERSITY
desert, coast, estuaries, wetlands, mangroves,
Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic coral reefs etc.
characteristics in the genetic makeup of a
At the ecosystem level, India, for instance, with
species.
its deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs,
A single species might show high diversity at the wetlands, estuaries, and alpine meadows has a
genetic level (E.g. Homo sapiens: Chinese, Indian greater ecosystem diversity than a Scandinavian
American, African etc.). country like Norway.
India has more than 50,000 genetically different
strains of rice and 1,000 varieties of mango. MEASUREMENT OF BIODIVERSITY
Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to
Biodiversity is measured by two major
changing environments. This diversity aims to
components: Species Richness & Species Evenness.

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SPECIES RICHNESS SERVICES PROVIDED BY BIODIVERSITY
It is the measure of the number of species found Biodiversity provides a number of natural services for
in a community. human beings:
SPECIES EVENNESS (a) Ecosystem Services
Species evenness is a measure of the relative Protection of water resources
abundance (proportion) of the different species Soils formation and protection
making up the richness of an area. Nutrient storage and recycling
E.g.: Forest A has 4 tigers, 5 deer and 6 rabbits and Pollution breakdown and absorption
another sample forest B has 1 tiger, 6 deer and 8 Contribution to climate stability
rabbits. Both samples have the same richness (3 Maintenance of ecosystems
species species richness) and the same total Recovery from unpredictable events
number of individuals (15). However, the sample (b) Biological Services
forest A has more evenness than the sample
forest B. Food
Medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs
Low evenness indicates that a few species
Wood products
dominate the site.
Ornamental plants
Breeding stocks
Diversity in genes, species and ecosystems

(c) Social Services

Research, education and monitoring

Recreation and tourism
Cultural values

DEFINITIONS
ALPHA DIVERSITY ENDEMISM & COSMOPOLITANISM
It refers to the diversity within a particular area Endemism is the ecological state of a species
or ecosystem and is usually expressed by the number being unique to a defined geographic location,
of species (i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem. such as an island, nation, country or other
defined zone, or habitat type.
BETA DIVERSITY
Organisms that are indigenous to a place are not
It is a comparison of diversity between ecosystems, endemic to it if they are also found elsewhere.
usually measured as the change in the amount of There are more than 200000 species in India of
species between the ecosystems. which several are confined to India (endemic).
A particular type of animal or plant may be
GAMMA DIVERSITY
endemic to a zone, a state or a country. The
It is a measure of the overall diversity for the extreme opposite of endemism is cosmopolitan
different ecosystems within a region. distribution.

KEYSTONE SPECIES

Keystone species is a species whose addition to

or loss from an ecosystem leads to major
changes in the occurrence of at least one other
species.

Certain species in an ecosystem is considered

more important in determining the presence of
many other species in that ecosystem.

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 All top predators (Tiger, Lion, Crocodile, that environmental activists use to achieve
Elephant) are considered as keystone species conservation goals well beyond just those
because they regulate all other animal population species. Examples include the Giant Panda, the
indirectly. Hence top predators are given much Bengal Tiger, the Blue Whale etc
consideration in conservation.
INDICATOR SPECIES
If keystone species is lost, it will result in the Indicator species is a species whose presence
degradation of the whole ecosystem. indicates the presence of a set of other species
and whose absence indicates the lack of that
For E.g.: certain plant species (ebony tree, Indian- entire set of species.
laurel) exclusively depends upon bats for its An indicator species is any biological species that
pollination. If the bat population is reduced, then defines a trait or characteristic of the
regeneration of particular plants becomes more environment.
difficult. For E.g. a species may delineate an ecoregion or
indicate an environmental condition such as a
disease outbreak, pollution, species competition
or climate change.
Indicator species can be among the most
sensitive species in a region, and sometimes act
as an early warning to monitoring biologists.
Many indicator species of the ocean systems are
fish, invertebrates, periphyton, macrophytes and
specific species of ocean birds (like the Atlantic
Puffin).
Amphibian indicates chemicals, global warming
and air pollution.
Lichens are indicators of air quality and are
sensitive to sulphur dioxide.
UMBRELLA SPECIES

Umbrella species is a wide-ranging species

whose requirements include those of many
other species.
FOUNDATION SPECIES

Foundation species is a dominant Primary

Producer in an ecosystem both in terms of
abundance and influence. Example: kelp in kelp
forests and corals in coral reefs.

FLAGSHIP SPECIES

A flagship species is a species chosen to

represent an environmental cause, such as an
ecosystem in need of conservation.

These species are chosen for their vulnerability,

attractiveness or distinctiveness in order to
engender support and acknowledgement from
the public at large.

E.g.: Indian tiger, African elephant, giant panda

of China, the leatherback sea turtle, etc.

Charismatic Megafauna These are large

animal species with widespread popular appeal

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The protection of umbrella species high percentage of plant life found nowhere
automatically extends protection to other else on the planet. A hotspot, in other words,
species. is irreplaceable.
These are species selected for making b) It has to have lost at least 70% of its original
conservation related decisions, typically because habitat. (It must have 30% or less of its
protecting these species indirectly protects the original natural vegetation). In other words, it
many other species that make up the ecological must be threatened.
community of its habitat. In 1999, CI identified 25 biodiversity hotspots in

BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS
Biodiversity hotspots are regions with high
species richness and a high degree of endemism. s Biologically Richest and Most
The British biologist Norman Myers coined the
The 35 biodiversity hotspots cover 2.3% of the
biogeographic region characterized both by , yet more than 50% of the
exceptional levels of plant endemism and by
serious levels of habitat loss. vertebrate species are endemic to these areas.
Conservation International (CI) In 2011, the Forests of East Australia region was
hotspots and in 1996, the organization made the identified as the 35th biodiversity hotspot.
decision to undertake a reassessment of the
hotspots concept.
According to CI, to qualify as a hotspot a region
must meet two strict criteria:
a) It must contain at least 1,500 species of
vascular plants
as endemics which is to say, it must have a

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 BIODIVERSITY OF INDIA
FACTS BIOMES OF INDIA
India is recognized as one of the mega-diverse The term biome means the main groups of
countries, rich in biodiversity and associated plants and animals living in areas of certain
traditional knowledge. Climate Patterns.
India has 23.39% of its geographical area under It includes the way in which animals, vegetation
forest and tree cover. and soil interact together. The plants and animals
With just 2.4% of the land area, India accounts for of that area have adapted to that environment.
nearly 7% of the recorded species even while The five biomes of India are:
supporting almost 18% of the human population. 1. Tropical Humid Forests
In terms of species richness, India 2. Tropical Dry or Deciduous Forests (including
ranks seventh in mammals, ninth in birds Monsoon Forests)
and fifth in reptiles. 3. Warm Deserts & Semi-Deserts
In terms of endemism of vertebrate groups, 4. Coniferous forests
tenth in birds with 69 5. Alpine Meadows.
species, fifth in reptiles with 156 species
and seventh in amphibians with 110 species. BIO-GEOGRAPHIC ZONES
Biogeography deals with the geographical
world average of 11%. distribution of plants and animals.
INDIA REPRESENTS Biogeographic zones were used as a basis for
planning wildlife protected areas in India.
There are 10 biogeographic zones which are
Five Biomes distinguished clearly in India. They are as follows:
Ten Bio-geographic Zones 1) Trans-Himalayas
2) Himalayas
REALMS
3) Desert
Biogeographic realms are large spatial regions 4) Semi-arid
within which ecosystems share a Broadly Similar 5) Western Ghats
Biota. 6) Deccan Peninsula
A realm is a continent or sub-continent sized area 7) Gangetic plain
with unifying features of geography and fauna & 8) North-east India
flora. 9) Islands
In world, Eight terrestrial biogeographic realms 10) Coasts
are typically recognised. They are: BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS IN INDIA
2) Nearctic Realm
3) Palaearctic Realm a) Himalaya Includes the entire Indian Himalayan
4) Afrotropic Realm region (and that falling in Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal,
5) Indo-Malayan Realm Bhutan, China and Myanmar).
6) Oceania Realm b) Indo-Burma Includes entire North-eastern
7) Australian Realm India, except Assam and Andaman group of
8) Antarctic Realm Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos,
9) Neotropical Realm Cambodia and southern China)
The Indian region is composed of two realms. c) Western Ghats & Sri Lanka: Includes entire
They are: Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka).
1. Himalayan region represented by Palearctic d) Sundalands Includes Nicobar group of
Realm & Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,
2. Rest of the sub-continent represented by Brunei, Philippines)
Malayan Realm.

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 LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
FACTS o It occurs when wildlife needs overlap with those
of human populations, creating costs to residents
The IUCN Red List (2004) documents the
and wild animals.
extinction of 784 species in the last 500 years.
Some examples of recent extinctions include Causes
Pinta Giant Tortoise, Spix's Macaw, Bramble Cay
Human population growth and encroachment
Melomys, Western Black Rhino etc.
into forest lands.
During the long period (> 3 billion years) since the
origin and diversification of life on earth, there Land use transformation industrialization,
were five episodes of mass extinction of species. infrastructure development, commercial farming
Sixth Extinction (anthropogenic) presently is in etc.
progress with current species extinction rates
Increasing livestock populations and competitive
estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times faster than in
exclusion of wild herbivores.
the pre-human times.
Ecologists warn that if the present trends Growing interest in ecotourism and increasing
continue, nearly half of all the species on earth access to nature reserves.
might be wiped out within the next 100 years.
Abundant distribution of prey in the form of
CAUSE FOR THE LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY livestock on the periphery of forest lands.

There are 4 major causes The Evil Quartet Habitat Increasing wildlife population as a result of
loss, Overexploitation, Alien species & Secondary conservation programmes.
extinction. Climatic factors climate change-induced habitat
I. HABITAT LOSS & FRAGMENTATION destruction.

This is the most important cause of driving Stochastic events (e.g. fire, floods etc.)
animals and plants to extinction. Impacts
Due to the growing human population, wetlands
are being made dry through landfills, as the Crop damage and damage to property
demand for land increases. elephants damage crops and villages.
Natural forests are cleared for industry, Livestock depredation Himalayan snow leopard
agriculture, dams, habitation, recreational sports, preys on goats in the Himalayan region. Farmers
etc. trap and kill snow leopards to save their livestock.
The most dramatic examples of habitat loss come
from tropical rain forests. Injuries and deaths Man eater tigers, are
Once covering more than 14% reported to have injured and killed villagers living
surface, these rain forests now cover no more on the periphery.
than 6 per cent. They are being destroyed fast. Injuries to wildlife leopards and other wild
The Amazon rain forest (it is so huge that it is animals are hacked to death by mobs.

probably millions of species is being cut and Preventive & Mitigation Strategies
cleared for cultivating soya beans or for Artificial and natural Barriers (physical and
conversion to grasslands for raising beef cattle. biological).
MAN-ANIMAL CONFLICT Guarding.
o It refers to the interaction between wild animals Alternative high-cost livestock husbandry
and people and the resultant negative impact on practices
people or their resources, or wild animals or
their habitat. Relocation: voluntary human population
resettlement.

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Waste management systems that restrict wildlife purposes is posing a threat to the indigenous
access to refuse. catfishes in our rivers.

Community-based natural resource management The colonization of tropical Pacific Islands by

schemes (CBNRMS) humans is said to have led to the extinction of
more than 2,000 species of native birds.
II. OVER-EXPLOITATION Some Invasive faunae in India are Eucalyptus in
In the last 500 years, many species extinctions Southern India, Goldfish, House Gecko.

IV. SPECIES EXTINCTION

overexploitation by humans.
Extinction is caused through various processes:
Presently many marine fish populations around
the world are over-harvested, endangering the 1. Deterministic processes that have a cause
continued existence of some commercially and effect. E.g. glaciations, human
important species. interference such as deforestation.

Whales for oil, fish for food, trees for wood, 2. Stochastic processes (chance and random
plants for medicines etc. are being removed by events) that affect the survival and
humans at higher rates than they can be reproduction of individuals. E.g. unexpected
replaced. changes in weather patterns decreased food
supply, disease, increase of competitors,
Excessive cutting of trees, overgrazing, collection predators or parasites, etc. that may act
of firewood, hunting of wild animals for skin (for independently or add to deterministic
example tigers from reserve forests of India), effects.
ivory etc. all result in gradual loss of species.
The impact of these processes will, of course,
III. ALIEN SPECIES INVASIONS depend on the size and degree of genetic
When alien species are introduced diversity and resilience of populations.
unintentionally or deliberately for whatever Co-Extinctions
purpose, some of them turn invasive and cause o When a species becomes extinct, the plant
decline or extinction of indigenous species. and animal species associated with it in an
obligatory way also become extinct.
You must be familiar with the environmental o When a host fish species becomes extinct, its
damage caused and threat posed to our native unique assemblage of parasites also meets
species by invasive weed species like carrot grass the same fate.
(Parthenium), Argemone, Lantana and water o Another example is the case of a coevolved
hyacinth (Eicchornia). plant-pollinator mutualism where extinction
of one invariably leads to the extinction of the
The recent illegal introduction of the African
other.
catfish (Clarias gariepinus) for aquaculture

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 Bff
Handout 8

BIODIVERSITY & SPECIES CONSERVATION II

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Conservation of biological diversity leads to the tiger. This approach is called in in-situ (on site)
conservation of essential ecological diversity and conservation.
preserve the continuity of food chains. In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich
regions are legally protected as Biosphere
BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
Reserves, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserved
The genetic diversity of plants and animals is Forests, Protected Forests, Nature Reserves &
preserved. Gene Sanctuaries.
It ensures the sustainable utilisation of life India now has 18 biosphere reserves, 104
support systems on earth. national parks and 544 wildlife sanctuaries.
It provides a vast knowledge of potential use to
the community. (b) EX-SITU CONSERVATION
A reservoir of wild animals and plants is In this approach, threatened animals and plants
preserved, thus enabling them to be introduced, are taken out from their natural habitat and
if need be, in the surrounding areas. placed in special setting where they can be
Biodiversity conservation assures sustainable protected and given special care.
utilization of potential resources. This is the desirable approach when needs
threatened plants or animals need urgent
MODES OF CONSERVATION measures to save it from extinction.
Zoological Parks, Botanical Gardens, Wildlife
(a) IN-SITU CONSERVATION
Safari Parks & Seed Banks serve this purpose.
In-situ conservation is the on-site conservation of
Now gametes of threatened species can be
genetic resources in natural populations of plant
preserved in viable and fertile condition for long
or animal species.
periods using cryopreservation techniques.
When we conserve and protect the whole
There are many animals that have become extinct
ecosystem, its biodiversity at all levels is
in the wild but continue to be maintained in
protected. E.g. we save the entire forest to save
zoological parks.

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 A) GLOBAL EFFORTS TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY
I. UN CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY storage, transport and use and provides contact
(UN CBD) details for further information.
Advance Informed Agreement (AIA) a country
The Convention on Biological Diversity (a intending to export an LMO for intentional
multilateral treaty) was opened for signature at release into the environment must notify in
the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and writing the Party of import before the first
entered into effect in 1993. proposed export takes place. Final consent &
The convention called upon all nations to take summary of the risk assessment must be
appropriate measures for conservation of conveyed to the central information system, the
biodiversity and sustainable utilisation of its Biosafety Clearing-House (BCH).
benefits. LMOs- Food or Feed or Processing (LMO-FFP)
o UN CBD is a legally binding convention that Under the procedure for LMOs-FFP, Parties that
recognized for the first time, that the decide to approve and place such LMOs on the
conservation of biological diversity market are required to make their decision and
part of relevant information, including the risk
the development process. The agreement covers assessment reports, publicly available through
all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources. the BCH.
o 195 UN states and the European Union are
parties to the convention. B) NAGOYA KUALA LUMPUR SUPPLEMENTARY
o All UN member states, with the exception of the PROTOCOL ON LIABILITY AND REDRESS.
United States, have ratified the treaty. The Cartagena Protocol is reinforced by this
o The Convention has three main goals: Supplementary Protocol.
1) conservation of biological diversity (or It specifies response measures to be taken in the
biodiversity); event of damage to biodiversity resulting from
2) sustainable use of its components; LMOs.
3) fair & equitable sharing of benefits arising
The competent authority in a Party to the
from genetic resources.
Supplementary Protocol must require the person
A) CARTAGENA PROTOCOL ON BIOSAFETY in control of the LMO (operator) to take the
response measures or it may implement such
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is an measures itself and recover any costs incurred
additional agreement to the Convention on from the operator.
Biological Diversity.
It clearly recognizes twin aspects of modern C) NAGOYA PROTOCOL ON ACCESS &BENEFIT
biotechnology to protect human health and the SHARING (ABS)
environment from the possible adverse effects It provides a transparent legal framework for the
of the products of modern biotechnology(LMO effective implementation measures in relation to
Living Modified Organisms), that includes: access to genetic resources, benefit-sharing &
a) Access to and transfer of technologies compliance.
b) Appropriate procedures to enhance the
The Nagoya Protocol addresses traditional
safety of biotechnology technologies.
knowledge associated with genetic resources.
The Protocol establishes procedures for Contracting Parties are to take measures to
regulating the import and export of LMOs from
one country to another. consent, and fair and equitable benefit-sharing,
Parties need to ensure that LMOs being shipped keeping in mind community laws and procedures
from one country to another are handled, as well as customary use and exchange.
packaged and transported in a safe manner. By helping to ensure benefit-sharing, the Nagoya
Documentation must clearly identify the LMOs, Protocol creates incentives to conserve and
specifies any requirements for the safe handling, sustainably use genetic resources, and therefore

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 enhances the contribution of biodiversity to o Provide long-term in situ conservation of genetic
development and human well-being. diversity.
o Provide opportunities for education and training.
D) AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS
o Provide appropriate sustainable managements of
It was adopted in May 2002 during the 6th COP of the living resources.
CBD aimed to achieve, by 2010 , a significant o Promote international co-operation.
reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss
UNESCO WORLD NETWORK OF BIOSPHERE
at the global, regional and national level as a
RESERVES (WNBR)
contribution to poverty alleviation and to the
benefit of all life The UNESCO World Network of Biosphere
Unfortunately, we were unable to meet the Reserves (WNBR) covers internationally
target. designated protected areas, each known as
biosphere reserves, that are meant to
Strategic Plan For Biodiversity 2011-2020
demonstrate a balanced relationship between
In the 10th COP, held in 2010, in Nagoya, Japan, CBD people and nature (e.g. encourage sustainable
adopted a revised and updated Strategic Plan for development).
Biodiversity, including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, They are created under the Man and the
for the 2011- 2020 period. These targets include: Biosphere Programme (MAB).
Biosphere reserves are areas comprising
Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems.
of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity
Each reserve promotes solutions reconciling the
across government and society.
conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable
Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on
use.
biodiversity and promote sustainable use.
Biosphere reserves are nominated by national
Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of
governments and remain under the sovereign
biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species
jurisdiction of the states where they are located.
and genetic diversity.
Their status is internationally recognized.
Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from
It promotes North-South, South-South and
biodiversity and ecosystem services.
South-North-South collaboration and represents
Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation
a unique tool for international cooperation
through participatory planning, knowledge
through the exchange of experiences and know-
management and capacity building.
how, capacity-building and the promotion of best
II. UNESCO MAB & WORLD NETWORK OF practices among Biosphere Reserves.
BIOSPHERE RESERVES (WNBR) The World Network of Biosphere Reserves
currently counts 714 sites in 129 countries all
o Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) is an over the world, including 21 transboundary sites.
intergovernmental scientific program, launched Biosphere Reserves involve local communities
in 1971 by UNESCO, that aims to establish a and all interested stakeholders in planning and
scientific basis for the improvement of management.
relationships between people and their Functions They integrate three main
environments. "functions":
Aim 1) Conservation of biodiversity and cultural
diversity
o Studying the effects of human interference and 2) Economic development that is socio-
pollution on the biotic and abiotic components of culturally and environmentally sustainable
ecosystems. 3) Logistic support, underpinning development
o Conservation the ecosystems for the present as through research, monitoring, education and
well as future. training
Main objects of MAB programme are to: Zones of Biosphere Reserves The three
functions are pursued through the Biosphere
o Conserve representative samples of ecosystem.
Reserves' three main zones:

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1) CORE AREAS III. UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITES
It comprises a strictly protected zone that
contributes to the conservation of landscapes,
ecosystems, species and genetic variation. or objects inscribed on the UNESCO World
The core areas are freed of all human activities.
The sites are designated as having outstanding
It has the legal status of a national park or
universal value under the Convention concerning
wildlife sanctuary.
the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Collection of minor forest produce, grazing, and
Heritage.
other human disturbances are not allowed.
This Convention, which was adopted by the
UNESCO in 1972 (and enforced in 1975) provides
2) BUFFER ZONES
a framework for international cooperation in
It surrounds or adjoins the core area(s) and is
preserving and protecting cultural treasures and
used for activities compatible with sound
natural areas throughout the world. The first list
ecological practices that can reinforce scientific
of World Heritage state was published in 1978.
research, monitoring, training and education.
The convention defines the kind of sites which
It has Twin objectives:
can be considered for inscription of the World
o providing habitat supplement to spill
heritage list (ancient monuments, museums,
overpopulation of wild animals from core
biodiversity and geological heritage,), and sets
area.
out the duties of the State.
o provide site-specific co-developmental inputs
Parties in identifying potential sites and their role
to surrounding villages for relieving their
in protecting them.
impact on core area.
Natural heritage sites are restricted to those
Collection of minor forest produce and grazing
natural areas that:
by tribals is allowed on a sustainable basis.
1) furnish outstanding examples of the Earth's
The Forest Rights Act passed by the Indian
record of life or its geologic processes.
government in 2006 recognises the rights of
2) provide excellent examples of ongoing
some forest dwelling communities in forest
ecological and biological evolutionary
areas.
processes.
3) contain natural phenomena that are rare,
3) TRANSITION AREA
unique, superlative, or of outstanding beauty
The transition area is where communities foster
or furnish habitats or rare endangered
socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable
animals or plants or are sites of exceptional
economic and human activities.

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Nominated sites must be of "outstanding Transboundary Ramsar Sites
universal value" and meet at least one of the
o Contracting Parties are designating their new and
criteria below.
existing Ramsar Sites as Transboundary Ramsar
Sites.
IV. RAMSAR CONVENTION ON WETLANDS
o These are ecologically coherent, shared wetlands
International treaty the conservation and extending across national borders, which are
sustainable use of wetlands managed collaboratively.
It is also known as the Convention on Wetlands.
MONTREUX RECORD
It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran.
The Convention was signed on 2nd of February The Montreux Record is a register of wetland
1971. The 2nd of February each year is World sites on the List of Wetlands of International
Wetlands Day. Importance where changes in ecological
Number of parties to the convention (COP) is170. character have occurred, are occurring, or are
At the centre of the Ramsar philosophy is the likely to occur as a result of technological
wise use developments, pollution or other human
Wise use maintenance of ecological character interference.
within the context of sustainable development. It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List.
Wetlands are indispensable for the countless International Organization Partners (IOP)

provide ranging from freshwater supply, food and The Ramsar Convention works closely with six
building materials, and biodiversity, flood organisations known as International Organization
control, groundwater recharge, and climate Partners (IOPs). These are:
change mitigation.
1) Birdlife International
2) International Union for Conservation of
the last century.
Nature (IUCN)
The Convention uses a broad definition of
3) International Water Management Institute
wetlands. It includes all lakes and rivers,
(IWMI)
underground aquifers, swamps and marshes, wet
4) Wetlands International
grasslands, peatland, oases, estuaries, deltas and
5) WWF
tidal flats, mangroves and other coastal areas,
6) International Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust
coral reefs, and all human-made sites such as fish-
(WWT)
ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs and salt pans

RAMSAR SITE V. CITES

At the time of joining the Convention, each CITES (the Convention on International Trade in
Contracting Party undertakes to designate at Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is
least one wetland site for inclusion in the List of an international agreement between
Wetlands of International Importance. governments.
the List Its aim is to ensure that international trade in
specimens of wild animals and plants does not
the steps necessary to ensure that its ecological threaten their survival.
character is maintained. Annually, international wildlife trade is estimated
There are over 2,300 Ramsar Sites on the to be worth billions of dollars and to include
territories of 170 Ramsar Contracting Parties hundreds of millions of plant and animal
across the world. specimens.
The countries with the most Sites are the United Because the trade in wild animals and plants
Kingdom with 170 and Mexico with 142. crosses borders between countries, the effort to
Bolivia has the largest area under Ramsar regulate it requires international cooperation to
protection. safeguard certain species from over-exploitation.
CITES was conceived in the spirit of such
cooperation.

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 CITES was drafted as a result of a resolution o The CITES Tree Species Programme seeks to
adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of foster economically, socially and environmentally
IUCN (The World Conservation Union). The text of sustainable development. It helps maximizing
the Convention was finally agreed at a meeting of CITES contributions to the UN SDG, notably Goal
representatives of 80 countries in Washington, 15 as it relates to sustainably managing forests
D.C., the United States of America, on 3 March and halting biodiversity loss.
1973, and on 1 July 1975 CITES entered in force.
It is administered by UNEP. MONITORING THE ILLEGAL KILLING OF ELEPHANTS
Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties (MIKE)
in other words they have to implement the
o The CITES Monitoring the Illegal Killing of
Convention it does not take the place of
Elephants (MIKE) Programme is a site-based
national laws. Rather it provides a framework to
system designed to monitor trends in the illegal
be respected by each Party, which has to adopt
killing of elephants, build management capacity
its own domestic legislation to ensure that CITES
and provide information to help range States
is implemented at the national level.
make appropriate management and
CITES works by subjecting international trade in
enforcement decisions.
specimens of selected species to certain controls.
o At the core of the MIKE Programme is the site-
All import, export, re-export and introduction
based monitoring of elephant mortality. When an
from the sea of species covered by the
elephant carcass is found, local site personnel try
Convention has to be authorized through a
to establish and record the cause of death and
licensing system.
other details.
The species covered by CITES are listed in 3 o One of the major functions of the analysis of this
Appendices, according to the degree of information is to provide a reliable, robust and
protection they need: impartial information base to support discussions
Appendix I includes species threatened and decision making on elephant conservation
with extinction. Trade in specimens of these and management.
species is permitted only in exceptional
circumstances. V. INTERNATIONAL CONSORTIUM ON
Appendix II includes species not necessarily COMBATING WILDLIFE CRIME (ICCWC)
threatened with extinction, but in which
trade must be controlled in order to avoid o ICCWC is the collaborative effort of five inter-
utilization incompatible with their survival. governmental organizations working to bring
Appendix III -- contains species that are coordinated support to the national wildlife law
protected in at least one country, which has enforcement agencies and to the sub-regional
asked other CITES Parties for assistance in and regional networks that, on a daily basis, act in
controlling the trade. defence of natural resources.
o The ICCWC partners are the Convention on
A specimen of a CITES-listed species may be International Trade in Endangered Species of
imported into or exported (or re-exported) from Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Secretariat,
a State party to the Convention only if the INTERPOL, the United Nations Office on Drugs
appropriate document has been obtained and and Crime, the World Bank and the World
presented for clearance at the port of entry or Customs Organization.
exit. o
systems and provide coordinated support at
TREE SPECIES PROGRAMME
national, regional and international level to
o The CITES tree species programme aims to combat wildlife and forest crime to ensure
provide direct financial assistance to Parties in perpetrators of serious wildlife and forest crime
taking conservation and management measures will face a formidable and coordinated response.
to ensure that their trade in timber, bark,
extracts and other products from CITES-listed
tree species is sustainable, legal and traceable.

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 VI. WWF So, for example, based on their levels of
endemism, Madagascar gets multiple listings,
It is international non-governmental ancient Lake Baikal gets one, and the North
organization working in the field of the American Great Lakes get none.
wilderness preservation and reduction of human
The WWF assigns a conservation status to each
impact on the environment.
ecoregion in the Global 200:
It was formerly named World Wildlife Fund. o critical or endangered;
It is o vulnerable;
with over five million supporters worldwide, o relatively stable or intact.
working in more than 100 countries, supporting Over half of the ecoregions in the Global 200 are
around 1,300 conservation and environmental rated endangered.
projects.
It was founded in 1961 and is headquartered in TX2 PROGRAMME
Gland, Switzerland.
It was launched by World Wildlife Foundation
(WWF) at the 2010 St Petersburg Tiger Summit
environment and build future in which humans
held in Russia.
live in harmony with nature.
Under it, 13 tiger range countries had agreed to
Currently, its work is organized around these six
double the world tiger population by 2022,
areas: food, climate, freshwater, wildlife, forests,
which is the year of tiger in Chinese calendar.
and oceans.
These 13 countries are Bangladesh, Bhutan,
It publishes Living Planet Report every two years
Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR,
since 1998 and it is based on Living Planet Index
Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and
and ecological footprint calculation.
Vietnam.
EARTH HOUR It aims at driving political momentum to ensure
tigers remain top priority for world leaders,
Earth Hour is a worldwide movement organized professionalise wildlife protection by training
by the World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF). rangers, developing conservation standards
The event is held annually encouraging (CA|TS) and technology (SMART) to achieve zero
individuals, communities, and businesses to turn poaching, tackle illegal wildlife trade through
off nonessential electric lights, for one hour, partnership with TRAFFIC, focus efforts in key
from 8:30 to 9:30 p.m. on a specific day towards tiger landscapes and ensure there is space for
the end of March, as a symbol of commitment to both tigers and people in future.
the planet.
It was started as a lights-off event in Sydney, CONSERVATION ASSURED| TIGER STANDARDS
Australia, in 2007. Since then, it has grown to CA|TS is a set of criteria which allows tiger sites
engage more than 7,000 cities and towns across
to check if their management will lead to
187 countries and territories to raise awareness successful tiger conservation.
for energy consumption and effects on the
CA|TS is organised under seven pillars and 17
environment.
elements of critical management activity.
Earth Hour 2020 is scheduled for March 28, from
CA|TS was developed by tiger and protected area
8:30 pm to 9:30 pm.
experts. Officially launched in 2013, CA|TS is an
GLOBAL 200 important part of Tx2, the global goal to double
wild tiger numbers by the year 2022.
The Global 200 is the list of ecoregions identified
by WWF, the global conservation organization, as (standards not yet attained) then, when all
priorities for conservation. required
According to WWF, an ecoregion is defined as a (standards achieved). An approved site has
"relatively large unit of land or water containing a achieved excellence in tiger site management.
characteristic set of natural communities that Sites are evaluated through an assessment and
share a large majority of their species dynamics, independent review process.
and environmental conditions".

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Of the 13 tiger range countries Nepal, India, IUCN has observer and consultative status at the
Bangladesh and Russia have registered and United Nations and plays a role in the
rolled out CA|TS. implementation of several international
conventions on nature conservation and
V. TRAFFIC biodiversity.
TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network. It was involved in establishing the World Wildlife
It is a joint program of WWF and IUCN the Fund for Nature and the World Conservation
International Union for Conservation of Nature. Monitoring Centre.
TRAFFIC works to ensure that trade in wild plants IUCN works on the following themes: business,
and animals is not a threat to the conservation of climate change, economics, ecosystems,
nature. environmental law, forest conservation, gender,
TRAFFIC has gained its greatest reputation from global policy, marine and polar, protected areas,
supporting CITES, the Convention on science and knowledge, social policy, species,
International Trade in Endangered Species. water and world heritage.
Since TRAFFIC was created in 1976 it has helped IUCN works on the basis of four-year programs,
with the evolution of this international wildlife determined by the membership. In the IUCN
trade treaty. Programme for 2017 2020 conserving nature
TRAFFIC focuses on leveraging resources, and biodiversity is linked to sustainable
expertise and awareness of the latest globally development and poverty reduction.
urgent species trade issues such as tiger parts, IUCN states that it aims to have a solid factual
elephant ivory and rhino horn. base for its work and takes into account the
Large scale commercial trade in commodities knowledge held by indigenous groups and other
like timber and fisheries products are also traditional users of natural resources.
addressed and linked to work on developing rapid PROTECTED PLANET
results and policy improvements.
o Protected Planet is the online visual interface for
VI. IUCN the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA).
o It is a joint project of IUCN and UNEP.
The International Union for Conservation of
o It is the most comprehensive global database on
Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for
terrestrial and marine protected areas based on
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources)
data that has been compiled since 1981 working
is an international organization working in the
with governments and NGOs.
field of nature conservation and sustainable use
o The visual interface reconciles governmental,
of natural resources.
expert and general public opinions on protected
It is involved in data gathering and analysis,
areas.
research, field projects, advocacy, and education.
IUCN's mission is to "influence, encourage and
assist societies throughout the world to conserve Caring for Earth = UNEP+IUCN+WWF
nature and to ensure that any use of natural World Conservation Monitoring
resources is equitable and ecologically Centre=UNEP+IUCN
sustainable". Green-list of Ecosystems= IUCN
IUCN was established in 1948. It was previously Red list of threatened species= IUCN
called the International Union for the Protection Red list of Ecosystems= IUCN
of Nature (1948 1956) and the World ECOLEX= UNEP+IUCN+FAO
Conservation Union. World Heritage Outlook= IUCN
IUCN is a membership Union composed of both
government and civil society organisations.
VII. IUCN- RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES
The organization is best known to the wider
public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red Established in 1964, the International Union for
List of Threatened Species, which assesses the
conservation status of species worldwide. Species has
comprehensive information source on the global

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 extinction risk status of animal, fungus & plant
species.
The IUCN Red List is used by government
agencies, wildlife departments, conservation-
related non-governmental organisations (NGOs),
natural resource planners, educational
organisations, students, and the business
community.

IUCN RED LIST CATEGORIES

The IUCN Red List Categories define the

extinction risk of species assessed. Nine
categories extend from NE (Not Evaluated) to EX RED LIST INDEX
(Extinct). o The IUCN Red List Index (RLI) provides a clearer
Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN) & view of real trends within different taxonomic
Vulnerable (VU) species are considered to be groups, and for biodiversity as a whole.
threatened with extinction. o The RLI is available for groups in which all species
have been assessed at least twice.
Beyond reasonable doubt that
Extinct (EX) o Currently, the Index is available for five groups
the species is no longer extant
Survives only in captivity, Birds, Mammals, Amphibians, Corals & Cycads.
Extinct In The cultivation and/or outside o The RLI clearly demonstrates that the status of
Wild (EW) native range, as presumed these five major groups continues to decline.
after exhaustive surveys.
Critically In a particularly and extremely
Endangered (CR) critical state VIII. BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL
Very high risk of extinction in
Endangered (EN) BirdLife International is the
the wild
nature conservation partnership.
Meets one of the 5 red list
criteria and thus considered to Together they are 120 BirdLife Partners
be at high risk of unnatural worldwide.
Vulnerable (VU) BirdLife International strives to conserve birds,
(human-caused) extinction
without further human their habitats and global biodiversity, working
intervention with people towards sustainability in the use of
Near Threatened Close to being at high risk of natural resources.
(NT) extinction in the near future. BirdLife International is the official Red List
Least Concern Unlikely to become extinct in authority for birds, for the International Union
(LC) the near future. for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Data Deficient It identifies the sites known/referred to as
(DD)
Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas .
Not Evaluated
(NE)

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 Handout 9
Gee

BIODIVERSITY & SPECIES CONSERVATION III

B) INDIAN EFFORTS TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY
I) BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ACT, 2002
The main objectives are:
o Conservation of biological diversity,
Objective/
o Sustainable use of its components
Basic Features
o Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of utilization of genetic
resources
National Biodiversity Authority - NBA focuses on advising the Central Government
on matters relating to the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its
components and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of
biological resources; and advising the State Governments in the selection of areas
of biodiversity importance to be notified as heritage sites and measures for the
management of such heritage sites. The NBA with its headquarters in Chennai,
since its establishment has supported creation of SBBs in all States.
State Biodiversity Boards SBBs Focus on advising the State Governments, subject
to any guidelines issued by the Central Government, on matters relating to the
conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable
sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of biological resources.
National Biodiversity Funds -Whatever money National Biodiversity Authority
receives as fees, fines etc. and whatever money it gets as grants etc. is kept in the
National Biodiversity Fund. The money from this fund is used to benefit the
Institutions Created claimers and promotion of conservation and socio-economic development in
source areas.
State Biodiversity Funds -This fund has to be created at state level to credit any
grants and loans made to the State Biodiversity Board by the National Biodiversity
Authority and money from other sources. The money is used in the management
and conservation of heritage sites; compensating or rehabilitating any section of
the people economically affected when an area is declared Biodiversity Heritage
Sites; and conservation and promotion of biological resources.
Biodiversity Management Committee -As per the Biological Diversity Act 2002,

documentation of bi
The main function of the BMC is to prepare in
consultation with the local people. The Register shall contain comprehensive
information on availability and knowledge of local biological resources, their
medicinal or any other use or any other.
It extends to the whole of India.
Power Distribution If a dispute arises between the National Biodiversity Authority and a State
Biodiversity Board, the said Authority or the Board, as the case may be, may prefer
an appeal to the Central Government within such time as may be prescribed.
Ministry Involved Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Evolution &
The act provides a legal framework to realize the objectives of UN Convention on
Comparison with
Biological Diversity 1992.
other Acts
Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS): Biodiversity heritage sites (BHS) should include
Concept Introduced both wild and domesticated biodiversity and human cultural relations with such
biodiversity.

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 The Act excludes Indian biological resources that are normally traded as
commodities.
o Such exemption holds only so far the biological resources are used as
commodities and for no other purpose.
Exemptions from the The act also excludes Traditional Uses of Indian biological resources and associated
Act knowledge and when they are used in collaborative research projects between
Indian and foreign institutions with the approval of the central government.
Uses by Cultivators & Breeds, e.g. farmers, livestock keepers and beekeepers and
traditional healers e.g. Vaids and Hakims are also exempted.

II) ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT, 1986

o
Central Government, coordination of the activities of various central and state
authorities established under previous Acts, such as the Water Act and the Air Act.
Objective/
o The Act explicitly prohibits discharges of environmental pollutants in excess of
Basic Features
prescribed regulatory standards.
o There is also a specific prohibition against handling hazardous substances except
those in compliance with regulatory procedures and standards.

Through this Act Central Government gets full power for the purpose of
Power Distribution
protecting and improving the quality of the environment.

Ministry Involved Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

In the wake of the Bhopal tragedy, the government of India enacted the
Environment Act of 1986.
Evolution &
The purpose of the Act is to implement the decisions of the United Nations
Comparison with
Conference on the Human Environment of 1972.
other Acts
The act provides that any person, in addition to authorized government officials,
may file a complaint with a court alleging an offence under the Act.

Environment is defined to include water, air and land and the inter-relationships
which exist among water, air and land and human beings and other living
creatures, plants, micro-organisms, and property.
Environmental Pollution is the presence of pollutant, defined as any solid,
liquid, or gaseous substance present in such a concentration as may be or may
tend to be injurious to the environment.
Concept Introduced
Hazardous substances include any substance or preparation, which may cause
harm to human beings, other living creatures, plants, microorganisms, property
or the environment.
Eco-Sensitive Zones are
economically important, but vulnerable even to mild disturbances, and hence
demand careful

III) BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE SITES (BHS)

Under Section 37 of Biological Diversity Act, The Biodiversity Heritage Sites are the well-
2002 the State Government in consultation with defined areas that are unique, ecologically fragile
local bodies may notify the areas of biodiversity ecosystems - terrestrial, coastal & inland waters
importance as Biodiversity Heritage Sites. and marine having rich biodiversity comprising of
any one or more of the following components:

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 o richness of wild as well as domesticated
AMBARAGUDA Karnataka
species or intra-specific categories

o high endemism
GLORY OF ALLAPALLI Maharashtra
o presence of rare and threatened species

o keystone species TONGLU BHS AND

o species of evolutionary significance DHOTREY BHS UNDER Darjeeling,
THE DARJEELING West Bengal
o wild ancestors of domestic/cultivated FOREST DIVISION
species or their varieties.

o past pre-eminence of biological MANDASARU Odisha

components represented by fossil beds.

o having significant cultural, ethical or DIALONG VILLAGE Manipur

aesthetic values; important for the
maintenance of cultural diversity (with or
without a long history of human AMEENPUR LAKE Telangana
association with them)

MAJULI Assam

BIODIVERSITY
DISTRICT/STATE GHARIAL
HERITAGE SITE (BHS) Lucknow, Uttar
REHABILITATION
Pradesh
CENTRE
NALLUR TAMARIND Bangalore,
GROVE Karnataka
CHILKIGARH KANAK
West Bengal
DURGA
Chikmagalur,
HOGREKAN
Karnataka
PURVATALI RAI Goa

UNIVERSITY OF
Madhya
AGRICULTURAL NARO HILLS
Karnataka Pradesh
SCIENCES,
BENGALURU
ASRAMAM Kerala

IV) ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a o predict environmental impacts at an
process of evaluating the likely environmental early stage in project planning and
impacts of a proposed project or development, taking design.
into account inter-related socio-economic, cultural o find ways and means to reduce adverse
and human-health impacts, both beneficial and impacts.
adverse. o shape projects to suit the local
environment.
UNEP identifies EIA as a tool to: o present the predictions and options to
decision-makers.

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 The important aspects of EIA are: EIA PROCESSES
o risk assessment,
EIA involves the steps mentioned below. However,
o environmental management
the EIA process is cyclical with interaction between
o post product monitoring.
the various steps.
EIA also uses scientific practises consistently
across all project proposals. It considers Screening: The project plan is screened for scale
parameters like small/large scale impact, of investment, location and type of development
short/long term impact, carrying capacity, and if the project needs statutory clearance.
biodiversity protection and suggest strategies for
Scoping: potential impacts, zone of
mitigation.
impacts, mitigation possibilities and need for
EIA lay down a flexible approach for public
monitoring.
involvement, have in built mechanism of follow
up and feedback. It also includes mechanisms for Collection of Baseline Data: Baseline data is the
monitoring, auditing and evaluation. environmental status of study area.
Environment Impact Assessment in India is
Impact Prediction: Positive and negative,
statutorily backed by the Environment
reversible and irreversible and temporary and
Protection Act, 1986 which contains various
permanent impacts need to be predicted which
provisions on EIA methodology and process.
presupposes a good understanding of the project
EIA was introduced in India in 1978, with respect by the assessment agency.
to river valley projects.
Later the EIA legislation was enhanced to include Mitigation Measures & EIA Report: The EIA
other developmental sections. report should include the actions and steps for
EIA comes under Notification on Environmental preventing, minimizing or bypassing the impacts
Impact Assessment (EIA) of developmental or else the level of compensation for probable
projects 1994 under the provisions environmental damage or loss.
of Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Public Hearing: On completion of the EIA report,
EIA is now mandatory for more than 30 public and environmental groups living close to
categories of projects, and these projects project site may be informed and consulted.
get Environmental Clearance (EC) only after the
EIA requirements are fulfilled. Decision Making: Impact Assessment Authority
along with the experts consult the project-in-
Environmental clearance or the signal
charge along with consultant to take the final
is granted by the Impact Assessment Agency in
decision, keeping in mind EIA and EMP
the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
(Environment Management Plan).
Government of India.
Monitoring & implementation of Environmental
ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS OF EIA
Management Plan (EMP): The various phases of
The EIA process looks into the following components implementation of the project are monitored.
of the environment.
Assessment of Alternatives, Delineation of
o Air environment -- quality of ambient air, Mitigation Measures and Environmental Impact
meteorological data, predicted quantity of Assessment Report: For every project, possible
emissions, its impacts. alternatives should be identified, and
o Noise Levels present & predicted, strategies to environmental attributes compared. Alternatives
reduce. should cover both project location and process
o Water environment existing ground & surface technologies.
water quality & quantity, impact of project.
o Once alternatives have been reviewed, a
o Biological environment flora & fauna on impact
mitigation plan should be drawn up for the
zone, predicted biological stress.
selected option and is supplemented with an
o Land Environment soil, land-use, drainage
Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to
pattern; Impact on Historical monuments &
guide the proponent towards environmental
Heritage site.
improvements.

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 Risk Assessment: Inventory analysis and hazard o The processing is done simultaneously for
probability and index also form part of EIA clearance or rejection.
procedures.
o If the project does not involve diversion of
In case of projects where the project proponents forestland, the case is processed only for
have submitted complete information, a decision environmental clearance.
is taken within 90 days.
SALIENT FEATURES OF 2006 AMENDMENTS
TO EIA NOTIFICATION

Environment Impact Assessment Notification

of 2006 has decentralized the environmental
clearance projects by categorizing the
developmental projects in two categories:
Category A projects require mandatory
environmental clearance and thus they do
not undergo the screening process.
Category B projects undergo screening
process and they are classified into two
types.
Category B1 projects mandatorily
require EIA.
Category B2 projects Do not require
EIA.

Thus, Category A projects and Category B,

projects undergo the complete EIA process
whereas Category B2 projects are excluded from
complete EIA process.

Category A (National Level Appraisal)

Category A projects are appraised at national
level by Impact Assessment Agency (IAA) and the
EIA OF COASTS Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC).
Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMPs) are Category B (state level appraisal) Category B
prepared by coastal states or Union Territories as projects are apprised at state level. State Level
per rules set by CRZ notification 1991. Environment Impact Assessment Authority
(SEIAA) and State Level Expert Appraisal
CZMPs are prepared based on identification and Committee (SEAC) are constituted to provide
categorization of coastal areas for different clearance to Category B process.
activities and then submitted to the MoEFCC for After 2006 Amendment the EIA cycle comprises
approval. of Four Stages:

The ministry then forms a task force for

examining their plans. Screening
SINGLE WINDOW CLEARANCE

o Environmental clearance + Forestry clearance.

Scoping
o When a project requires both environmental
clearance as well as approval under the Forest Public Hearing
(Conservation) Act, 1980, proposals for both are
required to be given simultaneously to the
concerned divisions of the Ministry. Appraisal

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 IMPORTANCE OF EIA Lack of Credibility: There are so many cases of
Fraudulent EIA Studies where erroneous data
o EIA links environment with development for has been used, same facts used for two totally
environmentally safe and sustainable different places etc.
development.
Often, and more so for strategic industries such
o EIA provides a cost-effective method to as nuclear energy projects, the EMPs are kept
eliminate or minimize the adverse impact of confidential for political and administrative
developmental projects. reasons.
o EIA enables the decision makers to analyse the o Details regarding the effectiveness and
effect of developmental activities on the implementation of mitigation measures are
environment well before the developmental often not provided.
project is implemented.
o Emergency preparedness plans are not
o EIA encourages the adaptation of mitigation discussed in sufficient details and the
strategies in the developmental plan. information not disseminated to the
o EIA makes sure that the developmental plan is communities.
environmentally sound and within the limits of
WAY FORWARD
the capacity of assimilation and regeneration of
the ecosystem. Independent EIA Authority.

SHORTCOMINGS OF EIA PROCESS o Sector wide EIAs needed.

Applicability: There are several projects with o Creation of a centralized baseline data bank.
significant environmental impacts that are
Dissemination of all information related to
exempted from the notification either because
projects from notification to clearance to local
they are not listed in schedule I, or their
communities and the general public.
investments are less than what is provided for in
the notification. Applicability: All those projects where there is
likely to be a significant alteration of ecosystems
Composition of Expert Committees &
need to go through the process of environmental
Standards: It has been found that the team
clearance, without exception.
formed for conducting EIA studies is lacking the
expertise in various fields such as No industrial developmental activity should be
environmentalists, wildlife experts, permitted in ecologically sensitive areas.
Anthropologists and Social Scientists.
Public hearing: Public hearings should be
Deficiencies in the Public Hearing: applicable to all hitherto exempt categories of
projects which have environmental impacts.
o Public comments are not considered at an
early stage, which often leads to conflict at a The focus of EIA needs to shift from utilization
later stage of project clearance. and exploitation of natural resources to
conservation of natural resources.
o A number of projects with significant
environmental and social impacts have been It is critical that the preparation of an EIA is
excluded from the mandatory public hearing completely independent of the project
process. proponent.

o The data collectors do not pay respect to the Granting clearances: The notification needs to
indigenous knowledge of local people. make it clear that the provision for site clearance
does not imply any commitment on the part of
Quality of EIA: One of the biggest concerns with
the impact Assessment agency to grant full
the environmental clearance process is related to
environmental clearance.
the quality of EIA report that are being carried
out.

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 Composition of expert committees: The present limits itself to the stage when environmental
executive committees should be replaced by clearance is granted.
expert people from various stakeholder groups,
o The composition of the NGT needs to be
who are reputed in environmental and other
changed to include more judicial persons from
relevant fields.
the field of environment.
Monitoring, Compliance & Institutional
o Citizen should be able to access the authority
arrangements:
for redressal of all violation of the EIA
o The EIA notification needs to build within it notification as well as issues relating to non-
an automatic withdrawal of clearance if the compliance.
conditions of clearance are being violated and
Capacity building: NGOs, civil society groups and
introduce more stringent punishment for
local communities need to build their capacities
noncompliance. At present the EIA notification
to use the EIA notification towards better
decision making on projects.

V) INITIATIVES TAKEN TO CLEAN GANGA

NAMAMI GANGE PROGRAMME o Bio-Diversity & Afforestation,

Namami Gange Programme is an Integrated o Public Awareness

Conservation Mission, approved as a flagship
OTHER INITIATIVES TAKEN
programme by the Union Government in June
2014 to accomplish the twin objectives of: 1) GANGA ACTION PLAN It was the first River
Action Plan that was taken up by the Ministry of
o effective abatement of pollution
Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 1985,
o conservation and rejuvenation of to improve the water quality by the interception,
National River Ganga. diversion, and treatment of domestic sewage.

It is being operated under the Department of o The National River Conservation Plan is an
Water Resources, River Development and Ganga extension to the Ganga Action Plan. It aims at
Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti. cleaning the Ganga river under Ganga Action
Plan phase-2.
The program is being implemented by
the National Mission for Clean Ganga 2) NATIONAL RIVER GANGA BASIN AUTHORITY
(NMCG), and its state counterpart organizations (NRGBA) It was formed by the Government of
i.e., State Program Management Groups India in the year 2009 under Section-3 of the
(SPMGs). Environment Protection Act, 1986.

o NMCG is the implementation wing o

of National Ganga Council (set in 2016; of India.
which replaced the National Ganga River 3) CLEAN GANGA FUND In 2014, it was formed for
Basin Authority (NRGBA). cleaning up of the Ganga, setting up of waste
treatment plants, and conservation of biotic
It has a Rs. 20,000-crore, centrally-funded, non-
diversity of the river.
lapsable corpus and consists of nearly 288
projects. 4) BHUVAN-GANGA WEB APP It ensures
involvement of the public in monitoring of
The main pillars of the programme are:
pollution entering into the river Ganga.
o Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure &
5) Ban on Waste Disposal: In 2017, the National
Industrial Effluent Monitoring,
Green Tribunal banned the disposal of any waste
o River-Front Development & River- in the Ganga.
Surface Cleaning,

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 VI) NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL (NGT)
(Refer NGT Act,2010 from Handout 6 also) Any violation pertaining to these laws or any
decision taken by the Government under these
With the establishment of the NGT, India became
laws can be challenged before the NGT.
the third country in the world to set up a
specialised environmental tribunal (after VII) COASTAL REGULATION ZONES (CRZs)
Australia and New Zealand).
NGT comprises of the Chairperson (appointed by The coastal areas of seas, bays, creeks, rivers, and
GOI after consulting CJI), Judicial Members and backwaters which get influenced by tides up to
Expert Members. 500 m from the high tide line (HTL) and the land
between the low tide line (LTL) and the high tide
NGT has original jurisdiction over all civil cases
line (HTL) have been declared as Coastal
involving substantial question relating to
Regulation Zone (CRZ) in 1991.
environment (including enforcement of any
legal right relating to environment). NGT also has India has created institutional mechanisms such
appellate jurisdiction to hear appeal as a Court as National Coastal Zone Management
(Tribunal). Authority (NCZMA) and State Coastal Zone
While passing any order/decision/award, it shall Management Authority (SCZMA) for
apply the principles of sustainable development, enforcement and monitoring of the CRZ
the precautionary principle & the polluter pays Notification.
principle. These authorities have been delegated powers
NGT by an order, can provide: under Section 5 of the Environmental
relief and compensation to the victims of (Protection) Act, 1986 to take various measures
pollution and other environmental damage for protecting and improving the quality of the
(including accident occurring while handling coastal environment and preventing, abating and
any hazardous substance), controlling environmental pollution in coastal
for restitution of property damaged, and areas.
for restitution of the environment for such While the CRZ Rules are made by the Union
area or areas, as the Tribunal may think fit. environment ministry, implementation is to be
An order/decision/award of Tribunal is ensured by state governments through their
executable as a decree of a civil court. Coastal Zone Management Authorities.
An appeal against order/decision/ award of the The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and
NGT lies to the Supreme Court, generally within Climate Change has notified the 2019 Coastal
ninety days from the date of communication. Regulation Zone (CRZ) norms, replacing the
The NGT deals with civil cases under the seven existing CRZ norms of 2011. It is based on the
laws related to the environment, these include: recommendations of Shailesh Nayak Committee
after evaluating the demands by various coastal
The Water (Prevention and Control of
States/UTs along with other stakeholders.
Pollution) Act, 1974,
Objective of CRZ Regulations 2019:
The Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, o To promote sustainable development based on
scientific principles taking into account the
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980,
natural hazards such as increasing sea levels due
The Air (Prevention and Control of to global warming.
Pollution) Act, 1981, o To conserve and protect the environment of
coastal stretches and marine areas, besides
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, livelihood security to the fisher communities and
The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 and other local communities in the coastal area.

The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.

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 CLASSIFICATIONS OF COASTAL ZONES

CRZ-I (ECOLOGICALLY SENSITIVE & INTER-TIDAL AREAS)

CRZ-I A CRZ-I B
Intertidal Zone i.e. the area between Low Tide Line
Constitute Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESAs) and and High Tide Line shall constitute the CRZ-I B.
the geomorphological features which play a role in
maintaining the integrity of the coast. Regulated or Permitted Activities:
National Parks, Marine Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve Land Reclamation for ports, harbours, sea
Forests, Other Protected Areas, Mangroves, Coral links, projects for defence, strategic and
Reefs, Salt Marshes, Turtle Nesting Grounds, Areas security purposes, erosion control measures.
or structures of Archaeological importance and Lighthouses, Coastal Police & coastguard
Heritage sites etc. Stations.
Non-Conventional Energy Plants & Facilities.
Generally, No Activities Shall Be Permitted to be Facilities for receipt and storage of petroleum
carried out. products and liquefied natural gas, non-
Permissible Activities: hazardous cargo (edible oil, fertilizers and food
Eco-tourism activities grains).
Pipelines, Transmission lines & Conveyance Hatchery , Existing fish processing units,
Systems in the mangrove buffer. Wastewater treatment facilities.
Roads & Roads on stilts for defence, strategic Projects classified as strategic, defence related
purposes and public utilities. projects, Manual mining of atomic mineral(s),
Exploration and extraction of oil and natural
gas, Weather radar etc.
CRZ-II (DEVELOPED URBAN AREAS UPTO OR CLOSE TO THE SHORELINE)
Developed land areas up to or close to the shoreline, within the Existing Municipal Limits/Urban Areas.

Permissible Activities:
Activities as permitted in CRZ-I B, shall also be permissible in CRZ-II.
Buildings for residential purposes, schools, hospitals, institutions, offices, public places, etc. shall be
permitted only on the landward side of the existing road.
Reconstruction of authorised buildings shall be permitted.
Development of vacant plots in designated areas for construction of beach resorts or hotels or tourism
development projects. Increase the floor area ratio or floor space index.
Temporary Tourism facilities shall only include shacks, toilets or washrooms, change rooms, shower
panels; walkways, drinking water facilities, seating arrangements, etc.
CRZ-III (RURAL AREAS SEASIDE)
CRZ-III A CRZ-III B
Densely Populated Rural Areas population Rarely Populated Rural Areas population density
density is more than 2161 per square kilometre as of less than 2161 per square kilometre, as per 2011
per 2011 Census base. Census base.
NO DEVELOPMENT ZONE (NDZ) CRZ IIIA NO DEVELOPMENT ZONE (NDZ) CRZ IIIB
Area up to 50 meters from the HTL on the Area up to 200 meters from the HTL on the
landward side landward side
Development Zone (NDZ). Development Zone (NDZ).

NDZ @ CREEKS Land area up to 50 meters from the HTL, or width of the creek whichever is less, along the
tidal influenced water bodies in the CRZ III.
Notified Ports The NDZ shall not be applicable in the areas falling within notified Port limits.
No construction shall be permitted within NDZ in CRZ III, except for repairs or reconstruction of existing
authorised structure not exceeding existing Floor Space Index.
Permitted Activities:
Activities as permitted in CRZ-I B, shall also be permissible in CRZ-III.

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 Agriculture, horticulture, gardens, pastures, parks, playfields and forestry.
Construction of dispensaries, schools, public rain shelter, community toilets, bridges, roads, provision of
facilities for water supply, drainage, sewerage, crematoria, cemeteries and electric sub-station.
Facilities required for local fishing communities such as fish drying yards, auction halls, net mending
yards, traditional boat building yards, ice plan.
Temporary Tourism facilities wherever a national or State highway passing through the NDZ of CRZ-III
areas.
Mining of atomic minerals, Selective mining of limestone minerals.
Development of airports in wastelands and non-arable lands in CRZ-III.

CRZ-IV (12 NAUTICAL MILES FROM LTL & TIDAL INFLUENCES WATERBODIES)
CRZ-IV A CRZ-IV B
Water area & Seabed area between the LTL up to
Tidal Influence Waterbodies.
12 nautical miles on the seaward side.

Permissible Activities:
Traditional fishing and allied activities.
Activities as permitted in CRZ-I B, shall also be permissible in CRZ-IV.
Construction of memorials or monuments and allied facilities by the concerned State Government in
CRZ-IV (A) areas, in exceptional cases.
SOME OTHER FEATURES OF CRZ REGULATIONS 2019

ISLAND PROTECTION ZONE RULES 2019

o issued for protection of the islands of Andaman &
Nicobar and Lakshadweep under Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986.
o Allows eco-tourism projects 20 meters from the
high tide line (HTL) in smaller islands like Baratang,
Havelock, and Car Nicobar.
o In case of larger islands, 50 meters from the HTL
is permitted.
o Compensatory Plantation Of Mangroves where
roads or strategic installations are constructed after
reclamation.

Floor Space Index Norms eased: As per CRZ, 2011

Notification, the Floor Space Index (FSI) or the Floor
Area Ratio (FAR) had been frozen. As per the latest
notification, the government has decided to de-freeze
the Floor Space Index and permit FSI for construction
projects.
Streamlining of CRZ Clearances: The procedure for CRZ clearances has been streamlined. Now, the only such
projects which are located in the CRZ-I and CRZ IV will be dealt with for CRZ clearance by the Ministry. The
powers for clearances with respect to CRZ-II and III have been delegated at the State level.
No Development Zone of 20 meters for all Islands: For islands close to the main land coast and for all Backwater
Islands in the mainland, No Development Zone of 20 meters has been stipulated in wake of space limitations
and unique geography of such regions.
Pollution abatement: To address pollution in Coastal areas, the treatment facilities have been made
permissible in CRZ-I B area subject to necessary safeguards.
Critically Vulnerable Coastal Areas (CVCA): Sundarban region of West Bengal and other ecologically sensitive
areas identified as under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 such as Gulf of Khambat and Gulf of Kutchh in
Gujarat, Achra-Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Karwar and Coondapur in Karnataka, Vembanad in Kerala, Gulf of

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 Mannar in Tamil Nadu, Bhaitarkanika in Odisha and Krishna in Andhra Pradesh are treated as Critical Vulnerable
Coastal Areas. These Critical Vulnerable Coastal Areas will be managed with the involvement of coastal
communities including fisher folk.

VIII) WETLAND CONSERVATION IN INDIA

Wetlands are defined as "lands transitional CWRA merged conservation schemes for
between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs in 2011, as
(ecotone) where the water table is usually at or Ramsar convention deals them all under
near the surface or the land is covered by shallow wetlands.
water".
2) NATIONAL PLAN FOR CONSERVATION OF
Importance of Wetlands:
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS (NPCA)
Two-
NPCA is a single conservation programme for
Supports primary trophic-level organisms.
both wetlands and lakes.
Habitat for Diversity of Lifeforms.
It is a centrally sponsored scheme, implemented
Groundwater Recharge.
by MoEFCC.
Carbon Sink
It was formulated in 2015 by merging of the
Food, Raw Material, Medicine
National Lake Conservation Plan and the National
Flood Control
Wetlands Conservation Programme.
Threats
NPCA seeks to promote better synergy and avoid
Developmental Pressure from Urbanisation
overlap of administrative functions.
Conversion to Agriculture Land (e.g. Paddy
Fields)
3) WETLANDS (CONSERVATION & MANAGEMENT)
Excessive Pollution & Cultural Eutrophication.
RULES, 2019
Climate Change.
Dredging & sand Mining Nodal authority: As per the Wetlands Rules,
Introduces Exotic Species the Wetlands Authority within a State is the
nodal authority for all wetland-specific
1) NATIONAL WETLAND CONSERVATION authorities in a state/UT for the enforcement of
PROGRAM (NWCP) the rules.
MoEFCC is responsible for overall coordination of Prohibited Activities:
the program and to provide financial and o Setting up any industry and expansion of
technical assistance to the State Governments. existing industries,
o Dumping solid waste or discharge of
State governments, on the other hand, are
untreated wastes and effluents from
responsible for the management of wetlands and
industries and any human settlements,
implementation of the NWCP.
and
Significant Achievements under NWCP o Encroachment or conversion for non-
wetlands uses.
Wetland mapping and inventory by analysis of
Integrated Management Plan: The guidelines
digital IRS data and creation of a digital
recommend that the state/UT administration
database in GIS environment.
prepare a plan for the management of each
State wise Atlas of wetlands have been prepared notified wetland by the respective governments.
by SAC, ISRO to bring information on wetlands Penalties: Undertaking any prohibited or
above the size of 2.25-hectare area. regulated activities beyond the thresholds
(defined by the state/UT administration) in the
Central Wetlands Regulatory Authority (CWRA)
wetlands or its zone of influence, will be deemed
was constituted under the chairmanship of
violations under the Wetlands Rules. Violation of
secretary (MoEFCC), as per the wetland rules,
the Rules will attract penalties as per
2010.
the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

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 IX) RAMSAR SITES IN INDIA
the conservation least one wetland site for inclusion in the List of
and sustainable use of wetlands . Wetlands of International Importance.
At the time of joining the Convention, each
Contracting Party undertakes to designate at ment to take
the steps necessary to ensure that its ecological
character is maintained.

As of March 2021, there are 42 Ramsar Sites in India.

RAMSAR SITE STATE ABOUT

It is a brackish water lagoon at the mouth of the Daya River.

It is the largest coastal lagoon in India.
Birds from as far as the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, Aral Sea and other
remote parts Central Asia, Ladakh and Himalayas come here.
In 1981, Chilika Lake was designated the first Indian wetland of
CHILIKA Odisha international importance under the Ramsar Convention.
Nalbana Bird Sanctuary is the core area of the Ramsar designated
wetlands of Chilika Lake.
The Irrawaddy dolphin (critically endangered) is the flagship
species of Chilika lake. Chilka is home to the only known population
of Irrawaddy dolphins in India.
A complex of ten artificial, seasonal lagoons, varying in size.
Vegetation is a mosaic of scrub and open grassland that
provides habitat for breeding, wintering and staging migratory
birds.
KEOLADEO NATIONAL
Rajasthan The invasive growth of the grass Paspalum distichum has changed
PARK
the ecological character of large areas of the site, reducing its
suitability for certain waterbird species, notably the Siberian crane.
Placed on the Montreux Record in 1990 due to "water shortage and
an unbalanced grazing regime".
It is a shallow water reservoir at the confluence of Beas and Sutlej
HARIKE WETLAND Punjab
rivers.
Loktak Lake is the largest freshwater lake in the north-eastern
region of the country.
Keibul Lamjao the only floating national park in the world floats
LOKTAK LAKE Manipur
over it, which is the last natural refuge of the endangered Sangai or
Manipur brow-antlered deer.
It is presently placed in the Montreux Record.
The Sambhar Salt Lake is lake.
SAMBHAR LAKE Rajasthan
It is a key wintering area for tens of thousands of flamingos.
Jammu &
WULAR LAKE It is the largest freshwater lake in India.
Kashmir
The stream is considered to be the most significant in the state from
KANJILI WETLANDS Punjab the religious point of view, as it is associated with the first guru of
the Sikhs, Shri Guru Nanak.
A humanmade wetland of lake and river formed by the
ROPAR WETLAND Punjab construction of a barrage for diversion of water from the Sutlej
River.

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 It is a natural backwater in Kollam district.
River Kallada & Pallichal drains into it.
ASHTAMUDI WETLAND Kerala It forms an estuary with Sea at Neendakara (famous fishing harbour
in Kerala).
National Waterway 3 passes through it.

It is part of Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary.

It is famous for its saltwater crocodiles and Olive Ridley sea turtle.
BHAITARKANIKA The core area of Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary was declared
Odisha
MANGROVES Bhitarkanika National Park.
Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary includes Gahirmatha Marine
Wildlife Sanctuary.
The Wetland consists of two lakes located in the city of Bhopal.
Madhya The two lakes are the Bhoj Tal and the Lower Lake.
BHOJ WETLANDS
Pradesh It is a humanmade reservoir.
The largest bird of India, the sarus crane is found here.
A permanent freshwater lake in a former channel of the
Brahmaputra river.
DEEPOR BEEL Assam
It is a few kilometres to the left of Guwahati whereas Pobitora
Wildlife Sanctuary is around 35 km to the right.
World-renowned as a model of a multiple use wetland, the site's
EAST KOLKATA resource recovery systems, developed by local people through the
West Bengal
WETLANDS ages, have saved the city of Kolkata from the costs of constructing
and maintaining wastewater treatment plants.
A natural eutrophic lake situated between the river basins of
Andhra the Godavari and the Krishna.
KOLLERU LAKE
Pradesh It was previously a lagoon, but now it is several kilometres inland
due to the coastline of emergence and delta formation.
POINT CALIMERE
One of the last remnants of Dry Evergreen Forests.
WILDLIFE AND BIRD Tamil Nadu
Habitat: Dry Evergreen Forests, Mangrove & Wetlands
SANCTUARY
Himachal It is also known as Maharana Pratap Sagar.
PONG DAM LAKE
Pradesh A water storage reservoir created in 1975 on the Beas River.
It is the largest freshwater lake in Kerala, situated in Kollam district.
River Kallada had a unique replenishing system through a bar of
SASTHAMKOTTA LAKE Kerala paddy field.
The lake is now depleting due to destruction of replenishing
mechanism.
A freshwater to brackish lake lying at 4,595m above sea level.
The site is said to represent the only breeding ground outside of
China for one of the most endangered cranes, the Black-necked
crane, and the only breeding ground for Bar-headed geese in India.
TSO MORORI Ladakh
The Great Tibetan Sheep or Argali and Tibetan Wild Ass are
endemic to the region.
With no outflow, evaporation in the arid steppe conditions causes
varying levels of salinity.
Largest lake of Kerala, spanning across Alappuzha, Kottayam,
and Ernakulam districts.
VEMBANAD-KOL It is the second largest Ramsar Site in India after Sundarbans.
Kerala
WETLAND It is also the Longest lake of India.
It is below sea level and is famous for exotic fish varieties and Paddy
fields that are below sea level.
Himachal It is a high-altitude lake.
CHANDRA TAAL
Pradesh It supports IUCN Red listed Snow Leopard.

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 Jammu & It is only 10 km from Srinagar.
HOKERA WETLAND
Kashmir It is a natural perennial wetland contiguous to the Jhelum basin.
Himachal A natural wetland with freshwater springs and inland subterranean
RENUKA LAKE
Pradesh karst formations.
It is a reservoir fed by three perennial streams discharging to the
RUDRASAGAR LAKE Tripura River Gomti.
It is an ideal habitat for IUCN Red listed Three-striped Roof Turtle.
SURINSAR-MANSAR Jammu & Freshwater composite lake in semi-arid Panjab Plains, adjoining
LAKES Kashmir the Jhelum Basin.
UPPER GANGA RIVER
Uttar The river provides habitat for IUCN Red listed Ganges River
(BRIJGHAT TO NARORA
Pradesh Dolphin and Gharial Crocodile.
STRETCH)
A natural freshwater lake (a relict sea) that is the largest natural
NALSAROVAR BIRD wetland in the Thar Desert.
Gujarat
SANCTUARY The wetland is a lifeline for a satellite population of the
endangered Indian Wild Ass.
Sundarban Wetland is located within the largest mangrove forest
in the world.
It is the largest Ramsar Site in India.
SUNDARBAN WETLAND West Bengal
The Indian Sundarban, covering the south-westernmost part of the
delta,
area and includes 90% of Indian mangrove species.
Construction of the Nandur Madhameshwar Weir at the confluence
NANDUR
Maharashtra of the Godavari and Kadwa Rivers helped create a thriving wetland.
MADHAMESHWAR
It is also known as the Bharatpur of Maharashtra.
NAWABGANJ BIRD Uttar
It was renamed as Chandra Shekhar Azad Bird Sanctuary in 2015.
SANCTUARY Pradesh
It is a permanent marsh.
Uttar It is an example of co-habitation of humans and wildlife.
SARSAI NAWAR JHEEL
Pradesh -migratory sarus
crane.
It is a 185-kilometre stretch of the Beas River.
The stretch is dotted with islands, sand bars and braided channels.
BEAS CONSERVATION The Reserve hosts the only known population in India of the
Punjab
RESERVE endangered Indus river dolphin.
In 2017, a programme was initiated to re-introduce the critically
endangered gharial.
The Site is an example of wise use of a community-managed
wetland, which provides food for people and supports local
KESHOPUR-MIANI
Punjab biodiversity.
COMMUNITY RESERVE
It lies in the middle of the Ravi and Beas rivers
It was the first-ever notified community reserve of India
Located in the Shivalik foothills of Punjab.
It supports abundant flora and fauna including threatened species,
such as the endangered Indian pangolin and Egyptian vulture.
NANGAL WILDLIFE It occupies a human-made reservoir constructed as part of
Punjab
SANCTUARY the Bhakra-Nangal Project in 1961.
The site is of historic importance as the Indian and Chinese Prime
Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence
there in 1954.
SANDI BIRD Uttar
The wetland is typical of the Indo-Gangetic plains.
SANCTUARY Pradesh
It is a perennial lowland marsh typical of the Indo-Gangetic Plains.
SAMASPUR BIRD Uttar
The Sanctuary harbours threatened species such as the endangered
SANCTUARY Pradesh
Egyptian vulture.

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 The sanctuary consists of two lakes i.e. Parvati and Arga situated
about 1.5 Km. apart.
It is a permanent freshwater environment consisting of two oxbow
PARVATI ARNGA BIRD Uttar
lakes.
SANCTUARY Pradesh
species: the critically endangered white-rumped vulture and Indian
vulture.
SAMAN BIRD Uttar
It is a seasonal oxbow lake on the Ganges floodplain.
SANCTUARY Pradesh
ACR is a 444-hectare stretch of the Asan River running down to its
confluence with the Yamuna River in Dehradun district of
Uttarakhand.
It is Uttarakhand's first Ramsar Site.
The damming of the River by the Asan Barrage in 1967 resulted in
ASAN BARRAGE Uttarakhand
siltation above the dam wall, which helped to create some of the
-friendly habitats.
These habitats support 330 species of birds including the critically
endangered red-headed vulture, white-rumped vulture and
pochard.
Also known as Kanwar Jheel, it covers 2,620 hectares of the Indo-
Gangetic plains in the Begusarai district of Bihar.
KANWAR TAAL OR It is an important stopover along the Central Asian Flyway, with 58
Bihar
KABAR TAAL LAKE migratory waterbirds using it to rest and refuel.
Major threats to the Site include water management activities such
as drainage, water abstraction, damming and canalization.
The riverine belt of River Yamuna surrounds the area of Sur-Sarovar.
Uttar It is the same place that inspired the famed poet Soordas to
SUR SAROVAR
Pradesh
poetry.
Lonar crater, is a notified National Geo-heritage Monument, saline
(pH of 10.5), Soda Lake, located at Lonar in Buldhana district,
Maharashtra.
LONAR LAKE Maharashtra It was created by an asteroid collision with earth impact during the
Pleistocene Epoch.
It is one of the four known, hyper-velocity, impact craters in
basaltic rock anywhere on Earth.
The Tso Kar Basin is a high-altitude wetland complex, consisting of
two principal waterbodies:
o Startsapuk Tso a freshwater lake of about 438 hectares to
the south,
o Tso Kar itself, a hypersaline lake of 1800 hectares to the
TSO KAR Ladakh north, situated in the Changthang region of Ladakh.
It is called Tso Kar, meaning white lake, because of the white salt
efflorescence found on the margins due to the evaporation of
highly saline water.
It is an A1 Category Important Bird Area (IBA) as per Bird Life
International and a key staging site in the Central Asian Flyway.

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 X) UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITES (NATURAL) IN INDIA
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is the o This wetland is located in the state of Rajasthan
nodal agency for forwarding any request for and served as a duck shooting reserve till the end
World Heritage status to any Indian site whether of 19th century. However, soon enough the
cultural or natural. hunting ceased and the area was declared a
Based on the proposals received from the Central national park in 1982.
or State Government agencies as well as o This National Park is home to 375 bird species and
management Trusts, etc., and after their due various other life forms.
scrutiny, the Government forwards the o It also serves as a wintering ground to Palaearctic
nomination dossiers to the World Heritage migratory waterfowl, critically endangered
Center. Siberian Crane as well as to globally threatened-
India now has 35 sites, including 27 cultural Greater Spotted Eagle and Imperial Eagle.
properties, 7 natural sites and one mixed site, o It is acclaimed for its resident population of non-
notified as World Heritage Sites. migratory breeding birds.

1) GREAT HIMALAYAN NATIONAL PARK 4) MANAS WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

CONSERVATION AREA
o Manas Wildlife Sanctuary is a biodiversity hotspot
o Located in western part of Himalayan mountains
located in Assam. It is a part of Manas Tiger
in the state of Himachal Pradesh, this Park is well
Reserve and sprawls alongside Manas river.
known for its high alpine peaks, alpine meadows
o A range of forested hills, alluvial grasslands and
and riverine forests.
tropical evergreen forests are responsible for the
o It also encloses glacial and snow meltwater
breath-taking beauty and serene environment of
sources of several rivers as well as the catchment
the site.
area.
o It also provides a habitable environment to a
o It is a biodiversity hotspot with 25 types of forests
range of endangered species such as- tiger,
inhabited by myriads of faunal species, several of
greater one-horned rhino, swamp deer, pygmy
which are threatened.
hog and Bengal florican.
2) KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK (1985)
5) NANDA DEVI & VALLEY OF FLOWERS NATIONAL
o It is located in the State of Assam. It is the single PARKS
largest undisturbed and representative area in
o Both of these National Parks are exceptionally
the Brahmaputra Valley floodplain.
beautiful high-altitude West Himalayan
o It was declared as a National Park in 1974 and a
landscapes and fall within the boundaries of the
Tiger Reserve in 2007.
state of Uttarakhand.
o It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in
o Nanda Devi National Park boasts rugged and
1985. It is also recognized as an Important Bird
high-mountain wilderness and is dominated by
Area by BirdLife International.
-highest mountain-the peak of
o It is the home of the world's most One-Horned
Nanda Devi. The Valley of Flowers, in contrast,
Rhinos.
flaunts aesthetically pleasing meadows of alpine
o Conservation efforts in Kaziranga are focused on
flowers.
the 'Big Four' Species rhino, elephant, Royal
o Numerous kinds of floral and faunal species
Bengal tiger and Asiatic water buffalo.
reside in these parks, along with a significant
o Kaziranga is also home to 9 of the 14 species of
population of globally threatened species
primates found in the Indian subcontinent.
including- Snow leopard, Himalayan Musk Deer
o The National Highway 37 passes through the
etc.
park area.
o The park also has more than 250 seasonal water 6) SUNDARBAN NATIONAL PARK
bodies, besides the Diphlu River running through
it. o The Sundarbans mangrove forest, one of the
largest such forests in the world, lies across India
3) KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK and Bangladesh on the delta of the Ganges,

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 Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers on the Bay of o They cover an immense area in a 1600 km long
Bengal. stretch and are interrupted only once by a 30km
o Palghat gap.
Sundarbans World Heritage site inscribed in o They also influence the Indian monsoon weather
1987. patterns that mediate the warm tropical climate
o The site is intersected by a complex network of of the region and act as a barrier to rain-laden
tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of monsoon winds that sweep in from the south-
salt-tolerant mangrove forests and presents an west.
excellent example of ongoing ecological o Western Ghats are also home to tropical
processes. evergreen forests, as well as to 325 globally
o The area is known for its wide range of fauna, threatened species.
including 260 bird species, the Bengal tiger and
Mixed Site in India (1)
other threatened species such as the estuarine
crocodile and the Indian python. 1) KHANGCHENDZONGA NATIONAL PARK
o It is home to many rare and globally threatened o Located in Sikkim, this National Park is dominated
wildlife species such as the estuarine crocodile, by the world's third-highest peak, Mount
Royal Bengal Tiger, Water monitor Khangchendzonga.
lizard, Gangetic dolphin, and Olive Ridley o The Park comprises steep-sided valleys, snow-
Turtles. clad mountains and various lakes and glaciers
including the 26km long Zemu glacier, located
7) WESTERN GHATS
around the base of Mount Khangchendzonga.
o Western Ghats consist of a chain of mountains o It covers almost 25% of the state of Sikkim and
and ensures a habitable environment to various
passing from the states of Kerala, Maharashtra, endemic as well as threatened, plant and animal
Goa, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. species.

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 IUCN REDLIST THREATENED SPECIES IN INDIA 2019
(Please Do Update This List Before the Exam to Reflect the changes made)

Critically Endangered Animals Hog Deer Rameswaram Ornamental

Lion Tailed Macaque Spider
Himalayan Brown Bear
Nilgiri Tahr Gooty Tarantula
Elvira Rat
Gangetic Dolphin
Kondana Rat Corals In India (CR)
Andaman White Toothed Crocodiles In India
Fire Coral
Shrew
Gharial (CR)
Namdapha Flying Squirrel Critically Endangered Birds
Mugger Crocodile (VU)
Malabar Civet
Saltwater Crocodile (LC) The Jerdon's Courser
Sumatran Rhino
White Bellied Heron
Hangul/Kashmir Stag Turtles In India
Bengal Florican
Endangered Animals Olive Ridley Sea Turtle (VU) Himalayan Quail
Hawksbill Turtle (CR) Pink- Headed Duck
Asian Elephant
River Terrapin (CR) Sociable Lapwing
Tiger
Bengal Roof Turtle (CR) Spoon Billed Sandpiper
Pygmy Hog
Siberian Crane
Asian Lion Fishes In India (CR)
Great Indian Bustard
Red Panda
Pondicherry Shark
Dhole Critically Endangered Vultures
Gangetic Shark
/Brow Antlered/Sangai In India
Large Toothed Saw Fish
Deer
Long-Comb Saw Fish White Rumped Vulture
Golden Langur
Vulture
White Bellied Musk Deer Spiders In India (CR)
Indian Vulture
Hispid Hare/Assam Rabbit
Slender Billed Vulture

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 Ago
Handout 10

BIODIVERSITY & SPECIES CONSERVATION IV

INDIAN INITIATIVES TO CONSERVE WILDLIFE

I) WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972

Effectively protect the wildlife of this country and to control poaching,
Objective/
smuggling and illegal trade in wildlife and its derivatives.
Basic features
To provide protection to the listed endangered flora and faunaand ecologically
important protected areas.

National Board for Wildlife (NBW):

o Primary function of the Board is to promote the conservation and
development of wildlife and forests.
o It is chaired by Prime Minister.
o It has power to review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in
and around national parks and sanctuaries.
o No alternation of boundaries in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries can
be done without approval of the NBWL.
National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA):
o The National Tiger Conservation Authority is a statutory body for
strengthening tiger conservation, as per powers and functions assigned to
Institutions Created it under the Act.
o Environment Minister is the Chairman of the NTCA.
Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB):
o The bureau would complement the efforts of the state governments,
primary enforcers of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and other
enforcement agencies of the country.
Five types of protected areas as provided under the Act:
o Sanctuaries
o National Parks
o Conservation Reserves
o Community Reserves
o Tiger Reserve

Power Distribution Extends to the whole of India

Ministry Involved Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

As per the Constitution,

Art. 48-A: says that the state shall endeavor to protect and improve the
Evolution & Comparison
environment and to safeguard the forest and wildlife of the country.
with other Acts
Art. 51A (g): imposes fundamental duty on every citizen of India to protect and
improve the environment and have compassion for living creatures.

It provides for prohibition on use of animal traps except under certain

circumstances.
Exemptions
It provides for protection of hunting rights of the Scheduled Tribes in Andaman
and Nicobar Islands
Concept Introduced It has six schedules which give varying degrees of protection.

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 o Species listed in Schedule I & Part II of Schedule II get absolute protection -
offences under these are prescribed the highest penalties. E.g.:-Tiger,
blackbuck, Himalayan Brown Bear, Indian Gazelle, etc.
o Species listed in Schedule III & Schedule IV are also protected, but the
penalties are much lower. E.g. :- Hyena, Himalayan rat, porcupine, etc.
o Schedule V includes the animals which may be hunted. E.g.:- mice, rat,
rhesus monkey, fruit bats, etc.
o The plants in Schedule VI are prohibited from cultivation and planting. E.g.:-
blue vanda, red vanda, Kuth, etc.

Vermin
o Vermin are wild animals that are believed to be harmful.
o When an animal is , the
protection over the animal under the Wildlife Protection Act is removed.
When as species is declared vermin, it can be culled or hunted without
restriction.
o Any species can be declared as vermin except for those species that are
listed in Schedule I and part II of the schedule II of the Wildlife Protection
Act, 1972

II) PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO ANIMALS ACT, 1960

To prevent the infliction of unnecessary pain or suffering on animals and to
Objective/Basic features
amend the laws relating to the prevention of cruelty to animals.
Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI): it relates to provision of assistance for the
following type of activities:
o Financial assistance to animal welfare organizations for maintaining the stray
animals in distress and for their treatment.
o Human education programmes for the welfare of animals are implemented
by the AWBI.
Institutions Created
o Expenditure on a variety of other animal welfare activities such as rescue of
cattle from illegal smuggling and transportation, rehabilitation of rescued
circus animals, lab animals, inspections, legal expenses in connection with
court cases pertaining to animal welfare, mobile clinics is also incurred.
o Well-known humanitarian Rukmini Devi Arundale was instrumental in
setting up the board.

Animal Welfare Board is under Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and

Ministry Involved Dairying (Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying).
PCA Act has recently been moved under Ministry of Agriculture from MoEFCC.

Nothing contained in this Act shall render it an offence to kill any animal in a
Exemptions
manner required by the religion of any community.

III) RESERVED & PROTECTED FORESTS o In Reserved Forests Rights to all activities
like hunting, grazing, etc. in Reserved forests
A reserved forest and protected forest in India are are Banned unless specific orders are issued
terms denoting forests accorded a certain degree otherwise.
of protection. o In Protected Areas Rights to activities like
The term was first introduced in the Indian Forest hunting and grazing are Sometimes Given to
Act, 1927 in British India. communities living on the fringes of the
As of present, reserved forests and protected forest, who sustain their livelihood from
forests differ in one important way: forest resources or products.

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 Typically, reserved forests are often upgraded to V) NATIONAL BOARD FOR WILDLIFE (NBWL)
the status of wildlife sanctuaries, which in turn
may be upgraded to the status of national parks, It is a
with each category receiving a higher degree of under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
protection and government funding. Its roles are and advises the
There are 4 categories of the Protected Areas in Central Government on framing policies and
India viz, measures for conservation of wildlife in the
1) National Parks country.
2) Wildlife Sanctuaries, Primary function of the Board is to promote the
3) Conservation Reserves, and conservation and development of wildlife and
4) Community Reserves. forests.
It has power to review all wildlife-related
IV) NATIONAL PARKS matters and approve projects in and around
national parks and sanctuaries.
A National park is an area with enough ecological,
No alternation of boundaries in national parks
geo-morphological and natural significance with
and wildlife sanctuaries can be done without
rich fauna and flora, which is designed to protect
approval of the NBWL.
and to develop wildlife or its environment.
Composition The NBWL is chaired by the Prime
National parks in India are IUCN category II
Minister. It has 47 members including the Prime
protected areas.
Minister. Among these, 19 members are ex-
A national park has more restrictions as
officio members. Other members include
compared to a wildlife sanctuary.
Members of Parliament , NGOs and eminent
Their boundaries are fixed and defined.
ecologists, conservationists and
The main objective of a national park is to protect environmentalists.
the natural environment of the area and
biodiversity conservation. VI) WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES
ALLOWED & NOT ALLOWED INSIDE NATIONAL The State Government may, by notification,
PARKS declare its intention to constitute any area other
than area comprised with any reserve forest or
o Here, no human activity is allowed.
the territorial waters as a sanctuary if it considers
o Grazing of livestock and private tenurial rights are
that such area is of adequate ecological, faunal,
not permitted here.
floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological
o Species mentioned in the Schedules of the
significance, for the purpose of protecting,
Wildlife Act are not allowed to be hunted or
propagating or developing wildlife or its
captured.
environment.
o No person shall destroy, remove, or exploit any
Boundaries of wildlife sanctuaries are not
wildlife from a National Park or destroy or
sacrosanct.
damage the habitat of any wild animal or deprive
Wildlife sanctuaries are grouped in IUCN
any wild animal of its habitat within a national
Category IV of protected areas.
park.
o They cannot be downgraded to the status of a Wildlife Sanctuaries or wildlife refuges are home
to various endangered species.
They are safe from hunting, predation or
DECLARATION OF NATIONAL PARKS competition. They are safeguarded from
extinction in their natural habitat.
o National parks can be declared both by the
Certain rights of people living inside the
Central Government & State governments.
Sanctuary could be permitted.
o No alteration of the boundaries of a national park
shall be made except on a resolution passed by Grazing, firewood collection by tribals is allowed
the State Legislature and with the approval of the but strictly regulated.
NBWL. Settlements not allowed (few exceptions: tribal
o As of May 2020, there were 105 national parks settlements do exist constant; efforts are made
encompassing 1.23% of India's total surface area. to relocate them).

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 Wildlife sanctuaries can be created for a Government, particularly the areas adjacent to
particular species (e.g., grizzled giant squirrel National Parks and Sanctuaries and those areas
wildlife sanctuary in Srivilliputhur, Tamil Nadu). A which link one Protected Area with another.
Sanctuary can be promoted to a National Park. o Such a declaration should be made after having
There are more than 550 wildlife sanctuaries in consultations with the local communities.
India. o The rights of people living inside a Conservation
Reserve are not affected.
VII) CONSERVATION RESERVE & COMMUNITY
RESERVE COMMUNITY RESERVES

These denote the protected areas of India which o Community Reserves can be declared by the
typically act as buffer zones to or connectors and State Government in any private or community
migration corridors between established national land, not comprised within a National Park,
parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and Sanctuary or a Conservation Reserve.
protected forests of India. o Here an individual or a community has
volunteered to conserve wildlife and its habitat.
CONSERVATION RESERVES o As in the case of a Conservation Reserve, the
rights of people living inside a Community
o Conservation Reserves can be declared by the
Reserve are not affected
State Governments in any area owned by the

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY NATIONAL PARK BIOSPHERE RESERVES

It is a natural habitat, owned by
It is a protected area conserving A reserved area of land established
the government or private agency,
the wildlife and ecosystem and also by the government to protect the
that safeguards a particular species
developing them environment as a whole
of birds and animals
Meant to preserve the biodiversity
Can include flora, fauna or any of a specified area.
Protection of only wildlife
other objects of It also aims for economic
animals, birds, insects, reptiles, etc
historical/geographic significance. development of the tribals in the
area.
A typical biosphere reserve is
divided into the following:
o Core (no human activity is
there),
Restrictions are less and open to Highly restricted, random access to
o Buffer (limited human activity
visitations by the general public. the general public is not allowed.
is permitted),
o Manipulation zone (several
human activities can occur in
this zone).
Boundaries are fixed and defined
Does not have fixed boundaries Boundaries are fixed and defined
by law.
Can upgrade to a national park Cannot downgrade to a sanctuary --
Research & scientific management Research & scientific management
Managed.
lacking. lacking.
It is internationally recognized
IUCN and its World Commission on
(IUCN) has defined it as a Category within the framework of U
Protected Areas, has defined it as a
IV type of protected areas MAB program and nominated by
Category II type of protected areas
national governments.

VIII) BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA Programme that aims to establish a scientific

basis for the improvement of relationships
nd the Biosphere Programme between people and their environments.
(MAB) is an Intergovernmental Scientific

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 Biosphere reserves are sites established by FUNCTIONS OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES
countries and recognized under UNESCO's MAB
o Conservation
Programme.
endemic species, ecosystems, and landscapes
CRITERIA FOR DESIGNATION OF BIOSPHERE along with the wildlife, culture and customs of
RESERVE tribals.
o Development Promoting economic and human
A site must contain a protected and minimally
growth that is sustainable on a sociocultural and
disturbed core area of value of nature
ecological level. It seeks to strengthen the three
conservation.
pillars of sustainable development: social,
Core area must be a bio-geographical unit and economic and protection of the environment.
should be large enough to sustain a viable o Logistic support Promoting research activities,
population representing all trophic levels. environmental education, training and
monitoring in the context of local, national and
The involvement of local communities and use international conservation and sustainable
of their knowledge in biodiversity preservation. development.
Areas potential for preservation of traditional
tribal or rural modes of living for harmonious use
of the environment.

BIOSPHERE RESERVE REGION STATE

Tamil Nadu,
Part of Waynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and
1 NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE Kerala and
Mudumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley
Karnataka

NANDA DEVI BIOSPHERE Parts of Chamoli District, Pithoragarh District &

2 Uttarakhand
RESERVE Bageshwar District

Indian part of Gulf of Mannar extending from

3 GULF OF MANNAR Rameswaram island in the north to Kanyakumari Tamil Nadu
in the south of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka

4 NOKREK In west Garo Hills Meghalaya

Part of delta of Ganges and Brahmaputra river

5 SUNDARBANS West Bengal
system

6 SIMLIPAL Part of Mayurbhanj district Odisha

PACHMARHI BIOSPHERE Parts of Betul District, Hoshangabad District and

7 Madhya Pradesh
RESERVE Chhindwara District

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 ACHANAKMAR-
Madhya Pradesh,
8 AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE Part of Annupur, Dindori and Bilaspur districts
Chhattisgarh
RESERVE

9 KHANGCHENDZONGA Parts of Kangchenjunga Sikkim

AGASTHYAMALAI BIOSPHERE Neyyar, Peppara and Shenduruny Wildlife Kerala, Tamil
10
RESERVE Sanctuary and their adjoining areas Nadu

Southernmost of the Andaman and Nicobar Andaman and

11 GREAT NICOBAR
Islands Nicobar Islands

Part of Kutch, Morbi, Surendranagar and Patan

12 GREAT RANN OF KUTCH Gujarat
districts; the largest biosphere reserve in India.
Pin Valley National Park and surroundings;
13 COLD DESERT Chandratal and Sarchu & Kibber Wildlife Himachal Pradesh
Sanctuary
14 DIBRU-SAIKHOWA Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts Assam

Arunachal
15 DIHANG-DIBANG Part of Siang and Dibang Valley
Pradesh
Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari,
16 MANAS Assam
Kamrup and Darrang Districts
Seshachalam Hill Ranges covering parts of
17 SESHACHALAM HILLS Andhra Pradesh
Chittoor and Kadapa districts

Part of Panna and Chhattarpur districts in

18 PANNA Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh

1 11 are the 11 biosphere reserves of India which have been recognized internationally under Man and
Biosphere Reserve (MAB) program.

IX) ECO SENSITIVE ZONES (ESZ) use of natural water, erection of electrical cables,
widening of roads.
Eco-Sensitive Zones or Ecologically Fragile Areas o Permitted activities: Ongoing agricultural or
are areas within 10 kms around Protected Areas, horticultural practices, rainwater harvesting,
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries. organic farming, use of renewable energy
ESZs are notified by MoEFCC, Government of sources, adoption of green technology for all
India under Environment Protection Act 1986. activities.
The basic aim is to regulate certain activities
around National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries so SIGNIFICANCE OF ESZS
as to minimise their negative impacts on the To minimise the impact of urbanisation and other
fragile ecosystem encompassing the protected developmental activities.
areas.
Creating some kind of a 'Shock Absorber' or
ACTIVITIES IN ESZS transition zones for the protected area.
ESZs help in in-situ conservation.
o Prohibited activities: Commercial mining,
Minimise forest depletion and man-animal
sawmills, industries causing pollution (air, water,
conflict via core and buffer model of
soil, noise etc), establishment of major
management.
hydroelectric projects (HEP), commercial use of
wood, Tourism activities like hot-air balloons over X) WILDLIFE CRIME CONTROL BUREAU (WCCB)
the National Park, discharge of effluents or any
solid waste or production of hazardous Wildlife Crime Control Bureau is a statutory
substances. multi-disciplinary body established by the
o Regulated activities: Felling of trees, Government of India under the Ministry of
establishment of hotels and resorts, commercial

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 Environment and Forests, to combat organized mangroves, coral reefs, creeks, seagrass beds,
wildlife crime in the country. algal beds, estuaries, lagoons.
Under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, it is o Category II: includes Islands, which have major
mandated to collect and collate intelligence parts in marine ecosystem and some part in
related to organized wildlife crime activities and terrestrial ecosystem.
to disseminate the same to State and other o Category IIIA: includes sandy beaches beyond
enforcement agencies. intertidal line but occasionally interacting with
Objectives: the seawater.
o establish a centralized wildlife crime data o Category IIIB: includes evergreen or semi
bank. evergreen forests of islands.
o assist foreign authorities and international
XII) CENTRAL ZOO AUTHORITY & RECOGNITION
organization.
o capacity building of the wildlife crime OF ZOOs
enforcement agencies for scientific and The central government constitutes the Central
professional investigation. Zoo Authority (CZA).
o advise the Government of India on issues CZA performs the following functions:
relating to wildlife crimes having national and o Recognize or derecognize zoos.
international ramifications. o Specify the minimum standards for housing
o also assists and advises the Customs and veterinary care.
authorities in inspection of the consignments o Identify endangered species of wild animals
of flora & fauna as per the provisions of for captive breeding.
Wildlife Protection Act, CITES and EXIM Policy o Co-ordinate training of zoo personnel &
governing such an item. technical assistance to zoos in India and
XI) COASTAL PROTECTION AREAS outside India.

Marine Protected Area (MPA) XIII) NATIONAL TIGER CONSERVATION

intertidal or sub tidal terrain, together with its AUTHORITY (NTCA)
overlaying water and associated flora, fauna,
National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is a
historical and cultural features, which has been
statutory body under the Ministry of
reserved by law or other effective means to
Environment, Forests and Climate Change
(MoEFCC).
IUCN.
It was established in 2005 following the
It aims to protect and conserve the natural recommendations of the Tiger Task Force.
marine ecosystems in their pristine condition. It was constituted under enabling provisions of
the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, as amended
Notified under Wildlife (Protection),
in 2006, for strengthening tiger conservation.
Amendment Act, 2002
National Tiger Conservation Authority
These places are given special protections for administers Project Tiger. Administration of the
natural or historic marine resources by local, tiger reserves will be in accordance with
state, territorial, native, regional, or national guidelines of NTCA.
authorities. No alteration in the boundaries of a tiger reserve
shall be made except on a recommendation of
To achieve National Biodiversity Target 2 and the NTCA and the approval of the NBWL.
Aichi Biodiversity Target 11, India has identified
No State Government shall de-notify a tiger
and prioritized 106 coastal and marine sites as
reserve, except in public interest with the
Important Coastal and Marine Areas (ICMBAs) by
approval of the NTCA and the approval of the
the Wildlife Institute of India.
NBWL.
CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS NTCA is set up under the Chairmanship of the
Minister for Environment and Forests.
o Category I: covers National Parks and Sanctuaries
having entire areas in intertidal/sub-tidal or

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Functions of NTCA
o lays down standards, guidelines for tiger
conservation.
o State-level Steering Committees will be set
up in the Tiger States under the
Chairmanship of respective Chief Ministers.
o A provision has been made for the State
Governments to prepare a Tiger
Conservation Plan.
o Provision will be made for the States to
establish a Tiger Conservation Foundation.

NTCA has launched the M-STrIPES (Monitoring

System for Tigers Intensive Protection and
Ecological Status), a mobile monitoring system
for forest guards.
A Global Tiger Forum of Tiger Range Countries
has been created for addressing international
issues related to tiger conservation.

TIGER CENSUS REPORT 2019

Fourth cycle of the All-India Tiger Estimation
2018. SPECIES CONSERVATION PROGRAMS
It is done quadrennially is steered by the
XIV) PROJECT TIGER & TIGER RESERVES
NTCA with technical backstopping from the WII
and implemented by State Forest Departments. Project Tiger was launched in 1973 with 9 tiger
reserves for conserving our national animal, the
largest camera trap wildlife survey. tiger. Currently, the Project Tiger coverage has
, says the increased to 51, spread out in 18 tiger range
report. states.
The total count of tigers has risen to 2,967 in
The tiger reserves are constituted on a Core-
2018 from 2,226 in 2014, by far the biggest
Buffer Strategy.
increase in Tiger count in terms of both numbers
and percentage since 2006. o Core Areas have the legal status of a
India has achieved the target of doubling the tiger national park or a sanctuary.
count four years ahead of the deadline of 2022.
Top Performers (Numbers): Madhya o Buffer Area is the area peripheral to the
Pradesh(526)> Karnataka (524)> Uttarakhand critical tiger habitat or core area providing
(442). supplementary habitat for dispersing tigers,
Increase in Tiger population: Madhya Pradesh besides offering scope for co-existence of
(71%) > Maharashtra (64%) > Karnataka (29%). human activity. It is a mix of forest and non-
Worst Performers: Chhattisgarh and Mizoram forest land, managed as a multiple use area.
saw a decline in tiger population. The Project Tiger aims to foster an exclusive tiger
Madhya Pradesh's Pench Sanctuary and agenda in the core areas of tiger reserves, with an
Periyar sanctuary emerged as the best-managed inclusive people-oriented agenda in the buffer.
tiger reserves in the country.
No tiger has been found in the Buxa (West It is an ongoing Centrally Sponsored Scheme of
Bengal), Palamau (Jharkhand) the Ministry of Environment, Forests and
and Dampa (Mizoram) reserves. Climate Change providing central assistance to
the tiger States for tiger conservation in
designated tiger reserves.

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 The National Tiger Conservation Authority 28 TADOBA-ANDHARI TR
(NTCA) is a statutory body of the Ministry, with
an overarching supervisory/coordination role, 29 PENCH TR
performing functions as provided in the Wildlife
30 SAHYADRI TR
(Protection) Act, 1972.
31 NAWEGAON-NAGZIRA TR
TIGER RESERVES STATE
32 BOR TR
NAGARJUNSAGAR Andhra Pradesh
1
SRISAILAM TR (1) 33 DAMPA TR Mizoram (1)
2 NAMDAPHA TR
34 SIMILIPAL TR
Arunachal Odisha (2)
3 PAKKE OR PAKHUI TR
Pradesh (3) 35 SATKOSIA TR
4 KAMLANG TR
36 RANTHAMBORE TR
5 MANAS TR
37 SARISKA TR Rajasthan (3)
6 NAMERI TR
Assam (4) 38 MUKANDRA HILLS TR
7 KAZIRANGA TR KALAKAD-
39
MUNDANTHURAI TR
8 ORANG TR
40 ANAMALAI TR
9 VALMIKI TR Bihar (1)
41 MUDUMALAI TR Tamil Nadu (5)
10 INDRAVATI TR
42 SATHYAMANGALAM TR
11 UDANTI-SITANADI TR Chhattisgarh (3)
SRIVILLIPUTHUR
43
12 ACHANAKMAR TR MEGHAMALAI TR
44 KAWAL TR
13 PALAMAU TR Jharkhand (1) Telangana (2)
45 AMRABAD TR
14 BANDIPUR TR
46 DUDHWA TR
15 BHADRA TR
47 PILIBHIT TR Uttar Pradesh
DANDELI-ANSHI TIGER
16 Karnataka (5) (2)
RESERVE(KALI) TR AMANGARD (BUFFER OF
17 NAGARAHOLE TR CORBETT) TR
BILIGIRI RANGANATHA 48 CORBETT TR
18 Uttarakhand (2)
TEMPLE (BRT) TR
49 RAJAJI TR
19 PERIYAR TR
Kerala (2) 50 SUNDERBANS TR
20 PARAMBIKULAM TR West Bengal (2)
51 BUXA TR
21 KANHA TR

22 PENCH TR XV) PROJECT ELEPHANT

23 BANDHAVGARH TR Asian Elephants -- There are three subspecies

Madhya Pradesh which are the Indian, Sumatran and Sri Lankan.
24 PANNA TR (6)
Global Population: Estimated 20,000 to 40,000.
The Indian subspecies has the widest range and
25 SATPURA TR
accounts for the majority of the remaining
26 SANJAY-DUBRI TR elephants on the continent.
IUCN Red List Status: Endangered (EN).
27 MELGHAT TR Maharashtra (6) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I.

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Project Elephant was launched in 1992 for the
protection of elephants, their habitats and
corridors.
It is a centrally sponsored scheme.
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change provides the financial and technical
support to major elephant range states in the
country through Project Elephant.
It also seeks to address the issues of human-
wildlife conflict and welfare of domesticated
elephants.
Protecting the elephants from poachers,
preventing illegal ivory trade and other
unnatural causes of death are also objectives.
Elephant Corridor is defined as a
stretch/narrow strips of forested (or otherwise)
land that connects larger habitats with elephant
populations and forms a conduit for animal
movement between the habitats. There are 88
identified elephant corridors in India.
Gaj Yatra which is a nationwide awareness XV) SNOW LEOPARD CONSERVATION
campaign to celebrate elephants and highlight
the necessity of securing elephant corridors. The snow leopard inhabits the higher Himalayan
and trans-Himalayan landscape in the five states
The Monitoring the Illegal Killing of
of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Elephants (MIKE) programme, launched
Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
in 2003, is an international collaboration that
This area contributes to about 5% of the global
tracks trends in information related to the illegal
snow leopard range.
killing of elephants from across Africa and Asia, to
monitor effectiveness of field conservation Snow Leopard capital of the
efforts. world: Hemis, Ladakh
XVI) PROJECT HANGUL IUCN Status:
The Kashmir stag also called Hangul is a Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act
subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer native to 1972.
northern India.
They are listed in Appendix I of CITES & CMS,
It is the state animal of Jammu & Kashmir.
revealing the need for the highest conservation
In Kashmir, it's found in Dachigam National Park
status to the species, both globally and in India.
at elevations of 3,035 meters.
These deer once numbered from about 5,000 Project Snow Leopard (PSL) : India has been
animals in the beginning of the 20th century. conserving snow leopard and its habitat through
Unfortunately, they were threatened, due to the Project Snow Leopard (PSL). Launched in
habitat destruction, over-grazing by domestic 2009, it promotes an inclusive and participatory
livestock and poaching. approach to conservation that fully involves local
This dwindled to as low as 150 animals by 1970. communities.
However, the state of Jammu & Kashmir, along Snow Leopard is in the list of 21 critically
with the IUCN and the WWF prepared a project endangered species for the recovery
for the protection of these animals. programme of the Ministry of Environment
It became known as Project Hangul. This brought Forest & Climate Change.
great results and the population increased to Snow Leopard conservation breeding
over 340 by 1980. programme is undertaken at Padmaja Naidu

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 Himalayan Zoological Park, Darjeeling, West New Delhi Declaration on Asian
Bengal. for the conservation and protection
GOI has launched the First National Protocol on of the species.
Snow Leopard Population Assessment (1st Snow In India, rhinos are mainly found in Kaziranga
Leopard Survey) by scientific experts in NP, Pobitora WLS, Orang NP, Manas NP in
association with the Snow Leopard States/UTs Assam, Jaldapara NP and Gorumara NP in West
namely, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Bengal and Dudhwa TR in Uttar Pradesh.
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal The current global population of the Indian one-
Pradesh. The use of technology such as camera horned rhinoceros is 3,58
traps and scientific surveys will help to estimate National Park has the bulk of 2,938 rhinos in India
the numbers. while Nepal 646.
Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection
NATIONAL RHINO CONSERVATION STRATEGY
(GSLEP) Program GSLEP is a high-level inter-
governmental alliance of all the 12 snow leopard Launched in 2019, It calls for active engagement
range countries (namely, India, Nepal, Bhutan, between India and Nepal to conserve the Greater
China, Mongolia, Russia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, one-horned rhinoceros.
Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and
The plan said the single population of rhinos in
Uzbekistan)
Sukla-Phanta (Nepal), Valmiki Tiger Reserve
o It majorly focuses on the need for awareness
(India) and Chitwan National Park (Nepal) and
and understanding of the value of Snow
Dudhwa (India) is separated by the political
Leopard for the ecosystem.
boundary between the two countries.
o India is also party to the GSLEP since 2013.
o For conservation, India has identified three It asks for the management of the two
large landscapes, namely, Hemis-Spiti across population under the same protocol, instead of
Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh; Nanda Devi managing the two population separately.
Gangotri in Uttarakhand; and
Khangchendzonga Tawang across Sikkim The plan calls for expanding distribution range as
and Arunachal Pradesh. the occurrence of 90% of the rhino in one
protected area is a cause of concern and
International Snow Leopard Day came into being conservation of existing and potential rhino
on 23rd October 2013, with the adoption of habitats need to be made a national priority.
the Bishkek Declaration by 12 countries on the
conservation of snow leopards. In 2020, Indian INDIAN RHINO VISION 2020
government has launched community volunteer Launched in 2005, Indian Rhino Vision 2020 is an
programme to protect snow ambitious effort to attain a wild population of at
leopards. least 3,000 greater one-horned rhinos spread
XVI) ONE-HORNED RHINO CONSERVATION IN over 7 protected areas in the Indian state of
Assam by the year 2020.
INDIA
Seven protected areas are Kaziranga,
There are three species of rhino in Asia Greater
Pobitora, Orang & Manas National Park,
one-horned (Rhinoceros unicornis), Javan &
Laokhowa, Burachapori & Dibru Saikhowa
Sumatran.
Wildlife Sanctuary.
Javan & Sumatran (2horns) Rhino are Critically
Endangered (CE). Indian rhino vision 2020 implemented by the
Greater one-horned (or Indian) rhino department of environment and forests, Assam.
is Vulnerable (VU) in IUCN Red List.
The programme will be supported by WWF India,
All three listed under Appendix I (CITES).
the International Rhino Foundation (IRF), and a
Greater one-horned rhino is listed under
number of local NGOs.
the Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act,
1972. Translocations are the backbone of the IRV 2020
The Five rhino range nations (India, Bhutan, program.
Nepal, Indonesia and Malaysia) have signed a

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 DNA PROFILES OF ALL RHINOS It is expected to be implemented by the Ministry
of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
The Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate
Special Conservation program needs to be taken
Change (MoEFCC) has begun a project to create
up for Gangetic Dolphin which is a national
DNA profiles of all rhinos in the country.
aquatic animal and also indicator species for the
The project will help in curbing poaching and
river Ganga spread over several states.
gathering evidence in wildlife crimes involving
rhinos. XVIII) INDIAN CROCODILE CONSERVATION
The database will be hosted in the Wildlife PROJECT
Institute of India (WII) headquarters in
Dehradun. The Crocodile Conservation Project was launched
in 1975 in different States.
XVII) PROJECT DOLPHIN
The Gharial and Saltwater crocodile conservation
Gangetic Dolphin: generally blind and catch their programme were first implemented in Odisha in
prey by emitting ultrasonic sound. early 1975 and subsequently the Mugger
It is India's national aquatic animal and is conservation programme was initiated.
popularly known as
As a result of the programme, the estimated
It is found mainly in the Indian
number of the saltwater crocodiles increased
subcontinent, particularly in Ganga-
from 96 in 1976 to 1,640 in 2012 in India.
Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-
Sangu river systems. Also on tributaries of Ganga. GHARIAL
IUCN Status: Endangered (EN)
It is listed on CITES Appendix-I. o Gharials, sometimes called gavials, are a type of
It is classified under Schedule 1, Wildlife Asian crocodilian distinguished by their long, thin
(Protection) Act, 1972 snouts which resembles a pot.
Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (VGDS) o The population of Gharials are a good indicator of
clean river water.
sanctuary for its national aquatic animal. o The gharial is known to be a relatively harmless,
The Gangetic dolphin census suggests that the fish-eating species.
Gangetic dolphin population in India could be o The Chambal river is known as the primary
about 2,500-3,000 (1,272 dolphins in Uttar habitat of gharials.
Pradesh and 962 in Assam). o Other Himalayan rivers like Ghagra, Gandak river,
Girwa river, Ramganga river and the Sone river
Project Dolphin will be on the lines of Project are secondary habitats for gharials.
Tiger, which has helped increase the tiger
population.

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o Illegal sand mining, poaching, increased river
pollution, dam construction, massive-scale
fishing operations and floods.
o IUCN List of Threatened Species: Critically
Endangered
o CITES : Appendix I
o Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 : Schedule I

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 LIST OF NATIONAL PARKS IN INDIA
NATIONAL NAMERI NP
STATE RIVERS/LAKES
PARK
VALMIKI NP Bihar
MOUNT HARRIET
NP INDRAVATI NP

SOUTH BUTTON GURU GHASIDAS Chhattisga

ISLAND NP NP rh

CAMPBELL BAY NP KANGER GHATI NP

GALATHEA NP MOLLEM NP Goa

MAHATMA VANSDA NP
GANDHI MARINE Andaman
NP & Nicobar BLACKBUCK NP

MIDDLE BUTTON Hiran, Shetrunji

ISLAND NP River, Datardi,
Gujrat Shingoda,
GIR FOREST NP
NORTH BUTTON Machhundri,
ISLAND NP Godavari and
Raval
RANI JHANSI
MARINE NP
MARINE NP GULF
OF KUTCH
SADDLE PEAK NP
KALESAR NP
PAPIKONDA NP Godavari river Haryana
SULTANPUR NP
RAJIV GANDHI NP
(RAMESWARAM) Andhra
GREAT
Pradesh HIMALAYAN NP
SRI
VENKATESWARA INDERKILLA NP
NP Himachal
KHIRGANGA NP Pradesh
NAMDAPHA NP
Arunachal
Pradesh PIN VALLEY NP
MOULING NP
SIMBALBARA NP
MANAS NP
DACHIGAM NP
KAZIRANGA NP
KISHTWAR NP J&K
DIBRU-SAIKHOWA Brahmaputra, Lo
Assam
NP hit River, Dibru SALIM ALI NP

ORANG NP North Koyal

BETLA NP Jharkhand
River
DEHING PATKAI NP Dihing river

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BANNERGHATTA PANNA NP
NP
SANJAY NP
Kali River
ANSHI NP
(Karnataka) SATPURA NP

Karnataka Kabini VAN VIHAR NP

BANDIPUR NP River, Moyar
TADOBA NP
River
SANJAY GANDHI
NAGARHOLE NP
NP
Maharasht
KUDREMUKH NP
CHANDOLI NP ra
Pambar River
ERAVIKULAM NP GUGAMAL NP
(Kerala)
NAVEGAON NP
PAMBADUM
SHOLA NP
KEIBUL LAMJAO
Loktak Lake
NP
Periyar Manipur
PERIYAR NP river, Pamba SIROHI NP
Kerala river
BALPHAKRAM NP
Kunthipuzha Meghalaya
SILENT VALLEY NP
River NOKREK NP

MATHIKETTAN MURLEN NP
SHOLA NP
Mizoram
PHAWNGPUI BLUE Chhimtuipui
ANAMUDI SHOLA MOUNTAIN NP River
Pambar River
NP
NTANGKI NP Nagaland
HEMIS NP Ladakh
SIMLIPAL NP
KANHA NP
Brahmani
PENCH NP Odisha
River, Baitarani
BHITARKANIKA NP
River, Dhamra
KUNO NP
River, Pathsala
BANDHAVGARH
KEOLADEO NP
NP
Madhya
RANTHAMBORE
KUNO NP Pradesh
NP

OMKARESHWAR
DESERT NP
NP Rajasthan
MUKUNDRA HILLS
MADHAV NP
NP

MANDLA PLANT
SARISKA TIGER
FOSSILS NP
RESERVE NP

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KHANGCHENDZON NANDA DEVI
Sikkim
GA NP NATIONAL PARK

MUDUMALAI NP Moyar river VALLEY OF

FLOWERS NP
MUKURTHI NP
RAJAJI NP Uttarakhan Penna river
GUINDY NP d
GANGOTRI NP Ganga
INDIRA GANDHI Tamil Nadu
WILDLIFE JIM CORBETT NP Ramganga
SANCTUARY AND
NP GOVIND PASHU
VIHAR NP
GULF OF MANNAR
MARINE NP SUNDARBANS NP

KASU Jaldhaka,
BRAHMANANDA GORUMARA NP
[Naora]]
REDDY NP

Telangana JALDAPARA NP
MAHAVIR HARINA West
VANASTHALI NP Bengal
BUXA TIGER
RESERVE
MRUGAVANI NP
NEORA VALLEY NP
BISON (RAJBARI)
NP
SINGALILA NP
Tripura
CLOUDED
LEOPARD NP

Uttar
DUDHWA NP
Pradesh

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 BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA

MAB BIOSPHERE RESERVES (MAB)

There are a total 11 biosphere reserves of India which have been recognized by UNESCO under Man and Biosphere
Reserve program:

1. NILGIRI (FIRST TO BE INCLUDED) 7. SIMILIPAL

2. GULF OF MANNAR 8. ACHANAKMAR AMARKANTAK
3. SUNDERBAN 9. GREAT NICOBAR
4. NANDA DEVI 10. AGASTHYAMALA
5. NOKREK 11. KHANGCHENDZONGA (ADDED UNDER MAN AND
6. PACHMARHI BIOSPHERE RESERVE PROGRAM IN 2018)

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 TIGER RESERVES IN INDIA

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 -8g
Handout 11

POLLUTION
POLLUTION & POLLUTANTS 1) Quantitative Pollutants These substances often
naturally exist in nature and acquire the status of
Pollution excessive
addition of certain undesirable materials to the reaches beyond a threshold level.
physical environment (water, air and lands),
E.g. Carbon Dioxide, if present in the atmosphere
A pollutant can be a physical, chemical or in concentration greater than normal quantity,
biological substance released into the causes measurable effects in environment such
environment which is directly or indirectly as global warming, then it is known as a
harmful to environment and its components. quantitative pollutant.
In India, Environment Pollution Act, 1986 defines 2) Qualitative Pollutants These types of pollutants
the concepts of environmental pollution and generally do not exist naturally but are man-
environmental pollutant. made. E.g. herbicides, insecticides etc.
As per the act:
"environmental pollution" means the 5) Pollutants usually enter the environment
presence in the environment of any through:
environmental pollutant. 1) Point Sources Pollutants may be discharged
"environmental pollutant" means any solid, from sources such as a pipe, ditch, ship, factory
liquid or gaseous substance present in such smokestacks etc. This type of pollution is known
concentration as may be, or tend to be, as Point Source Pollution.
injurious to environment. 2) Non-Point Sources Some category of pollutants
may enter the environment from sources such as
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS agricultural run-off, residential areas, urban
runoff and energy production etc. This type of
1) According to Origin:
pollution is known as Non-Pointed Source
1) Natural
Pollution.
2) Anthropogenic
2) According to the form in which pollutants persist AIR POLLUTION
in the environment after their release:
1) Primary pollutants Pollutants which persist in
the atmosphere of one or more contaminants in
the original form in which they are added to the
such quality and for such duration as it is
environment, E.g. DDT, plastic etc.
injurious, or tends to be injurious, to human
2) Secondary Pollutants These are formed by
reaction among various primary pollutants. E.g.
Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate (PAN) is formed by the SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
interaction of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons
released by means of fossil fuel combustion. A) INDOOR AIR POLLUTION SOURCES

3) From an ecological point of view: 1. Asbestos -- found in materials used commonly in

1) Biodegradable Pollutants These are pollutants the automotive industry & home construction
which can be rapidly broken down by (coatings, paints, building materials, ceiling and
microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi or by floor tiles).
other biological activities. E.g. domestic sewage, 2. Formaldehyde -- a colourless gas can be found in
discarded vegetables, etc. paints, sealants, and wood floors. Carpets and
2) Non-Biodegradable Pollutants these are the upholstery use formaldehyde as a permanent
pollutants which cannot be degraded by adhesive.
microorganisms or by other natural processes. 3. Radon -- can be found underneath in various
E.g. lead, mercury etc. types of bedrock and other building materials,
that can seep indoor.
4) According to their existence in environment:

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 10. Pesticides that are used in and around the
home to kill household pests are classed as semi-
volatile organic compounds and include a variety
of chemicals.

B) OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION SOURCES

1. Vehicular Emission lead to the release of oxides

of Nitrogen, Sulphur, Carbon, Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs)
2. Thermal Power Generation causes fly ash
production.
3. Mining & Construction Nano-particles,
particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5, PM1)
4. Deforestation & Degradation
5. Natural Processes like forest fires, volcanic
eruption etc leads to particulate matter and fly
ash release into the atmosphere.
4. Tobacco smoke -- comes from outdoor and 6. Biological Pollutants including pollen grains,
indoor areas. animal dander, fungal spores etc.
5. Biological pollutants include mold, bacteria, 7. Refrigerants CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, other Halons.
viruses, pollen, dust mites, animal dander etc 8. Agricultural Activities & Stubble Burning
found especially in dam conditions. includes release of methane, oxides of carbon,
6. Carbon-Monoxide & Nitrogen Oxides Wood PM, oxides of sulphur, oxides of nitrogen etc.
stoves, space heaters, water heaters, fireplaces
and dryers, the fuel-burning combustion
appliances become dangerous in poorly
ventilated homes.
7. Volatile Organic Compounds Varnishes, paints,
Synthetic fragrances, perfumes, air fresheners
and deodorizers and certain cleaning household
products can also emit pollution into the air that
you breathe inside your home.
8. Fumes from paraffin wax candles used at home
release toxic chemicals such as toluene and
benzene that can quickly build up to an unhealthy
level in enclosed areas.
9. Dry cleaned clothes contain trichloroethylene
and perchloroethylene, which are highly toxic
substances.
MAJOR GASEOUS AIR POLLUTANTS SOURCES & EFFECTS

POLLUTANT MAIN SOURCES EFFECTS

Health Effects headache, dizziness,
Fossil fuel combustion
vomiting, nausea, heart disease etc.
from vehicles, thermal
Oxides of Carbon Environmental Effects
powerplants etc.
a) Carbon Monoxide (CO) o CO causes the formation of
Natural processes like
b) Carbon Dioxide (CO2) tropospheric ozone, methane etc.
volcanic eruptions, forest
o CO2 is an important greenhouse gas
fires etc
(GHG).

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 o Burning of carbon-based fuels since the
industrial revolution has led to global
warming, ocean acidification etc.
Health Effects They aggravate asthmatic
Oxides of Nitrogen Fossil fuel combustion
conditions.
a) Nitrogen Monoxide from vehicles.
Environmental Effects NOx gases react to
(NO) Coal burning
form smog and acid rain as well as being
b) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Excess use of fertilizers like
central to the formation of tropospheric
c) Nitrous Oxide (N2O) urea that contain NOx.
ozone.
Fossil fuel combustion
from vehicles. Health Effects Inhaling sulphur dioxide is
Coal burning associated with increased respiratory
Oxides of Sulphur
Various industrial symptoms and premature death.
a) Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
processes. Environmental Effects It contributes to
Natural release from acid rain.
sulphide ores etc.
VOCs are a group of Health effects irritation of the eye, nose
carbon-based chemicals and throat, headaches, nausea and loss of
that easily evaporate at coordination etc.
4) Volatile Organic room temperature. Environmental Effects Under sunlight,
Compounds(VOC) They are mainly contained VOCs react with nitrogen oxides emitted
in perfumes, hair sprays, mainly from vehicles, power plants and
furniture polish, glues, air industrial activities to form ozone, which in
fresheners etc. turn helps the formation of fine particulates.
It is created by chemical
reactions between oxides
Health effects it is a greenhouse gas with
of nitrogen (NOx gases)
highly toxic effects. Ozone makes our eyes
and volatile organic
5) Tropospheric Ozone (O3) itchy, and watery.
compounds (VOCs).
Environmental Effects -- a major
The combination of these
component in photochemical smog.
chemicals in the presence
of sunlight form ozone.
Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) are used in CFC are infamous for depleting the Ozone
Other Gaseous Compound
refrigerators, air Layer.
a) Chloro-Fluro
conditioners and aerosol Exposure to high levels of radon through
Carbons (CFCs)
sprays. breathing air is known to cause lung
b) Radon
Radon is a gas emitted diseases.
naturally by the soil

MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS AEROSOLS According to particle size aerosols can be

classified into the following types:
Aerosols are minute particles suspended in the 1. Nanoparticles (1 to 100 nanometres)
atmosphere(AIR + SOLID/LIQUID). 2. Particulate Pollutants (0.001 to 500
Examples of aerosols include volcanic dust, micrometres)
desert dust, fog, smoke, human made dust, 3. Fly Ash(0.5 to 300 micrometres)
carbon black etc.
Aerosols interact both directly and indirectly with 1. NANOPARTICLES
the Earth's environment in various ways. Nanoparticles includes ambient nanosized
They sometimes are responsible for particles(< 100 nm)
o Global Warming/Cooling The major natural sources of atmospheric
o Ozone depletion nanoparticles are atmospheric formations,
o Air pollution vegetation and sea sprays. Volcanic eruptions or
o Acid rain etc.

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forest fires also produce, though sporadically, a emitted from power plants, industries and
large number of atmospheric nanoparticles. automobiles.
They are also produced artificially from IC These particles, by-products of emissions from
engines, thermal powerplants and other factories, vehicular pollution, construction
industrial processes. activities and road dust, are not dispersed, and
Wastewater treatment streams, landfill and stay suspended in the air that we breathe.
combustion of products containing The finer the particles, the more difficult they are
nanomaterials are some of the means through to disperse and the deeper they can penetrate
which they may end up in the environment, into the blood stream, causing more harm.
although it is most likely that they do so as o PM 10 can enter the respiratory tract, and
modified forms from their primary counterpart. have been associated with risks like
They vary very much in size and can be bronchitis, asthma, and upper respiratory
transported over thousands of kilometres and tract infections.
remain suspended in the air for several days. o PM 2.5 are considerably finer, penetrate into
Upon entry into the environment, nanoparticles the lower respiratory tract and the blood
may remain intact or undergo one or more of the stream, causing cardiovascular problems.
following: o PM 1, which are so much finer than PM 2.5,
o Dissolution can penetrate the cardiovascular stream even
o Speciation (i.e. Association with other ionic or further, and give rise to lasting conditions,
molecular dissolved chemical substances) such as predisposing people to heart
o Biological or chemical transformation to diseases. Studies in the west have shown that
other chemicals, and/or complete PM 1 can lead to premature births and affect
mineralization (to carbon dioxide and water) foetal development.
o Agglomeration/ deagglomeration
3) FLY ASH
o Settling etc.
NPs in the environment influences dust cloud Fly ash is a light coal dust coming out with the
formation, ozone depletion, atmospheric gases of coal-fired boilers.
temperature change, affecting albedo etc. The particle size of fly ash varies from one
micron to several micrometres(normally up to
2) PARTICULATE MATTER (PM)
300 micrometres)
Particulate Matter represents a mixture of solid In India, electricity generation is the main activity
particles and liquid droplets found in the air. that generates fly ash.
Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke, Fly ash pollutes air and water and may cause
are large or dark enough to be seen with the heavy metal pollution in water bodies.
naked eye. Others are so small they can only be Fly ash particles are oxide rich and consist of
detected using an electron microscope. silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium, and
Particle pollution includes: magnesium and toxic heavy metals like lead,
a) PM10 : inhalable particles, with diameters arsenic, cobalt, and copper.
that are generally 10 micrometres and Uses of Fly Ash used as a Pozzolan to produce
smaller. hydraulic cement, filler material in construction,
b) PM2.5 : fine inhalable particles, with used in road construction.
diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometres The limiting factors in fly ash utilization on land
and smaller. are changes in the chemical equilibrium of soil
c) PM1 :These are extremely fine particulate affecting its pH, salinity, levels of certain toxic
matter (PM) particles of diameter less than 1 elements etc.
micron significantly smaller than PM 2.5 (of
GENERAL IMPACTS OF AEROSOLS (NP/PM/FLY ASH)
diameter 2.5 microns)
ON ENVIRONMENT
Most particles form in the atmosphere as a result
of complex reactions of chemicals such as sulphur On Atmosphere
dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which are pollutants o Reduced visibility
o Atmospheric temperature change

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 Ozone Depletion o Fly ash affects crops and vegetation as a
o Change in wind pattern(affects monsoon) result of its direct deposition on leaf surfaces.
o Reduced air quality (E.g. formation of brown o Disposal in sea, river or ponds damage the
air: The brown air is actually a layer of aquatic life; fly ash causes siltation problems.
atmospheric pollution made out of different o It changes the pH values of water bodies.
harmful aerosols. This mainly happens due to On Living Things
the excessive air pollution) o Causes bioaccumulation/ concentration/
On Land & Water magnification.
o Affects horticulture, agriculture and forest o Long inhalation causes serious respiratory
fields. problems.
o Long and continuous use of fly ash as fertilizer o Skin cancers in human.
makes hardpan underground. o Other health effects( pneumonia)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS

1. ACID RAIN/ACID DEPOSITION o Acid rain removes minerals and nutrients from
the soil that trees need to grow.
Acid rain is a broad term that includes any form o Acid rain contains nitrogen, and this can have an
of precipitation with acidic components, such as impact on some ecosystems (eutrophication).
sulfuric or nitric acid. This can include rain, snow, o When acid rain and dry acidic particles fall to
fog, hail or even dust that is acidic. earth, the nitric and sulfuric acid that make the
Acid rain results when sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particles acidic can land on statues, buildings,
nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the and other manmade structures, and damage
atmosphere and transported by wind and air their surfaces.
currents. o In the atmosphere, SO2 and NOX gases can be
The SO2and NOX react with water, oxygen and transformed into sulphate and nitrate particles,
other chemicals to form Sulfuric & Nitric Acids. while some NOX can also react with other
These then mix with water and other materials pollutants to form tropospheric ozone which
before falling to the ground. makes the air hazy and difficult to see through.
There are two forms of Acid Deposition: o SO2 and NOX react in the atmosphere to form
1) Wet Deposition Wet deposition is what we fine sulphate and nitrate particles that people can
most commonly think of as acid rain. The inhale into their lungs- causes respiratory
sulfuric and nitric acids formed in the problems.
atmosphere fall to the ground mixed with
rain, snow, fog, or hail.
2) Dry Deposition Acidic particles and gases
can also deposit from the atmosphere in the
absence of moisture as dry deposition. The
acidic particles and gases may deposit to
surfaces (water bodies, vegetation,
buildings). When the accumulated acids are
washed off a surface by the next rain, this
acidic water flows over and through the
ground, and can harm plants and wildlife,
such as insects and fish.

EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN/DEPOSITION

o Acid rain reduces the quality of land and aquatic

ecosystems.
o As it flows through the soil, acidic rainwater can
leach aluminium from soil clay particles and then
flow into streams and lakes.

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 2. PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG Many other hazardous substances are also
formed, such as peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
Photochemical Smog is a type of smog produced
The largest contributor of photochemical smog is
when ultraviolet light from the sun reacts with
automobiles, while coal-fired power plants and
nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere.
some other power plants also produce the
It is visible as a Brown Haze, and is most necessary pollutants to facilitate its production.
prominent during the morning and afternoon,
Due to its abundance in areas of warmer
especially in densely populated, warm cities.
temperatures, photochemical smog is most
It forms in the morning when Nitrogen Oxides common in the summer.
produced by means of fossil fuel burning and
other combustion processes, are introduced into EFFECTS OF PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
the atmosphere.
o The main visible effect is the brown haze that can
The two major primary pollutants, Nitrogen
be seen above many cities. The brown tinge is
Oxides & VOCs, combine to change in sunlight in
caused by very small liquid and solid particles
a series of chemical reactions, outlined below
scattering the light.
(refer diagram), to create what are known as
o Chemicals such as nitrogen oxides, ozone and
Secondary Pollutants.
peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) can have harmful
The secondary pollutant that causes the most effects on plants. These substances can reduce or
concern is the Ozone that forms at ground level. even stop growth in plants by reducing
While ozone is produced naturally in the upper photosynthesis.
atmosphere, it is a dangerous substance when
o Ozone in PCS can damage various compounds. It
found at ground level. can cause the cracking of rubber, the
reduction in tensile strength of textiles,
fading of dyed fibres and cracking of
paint.
o damage
artworks and books is of cultural
importance, and some museums and
libraries have taken steps to minimise
this effect.
o Health effects of photochemical
smog include heart and lung diseases,
eye irritation, cancer etc.

INDIAN EFFORTS TO MANAGE AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution in India poses serious health and o The 51% of pollution is caused by the industrial
environmental issues. pollution, 27% by vehicles, 17% by crop burning
and 5% by Diwali fireworks.
FACTS & FIGURES
o Air pollution contributes to the premature deaths
o State of Global Air 2020 revealed that India had of 2 million Indians every year.
faced the highest exposure to toxic air in the o The Global Burden of Disease Study of 2017
world last year. analysed in a report by The Lancet indicated that
o Of the most polluted cities in the world, 22 out of 76.8% of Indians are exposed to higher ambient
30 were in India in 2020. which is
o As per a study based on 2016 data, at least 140 significantly above the national limit
million people in India breathe air that is 10 times recommenced by national guidelines on ambient
or more over the WHO safe limit. air pollution.

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o Approximately 76% of households in rural India a) Promotion of hybrid vehicles( FAME, NEMMP
are reliant on solid biomass for cooking purposes 2020)
which contributes further to the disease burden b) Promotion of CNG/LNG vehicles
of ambient air pollution experienced by the c) Shift from BS4 to BS6
population of India. 4) To Prevent Indoor Air Pollution
To fight the rising air pollution and prevent its a) Promotion of clean energy- PAHAL,
social-economical-environmental losses; India SOUBHAGYA, UJALA
has adopted the following solutions/measures: b) Green Building Code & GRIHA Ratings
c) Promotion Green Crackers
1) Legislative Measures
a) Air Act, 1981 & Central Pollution Control 5) Technological Solutions
Board a) Electrostatic Precipitators
b) Catalytic Converters
2) To Prevent Industrial Emissions
c) WAYU
a) Fly-Ash Utilisation Policy
b) National Air Quality Monitoring Program 6) To Prevent Emission From Unscientific
c) National Clean Air Program (NCAP) Agricultural Practices
d) National Biofuel Policy 2018 a) Happy Seeder Machines
e) SAFAR b) KUSUM Scheme

3) To Prevent Vehicular Emissions

THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT OF 1981 AND AMENDMENT, 1987
Objective/ To improve the quality of air and to prevent, control and abate air pollution in the
Basic features country.

The Air Act expanded the authority of the central and state boards
Institutions Created
established under the Water Act, to include air pollution control

All industries operating within designated air pollution control areas must obtain

Power Distribution The states are required to prescribe emission standards for industry and
automobiles after consulting the central board and noting its ambient air quality
standards.

Ministry Involved Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

Evolution & Comparison the Air Act and

with other Acts extended the Act to include Noise Pollution.

CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD (CPCB) o To promote cleanliness of streams and wells
in different areas of the States by prevention,
The Central Pollution Control Board of India is a control and abatement of water pollution.
statutory organisation under the Ministry of o To improve the quality of air and to prevent,
Environment, Forest and Climate Change. control or abate air pollution in the country.
It was established in 1974 under the Water Act, Other important functions of the Central Board at
1974. the National Level include:
The CPCB is also entrusted with the powers and o Advise the Central Government on any
functions under the Air Act, 1981. matter concerning prevention and control of
It serves as a field formation and also provides water and air pollution and improvement of
technical services to the Ministry of Environment the quality of air.
and Forests of the provisions of the Environment o Co-ordinate the activities of the State Board
(Protection) Act, 1986. and resolve disputes among them.
Principal Functions of the CPCB are:

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 o Plan and organise training of persons The monitoring is being carried out with the help
engaged in programme on the prevention, of Central Pollution Control Board; State Pollution
control or abatement of water and air Control Boards; Pollution Control Committees;
pollution. National Environmental Engineering Research
o Organise through mass media, a Institute (NEERI), Nagpur.
comprehensive mass awareness programme
on the prevention, control or abatement of NATIONAL CLEAN AIR PROGRAM (NCAP)
water and air pollution. It was launched by the MoEFCC in January 2019.
o Collect, compile and publish technical and It is the first-ever effort in the country to frame
statistical data relating to water and air a national framework for air quality
pollution and the measures devised for their management with a time-bound reduction
effective prevention, control or abatement. target.
o Prepare manuals, codes and guidelines It seeks to cut the concentration of
relating to treatment and disposal of sewage coarse (PM10) & fine particles ( PM2.5) by at
and trade effluents as well as for stack gas least 20% in the next five years (by
cleaning devices, stacks and ducts. 2024), with 2017 as the base year for
o Lay down, modify or annul, in consultation comparison.
with the State Governments concerned, the
Non-attainment cities: These are those that have
standards for stream or well, and lay down
fallen short of the National Ambient Air Quality
standards for the quality of air.
Standards (NAAQS) for over five years. Initially,
NATIONAL AIR QUALITY MONITORING 102 cities from 23 States and UTs were chosen as
PROGRAM (NAMP) non-attainment cities.
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) will
Central Pollution Control Board is executing a execute this nation-wide programme in
nation-wide programme of ambient air quality consonance with the section 162 (b) of the Air
monitoring known as National Air Quality (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1986.
Monitoring Programme (NAMP). As part of the programme, the Centre also plans
It covers 344 cities/towns in 29 states and 6 Union to scale up the air quality monitoring network
Territories of the country. across India.
The Objectives of the NAMP are: The plan proposes a three-tier system, including
o to determine status and trends of ambient air real-time physical data collection, data archiving,
quality. and an action trigger system in all 102 cities,
o to ascertain the compliance of NAAQS besides extensive plantation plans, research on
o to Identify Non-attainment Cities.
o to obtain the knowledge and understanding
National Air Quality Monitoring
necessary for developing preventive and Program (NAMP) -- AQI
corrective measures.
o to understand the natural cleansing process
undergoing in the environment through
Reduction of PM10 & PM2.5
pollution dilution, dispersion, wind-based
movement, dry deposition, precipitation and
chemical transformation of pollutants
generated. Non Attainment Cities
Under NAMP each station records about 104
observations a year covering Four Air Pollutants:
National Clean Air Program
1. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) (NCAP)
2. Oxides of Nitrogen (such as NO2)
3. Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter
(RSPM / PM10) Reduction of PM10 & PM2.5 by
4. Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) 20-30% (2024)

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 clean-technologies, landscaping of major arterial o NO2
roads, and stringent industrial standards. o SO2
It also proposes state-level plans of e-mobility in o CO
the two-wheeler sector, rapid augmentation of o O3
charging infrastructure, stringent o NH3
implementation of BS-VI norms, boosting public o Pb
transportation system, and adoption of third-
party audits for polluting industries.
ADOPTION OF BHARAT STAGE 6 (BS VI) NORMS
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
The BS norms are instituted by the government
(NAAQS)
to regulate the emission of air pollutants from
The NAAQS have been revisited and revised in motor vehicles.
November 2009 for 12 pollutants, which include: The norms limit the release of air pollutants such
as nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide,
o sulphur dioxide (SO2)
hydrocarbons, particulate matter (PM) and
o nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
sulphur oxides from vehicles using internal
o PM 10
combustion engines.
o PM 2.5
The norms are meant to be adopted by using
o Ozone (O3)
appropriate fuel and technology.
o Carbon Monoxide (CO)
As decided initially, BS V would have been rolled
o Benzene
out by 2021 and BS VI in 2024, but leapfrog to BS
o Ammonia
VI norms by 2020 (skipping BS V) had to be done
o Benzo Pyrene
because of the carbon footprint obligations.
o Lead (Pb)
o Arsenic DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BS IV AND BS VI ARE
o Nickel (Ni)
o The extent of sulphur is the major difference
NATIONAL AIR QUALITY INDEX (AQI) between Bharat Stage IV and Bharat Stage VI
norms.
Launched by the Environment Ministry in April
o BS-IV fuels contain 50 parts per million (ppm)
2015.
sulphur; the BS-VI grade fuel only has 10 ppm
Initiative under .
sulphur.
It helps the common man to judge the air quality
o BS VI can bring:
within his vicinity.
PM in diesel cars down by 80 per cent.
Graded Response Action Plan for Delhi and NCR
nitrogen oxides from diesel cars by 70 per
has been prepared for implementation under
cent and in petrol cars by 25 per cent.
different AQI categories.
o BS VI also makes onboard diagnostics (OBD)
There are six AQI categories namely Good, mandatory for all vehicles.
Satisfactory, Moderately polluted, Poor, Very o Bharat Stage VI norms will also change the way
Poor, and Severe. particulate matter is measured. It will now be
The AQI will consider 8 pollutants: measured by number standard instead of mass
o PM 10 standard.
o PM2.5

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 WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is the addition/presence of 2) INDUSTRIAL WASTE
undesirable substances to/in water such as
Industrial discharge from petroleum, paper
organic, inorganic, biological, radiological, heat,
manufacturing, metal extraction and processing,
which degrades the quality of water so that it
chemical manufacturing, etc., that often contain toxic
becomes unfit for use.
substances, notably, heavy metals (defined as
Natural sources of pollution of water are soil
elements with density > 5 g/cm3 such as mercury,
erosion, leaching of minerals from rocks (due to
cadmium, copper, lead, arsenic) and a variety of
natural solubility and solubility triggered by acid
organic compounds.
rain) and decaying of organic matter.
3) AGRICULTURAL SOURCES
CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION
Agricultural runoff contains dissolved salts such
1) SEWAGE WATER as nitrates, phosphates, ammonia, potassium
Domestic, hospital sewage and sewage from and other nutrients, and toxic metal ions and
other establishments contain human and animal organic compounds.
excreta, food residues, cleaning agents, Excess fertilisers may reach the groundwater by
detergents, many undesirable pathogens etc. leaching or may be mixed with surface water.
Presence of organic and inorganic wastes in Pesticides, insecticides, fungicides, herbicides,
water decreases the Dissolved Oxygen(DO) etc contain a wide range of non-biodegradable
content of the water. chemicals such as chlorinated hydrocarbons
The higher amounts of waste increase the rates (CHCs. E.g. DDT, Endosulfan etc.),
of decomposition and O2 consumption thereby organophosphates, metallic salts, carbonates,
decreases the DO content of water. etc.
Water having low DO content below 8.0 mg/L 4) THERMAL & RADIATION POLLUTION
(contaminated); below. 4.0 mg/L (highly
polluted). Discharge of hot water may increase the
temperature of the receiving water by 10 to 15 °C
BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) above the ambient water temperature. This is
o Water pollution by organic wastes is measured in thermal pollution.
terms of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). Power plants (thermal & nuclear), chemical and
o BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed other industries use a lot of water for cooling
by bacteria in decomposing the Organic Wastes purposes, and the used hot water is discharged
present. in water. It is expressed in milligrams of into rivers, streams or oceans.
oxygen per litre of water. Increase in water temperature decreases
o The higher value of BOD indicates low DO dissolved oxygen in the water.
content of water. In addition aquatic organisms are adapted to a
o Since BOD is limited to biodegradable materials, uniform steady temperature of the environment.
it is not a reliable method of measuring water A sudden rise in temperature kills fishes and
pollution. other aquatic animals.
Nuclear accidents near water bodies (E.g.
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD) Fukushima Daiichi) pose the risk of radiation
o COD is a slightly better mode used to measure leakage (radiation exposure) and thereby causes
pollution load in the water. mutations in the DNA of marine organisms.
o COD measures the amount of oxygen in parts per Radioactive iodine tends to be absorbed by the
million required to oxidise organic thyroid gland and can cause thyroid cancer.
(biodegradable & non-biodegradable) & 5) OIL SPILLS
oxidizable inorganic compounds in the water
sample. The most common cause of oil spill is leakage
during marine transport and leakage from
underground storage tanks.

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 An oil spill could occur during offshore oil o The nutrient-enrichment of the lakes promotes
production as well. the growth of algae, aquatic plants and various
Oil being lighter than water covers the water fauna. This process is known as natural
surface as a thin film cutting off oxygen to eutrophication.
floating plants and other producers. Fires caused
by oil spills further accentuates the oxygen (B) SURFACE WATER POLLUTION
depletion.
1) Eutrophication/Cultural Eutrophication
6) INVASIVE SPECIES Nutrient enrichment of lakes at an accelerated rate is
caused by human activities and the consequent
Aquatic weeds like water hyacinth grow
ageing phenomenon is known as cultural
abundantly in eutrophic water bodies and lead to
eutrophication.
an imbalance in the ecosystem.
They cause havoc by their excessive growth Eutrophication is the response to the addition of
leading to stagnation of polluted water. nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates.
On the basis of their nutrient content, lakes are
TYPES OF WATER POLLUTION
categorized as Oligotrophic (very low nutrients),
(A) UNDERGROUND WATER POLLUTION Mesotrophic (moderate nutrients) and
In India at many places, the groundwater is Eutrophic (highly nutrient rich).
threatened with contamination due to seepage A vast majority of lakes in India are either
from industrial and municipal wastes and eutrophic or mesotrophic because of the
effluents, sewage channels and agricultural nutrients derived from their surroundings or
runoff. organic wastes entering them.
Pollutants like fluorides, uranium, heavy metals 2) Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB)
and nutrients like nitrates and phosphates are
common in many parts of India. Fertilization of aquatic ecosystem happens during
7) Nitrates Excess nitrate in drinking water reacts eutrophication is the response to the addition of
with haemoglobin to form non-functional nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates
methaemoglobin and impairs oxygen transport. naturally or artificially.
This condition is called Methemoglobinemia or Phytoplankton (algae and blue-green bacteria)
Blue Baby Syndrome. thrive on the excess nutrients and their
8) Trace metals Include lead, mercury, cadmium, population explosion covers almost entire
copper, chromium and nickel. surface layer. This condition is known as algal
9) Arsenic Seepage of industrial and mine bloom.
discharges, fly ash ponds of thermal power plants Most algal blooms are not harmful, but some
can lead to arsenic in groundwater. Chronic produce toxins. These are known as Harmful
exposure to arsenic causes Black Foot Disease. Algal Blooms (HABs).
10) Fluoride Excess fluoride in drinking water Some algal blooms when died or eaten, release
causes neuromuscular disorders, neuro & hepatotoxins which can kill aquatic
gastrointestinal problems, teeth deformity, organism & pose a threat to humans. E.g.
hardening of bones and stiff and painful joints Shellfish poisoning.
(skeletal fluorosis). Pain in bones and joint and Algal blooms accentuate the rate of oxygen
outward bending of legs from the knees is called depletion as the population of phytoplankton is
Knock-Knee Syndrome. very high.
The primary consumers like small fish are killed
NATURAL EUTROPHICATION
due to oxygen deprivation caused by algal
o Lakes and other water bodies receive their water blooms.
from surface runoff and along with its various Further, more oxygen is taken up by
chemical substances and minerals. microorganisms during the decomposition
o Over periods spanning millennia, ageing occurs process of dead algae, plants and fishes.
as the lakes accumulate mineral and organic The new anaerobic conditions (absence of
matter and gradually, get filled up. oxygen) created to promote the growth of

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 bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum which EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION
produces toxins deadly to aquatic organisms,
birds and mammals. Effects of Water Pollution on Human Health
Unusually warm water is conducive to algal o Undesirable pathogenic microorganisms lead
blooms. to outbreak of serious diseases, such as
typhoid, cholera, etc.
Algal blooms can be any colours, but the most
o Metals like lead, zinc, arsenic, copper,
common ones are red or brown. These blooms
mercury and cadmium in industrial
are commonly referred to as red or brown tides.
wastewaters adversely affect humans and
New species invasion Eutrophication may
other animals. Methyl Mercury causes
cause the ecosystem competitive by
Minamata disease, Lead causes lead
transforming the normal limiting nutrient to
poisoning, cadmium can cause itai itai
abundant level. This cause shifting in species
disease also called ouch-ouch disease.
composition of the ecosystem.
Loss of coral reefs: Occurs due to decrease in Effects of Water Pollution on the Environment
water transparency (increased turbidity). o Eutrophication & algal bloom leads to ageing
of lakes & waterbodies.
3) Marine Pollution
o few toxic substances (e.g. DDT, Methyl
Marine pollution refers to the emptying of Mercury), often present in industrial
chemicals into the ocean and its harmful effects. wastewaters, can undergo biological
The potentially toxic chemicals stick to tiny magnification (Biomagnification) in the
particles and these are taken up by plankton and aquatic food chain.
benthos animals which are deposit or filter o High concentrations of DDT disturb calcium
feeders concentrating upward within food chains. metabolism in birds, which causes thinning of
As animal feeds usually have a high fish meal or eggshell.
fish oil content, toxins can be found in consumed Effects of Water Pollution on Aquatic Ecosystem
food items obtained from livestock and animal o Biocides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
husbandry. and heavy metals directly eliminate sensitive
aquatic organisms.
o Hot waters discharged from industries, when
added to water bodies, lowers its DO content.

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 WATER POLLUTION CONTROL MEASURES

I) WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT,

1974 (AMENDMENT 1988)
To prevent and control water pollution.
To assess pollution levels and punish polluters.
Objective/Basic To maintain or restore the wholesomeness of water.
Features The 1988 amendments modified Sec. 49 to allow citizens to bring actions under the
Water Act. Now a State Board must make relevant reports available to complaining
citizens, unless the Board determines that the disclosures would harm

Establishment of central and state boards for pollution control.

Principal functions of the Central Pollution Control Board(CPCB), as spelt out in the
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Air (Prevention and
Institutions Created Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, to
o Promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States by
prevention, control, and abatement of water pollution, and
o Improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the
country.

The Act vests regulatory authority in State Pollution Control Boards to establish
and enforce effluent standards for factories.
Power Distribution A Central Pollution Control Board performs the same functions for Union
Territories and formulate policies and coordinates activities of different State
Boards.

Ministry Involved Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

Prior to its amendment in 1988, enforcement under the Act was achieved through
Evolution &
criminal prosecutions initiated by the Boards.
Comparison with
The 1988 amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a defaulting
other acts
industrial plant.

II) BIOREMEDIATION o BIOSPARGING Injection of air under

pressure below the water table to increase
Bioremediation is the use of microorganisms groundwater oxygen concentrations and
(bacteria and fungi) to degrade the enhance the rate of biological degradation of
environmental contaminants into less toxic contaminants by naturally occurring
forms. bacteria.
Microorganisms can be specifically designed for o BIOAUGMENTATION Microorganisms are
bioremediation using genetic engineering imported to a contaminated site to enhance
techniques. the degradation process.
Using bioremediation techniques, TERI has
developed a mixture of bacteria called Ex-Situ Bioremediation
and Oilivorous- which degrades the pollutants o Involves the removal of the contaminated
of oil-contaminated sites, leaving behind no material to be treated elsewhere.
harmful residues. o LANDFARMING contaminated soil is
excavated and spread over a prepared bed
In-Situ Bioremediation and periodically tilled until pollutants are
o It involves treatment of the contaminated degraded. The goal is to stimulate indigenous
material at the site. biodegradative microorganisms and facilitate
o BIOVENTING supply of air and nutrients their aerobic degradation of contaminants.
through wells to contaminated soil to
stimulate the growth of indigenous bacteria.

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 o BIOREACTORS it involves the processing of a) Convention on the Dumping of Wastes at
contaminated solid material (soil, sediment, Sea/London Convention 1996 Protocol states
sludge) or water through an engineered
containment system.
o COMPOSTING Composting is nature's
o It prevents the transfer of pollutants from
process of recycling decomposed organic
one part of the environment to another.
materials into a rich soil known as compost.
o Prohibits incineration of wastes at sea.
Bioremediation is useful for the destruction of a o Parties shall not allow the export of wastes
wide variety of contaminants, is Less expensive matter to other countries.
and is environment-friendly. o International Maritime Organization (IMO)
But Bioremediation is limited to biodegradable is responsible for Secretariat duties with
compounds and often takes a longer time than respect to the Protocol.
other treatment processes. o 2006 amendments allow storage of carbon
Phytoremediation refers to the use of plants dioxide (CO2) under the seabed but regulate
to remove contaminants from soil and water. the sequestration of CO2 streams from CO2
Natural phytoremediation is carried out by capture processes in sub-seabed geological
mangroves, estuarine vegetation and other formations.
wetland vegetation.
b) United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea or
III) CURB MARINE POLLUTION (UNCLOS)

To curb marine pollution and regulate the use of the o UNCLOS can hold states liable for damage
individual States, the nations of the caused by violation of their international
world have come together to form two major obligations to combat pollution of the seas.
conventions:

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 SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution is 6) Other pollutants Many air pollutants (acid rain)
substances to the soil, which adversely affect and water pollutants ultimately become part of
physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil and the soil also receives some toxic
chemicals during weathering of certain rocks.
It is build-up of persistent toxic compounds,
EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION
chemicals, salts, radioactive materials, or disease-
causing agents in soil which have adverse effects 1. On Agriculture
on plant growth, human and animal health. o Reduced soil fertility
A soil pollutant is any factor which deteriorates o Reduced nitrogen fixation
the quality, texture and mineral content of the o Increased erosion
soil or which disturbs the biological balance of the o Loss of soil and nutrients
organisms in the soil. o Reduced crop yield
o Increased salinity
CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION
o Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs
o Indiscriminate use of fertilizers, pesticides, 2. On Health
insecticides and herbicides. o Dangerous chemicals entering underground
o Dumping of large quantities of solid waste. water.
o Deforestation and soil erosion. o Bio magnification
o Pollution Due to Urbanisation o Release of pollutant gases
SOURCE OF SOIL POLLUTION o Release of radioactive rays causing health
problems.
1) Industrial Wastes Industrial waste includes
3. On Environment
chemicals such as mercury, lead, copper, zinc,
o Reduced vegetation
cadmium, cyanides, thiocyanates, chromates,
o Ecological imbalance
acids, alkalis, organic substances etc.
o Imbalance in soil fauna and flora
2) Pesticides Pesticides are chemicals that include
insecticides, fungicides, algicides, rodenticides, 4. On Urban areas
weedicides sprayed in order to improve o Clogging of drains
productivity of agriculture, forestry and o Inundation of areas
horticulture. o Foul smell and release of gases
3) Fertilizers & Manures Chemical fertilizers are o Waste management problems
added to the soil for increasing crop yield.
Excessive use of chemical fertilizers reduces the CONTROL MEASURES
population of soil borne organism and the crumb Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use.
structure of the soil, productivity of the soil and Use of bio pesticides, bio fertilizers.
increases salt content of the soil. Organic farming
4) Discarded materials It includes concrete,
asphalt, rungs, leather, cans, plastics, glass,
Afforestation and Reforestation
discarded food, paper and carcasses.
Solid waste treatment
5) Radioactive Wastes Radioactive elements from
Reduction of waste from construction areas
mining and nuclear power plants, find their way
into water and then into the soil.

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 NOISE POLLUTION
Noise by definition is or EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION
a) Auditory fatigue appears at about 90 dB and may
Noise level is measured in terms of decibels (dB).
be associated with side effects as whistling and
An increase of about 10 dB is approximately
buzzing in ears.
double the increase in loudness.
b) Deafness may be caused due to permanent
World Health Organization has prescribed
damage of sensory cells of hearing when
optimum noise level as 45 dB by day and 35 dB
subjected to prolonged and continued exposure
by night.
of noise. Temporary deafness occurs at 4000-
Anything above 80 dB is hazardous for humans.
6000 Hz and beyond 100 dB.
CAUSES OF NOISE POLLUTION c) Annoyance or emotional disturbances may be
caused at even low level of noise such as crowd,
Some of the major sources that contribute to noise highway, radio etc.
pollution are as follows: d) Sudden high intensity sound causes startle
1. Industrialization The growing industries in the reactions that may affect psychomotor
urban areas uses various machines that are performance. It also causes Insomnia.
capable of generating a large amount of noise. e) Hypertension decreased heart output, high
Cholesterol and high blood pressure.
2. Improper Planning of Urban Areas Due to
f) Gastric problems gastric spasms, nausea and
congested houses, small space, poor parking
peptic ulcers.
facilities and frequent fights over basic amenities
g) Eyesight problems headache, eye strain,
which disrupts the environment of society. defective sight and colour vision.
3. Social Events Weddings, public gatherings, h) Impairment of developing nervous system of
religious festivals & functions involve unborn babies which may lead to abnormal
loudspeakers to play music resulting in the behaviour in later life.
production of unwanted noise in the
neighbourhood. MEASURES TAKEN

4. Vehicles & Transportation Traffic jams, Excessive noise has been registered as a crime
underground trains, aircraft, etc produces heavy (Section 268 of IPC).
noise which may lead to a situation of hearing Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules,
disability. 2000 have been notified.
Noise has been recognized as a pollutant
5. Agricultural machines such as tractors, trolleys,
(Environment Act 1986).
harvesters, tube-wells, etc.
Day and night limits of noise level have been
6. Construction Sites mining, construction of prescribed.
bridges, dams, buildings, etc contributes greatly 100 metre radius area around hospitals,
educational
institutions and courts
has been declared a
'Silence Zone' where
use of horns,
loudspeakers and
bursting of crackers is
banned.
Use of loudspeakers
is a public nuisance
and is punishable
under section 133 of
to creating noise pollution. IPC.

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There are provisions related to noise pollution
under Motor Vehicle Act, Factories Act, Railways
Act and Aircraft Act.

SOLID WASTE
Solid wastes or municipal solid wastes generally INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE
comprise paper, food wastes, plastics, glass,
Thermal power plants producing coal ash/fly ash.
metals, rubber, leather, textile, etc.
The integrated iron and steel mills producing
Open-burning reduces the volume of the wastes,
blast furnace slag.
although it is generally not burnt to completion
Non-ferrous industries like aluminium, copper
and open dumps often serve as the breeding
and zinc producing red mud and tailings.
ground for rats and flies.
Sugar industries generating press mud.
PLASTIC WASTE Pulp and paper industries producing lime mud.
Fertilizer and allied industries producing gypsum.
Conventional plastics, right from their
manufacture to their disposal are a major DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE
problem to the environment.
Conventional plastics have been associated with 1) OPEN DUMPS Open dumps refer to uncovered
reproductive problems in both humans and areas. Here waste is untreated, uncovered, and
wildlife. not segregated. It is the breeding ground for flies,
Dioxin (highly carcinogenic and toxic) by-product rats, and other disease vectors. The runoff from
of the manufacturing process is one of the them contaminates nearby waterbodies.
chemicals believed to be passed on through 2) LANDFILLS It is a pit that is dug in the ground.
breast milk to the nursing infant (Dioxin is a The garbage is dumped, and the pit is covered
Persistent Organic Pollutant). with soil every day thus preventing the breeding
Burning of plastics, especially PVC releases dioxin of flies and rats.
and also Furan into the atmosphere. o All types of waste are dumped in landfills, and
when water seeps through them it gets
Plastic bags can also contaminate foodstuffs due
contaminated and in turn, pollutes the
to leaching of toxic dyes and transfer of
surrounding area.
pathogens.
o Leaching from the landfills also contaminates
Careless disposal of plastic bags chokes drains,
the ground water.
blocks the porosity of the soil and causes
problems for groundwater recharge. 3) SANITARY LANDFILLS Landfills that are lined
Plastic disturbs the soil microbe activity. The with materials that are impermeable such as
terrestrial and aquatic animals misunderstand plastics and clay and are also built over
plastic garbage as food items, swallow them and impermeable soil are referred to as sanitary
die. landfills. They are more hygienic and solves the
problem of leaching, but they are more costly.

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4) INCINERATION PLANTS Here, recyclable streams, Wet (Biodegradable), Dry (Plastic,
material is segregated, and the rest of material is Paper, metal, wood, etc.) and domestic
burnt in large furnaces at high temperatures. It hazardous wastes (diapers, napkins, empty
produces tonnes of toxic ash, therefore is kept as containers of cleaning agents, mosquito
a last resort (such as in infectious waste etc). repellents, etc.) and handover segregated wastes
5) PYROLYSIS It is a process of combustion in the to authorized rag-pickers or waste collectors or
absence of oxygen or the material burnt under a local bodies.
controlled atmosphere of oxygen.
It has also been advised that the bio-degradable
o Pyrolysis of carbonaceous wastes like
waste should be processed, treated and disposed
firewood, coconut, palm waste, corn combs,
of through composting or bio-methanation
cashew shell, rice husk paddy straw and
within the premises as far as possible and the
sawdust, yields charcoal along with products
residual waste shall be given to the waste
like tar, methyl alcohol, acetic acid, acetone
collectors or agency as directed by the local
and Fuel gas .
authority.
6) COMPOSTING a biological process in which
micro-organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria, Every street vendor should keep suitable
decompose degradable organic waste into containers for storage of waste generated during
humus-like substance in the presence of oxygen. the course of their activity.
o This finished product, which looks like soil, is
high in carbon and nitrogen and is an The rules promote the integration of waste
excellent medium for growing plants and has pickers/ rag pickers and waste dealers/
high water holding capacity. Kabadiwalas in the formal system, use of
7) VERMICULTURE It is also known as earthworm compost, conversion of waste into energy,
farming. In this method, Earthworms are added revision of parameters for landfills location and
to the compost. These worms break the waste, capacity.
and the added excreta of the worms makes the All such brand owners who sell their products in
compost very rich in nutrients. such packaging material which are non-
Syngas/Synthetic Gas is a fuel gas mixture biodegradable should put in place a system to
consisting primarily of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, collect back the packaging waste generated.
and very often some carbon dioxide. High calorific wastes shall be used for co-
Producer Gas is fuel gas that obtained from coke processing in cement or thermal power plants.
consists mainly of a mixture of carbon monoxide, Construction and demolition waste should be
hydrogen along with nitrogen. stored, separately disposed-off.

Special provision for management of solid waste

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016 in Hilly areas: Construction of landfill on the hill
These rules replace the Municipal Solid Wastes shall be avoided. Suitable land shall be identified
(Management and Handling) Rules, 2000, are in the plain areas. A transfer station at a suitable
now applicable beyond municipal areas and enclosed location shall be setup from where
have included urban agglomerations, census residual waste shall be disposed-off at this
towns, notified industrial townships etc. sanitary landfill.

They focus on segregation of waste at source, The government has also constituted a Central
responsibility on the manufacturer to dispose of Monitoring Committee under the chairmanship
sanitary and packaging wastes, user fees for of Secretary, MoEFCC to monitor the overall
collection, disposal and processing from the bulk implementation of the rules.
generator, events or gatherings with >100 The Rules for the Safe Treatment of Legacy
people. The concept of partnership in Swachh Waste prescribe bio-remediation and bio-mining
Bharat has been introduced. in all open dumpsites and existing operational
Responsibilities of Generators have been dumpsites in India.
introduced to segregate waste in to three

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Apart from this, Article 51 A (g) of the Constitution of including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife, and to
India makes it a fundamental duty of every citizen of have compassion for living creatures.
India to protect and improve the natural environment

BIOMEDICAL WASTE
Definition: Biomedical waste is defined Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016- These
as human and animal anatomical waste, rules shall apply to all persons who generate, collect,
treatment apparatus like needles, syringes and receive, store, transport, treat, dispose, or handle
other materials used in health care facilities in bio-medical waste in any form.
the process of treatment and research.
It is the waste generated during the research BIOMEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES
testing, diagnosis, treatment, immunization or 2016
any other medical procedure of human beings or Objective: The objective of the rules is
animals. to properly manage the per day bio-medical
Bio Medical waste consists of: waste from healthcare facilities (HCFs) across the
o Human anatomical waste like tissues, organs country.
and body parts.
Ambit: The ambit of the rules has been expanded
o Animal wastes generated during research
to include vaccination camps, blood donation
from veterinary hospitals.
camps, surgical camps or any other healthcare
o Microbiology and biotechnology wastes. activity.
o Waste sharps like hypodermic needles,
syringes, scalpels and broken glass. Phase out: Use of chlorinated plastic bags, gloves
o Discarded medicines and cytotoxic drugs. and blood bags to be phased out within two years
o Soiled waste such as dressing, bandages, from March 2016.
plaster casts, material contaminated with Pre-Treatment: Pre-treatment of the laboratory
blood, tubes and catheters. waste, microbiological waste, blood samples and
o Liquid waste from any of the infected areas. blood bags through disinfection or sterilisation
o Incineration ash and other chemical wastes on-site in the manner prescribed by the World
Biomedical waste poses hazard due to two Health Organization (WHO) or by the National
principal reasons the first is infectivity and AIDS Control Organisation (NACO).
other toxicity. Training: All health care workers to be provided
o toxic emissions from inadequate burning of training and immunization regularly.
medical waste.
Bar-code: A Bar-Code System for bags or
o bio-medical waste discharged into the waters
containers containing bio-medical waste for
that could be consumed by ocean life
disposal will be established.
creatures. Toxins would interject into the
food chain and eventually reach humans Categorisation: Bio-medical waste has been
causing growth-developmental & birth classified into 4 CATEGORIES instead of the
defects. earlier 10 categories to improve the segregation
Pandemic Concerns of waste at source.
o in terms of capacity to scientifically dispose of Stringent Standards for Incinerators: The rules
generated waste. prescribe more stringent standards for
o challenge for civic authorities in charge of its incinerators to reduce the emission of pollutants
collection and disposal. in the environment. Inclusion of emissions limits
o States are not following the CPCB guidelines for Dioxin and furans.
on Covid-19 related waste from Covid-19 Land: The State Government provides the land
facilities and quarantine homes. for setting up common bio-medical waste
o rise in residential biomedical waste. treatment and disposal facilities.
o discarded masks and gloves risk the lives of
thousands of sanitation workers.

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 No establishment of on-site treatment and Operators of a common bio-medical waste
disposal facility, if a service of `common bio- treatment and disposal facility have to ensure
medical waste treatment facility is available at a the timely collection of bio-medical waste from
distance of seventy-five kilometre. the HCFs and assist the HCFs in conduct of
training.

HAZARDOUS WASTE
Any substance that is present in the environment Came into effective in 2004.
or released into the environment causing Aims to eliminate or restrict the production and
substantial damage to public health and welfare use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
of the environment is called hazardous POPs are defined as "chemical substances that
substance. persist in the environment, bioaccumulate
Any hazardous substance could exhibit any one or through the food web, and pose a risk of causing
more of the following characteristics: toxicity, adverse effects to human health and the
ignitability, corrosivity or reactivity (explosive). environment".
Thus, any waste that contains hazardous or very
IMPORTANT LISTED SUBSTANCES
hazardous substance is called hazardous waste.
Hazardous wastes can originate from various Aldrin: Used as an insecticide.
sources such as household, local areas, urban, Heptachlor: Uses as a termiticide (including in the
industry, agriculture, construction activity, structure of houses and underground), for
hospitals and laboratories, power plants and organic treatment and in underground cable
other sources. boxes.
Hexachlorobenzene: Use as a chemical
STOCKHOLM CONVENTION on PERSISTENT intermediate and a solvent for pesticides.
ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POP) Endrin: Endrin has been used primarily as an
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic agricultural insecticide on tobacco, apple trees,
Pollutants is an international environmental cotton, sugar cane, rice, cereal, and grains.
treaty.

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 Polychlorinated biphenyl: PCB's commercial o Solid plastic waste has been prohibited from
utility was based largely on their chemical import into the country including in Special
stability, including low flammability, and physical Economic Zones (SEZ) and by Export Oriented
properties, including electrical insulating Units (EOU).
properties. They are highly toxic.
o Exporters of silk waste have now been given
DDT: DDT is the best-known of several chlorine-
exemption from requiring permission from the
containing pesticides used in the 1940s and
MOEFCC.
1950s.
o Electrical and electronic assemblies and
BASEL CONVENTION on TRANSBOUNDARY components manufactured in and exported from
MOVEMENTS OF HAZARDOUS WASTES India, if found defective can now be imported
back into the country, within a year of export,
Basel Convention on the Control of
without obtaining permission from the MOEFCC.
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and Their Disposal. o Industries which do not require consent under
An international treaty that was designed to Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
reduce the movements of hazardous waste 1974 and Air (Prevention and Control of
between nations. Pollution) Act 1981, are now exempted from
Main goal is to prevent the transfer of hazardous requiring authorization also under the Hazardous
waste from developed to less developed and Other Wastes (Management &
countries (LDCs). Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2019,
It does not address the movement of radioactive provided that hazardous and other wastes
waste. generated by such industries are handed over to
the authorized actual users, waste collectors or
ROTTERDAM CONVENTION on PRIOR disposal facilities.
INFORMED CONSENT
THE MINAMATA CONVENTION
Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed
Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous The Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade. treaty to protect human health and the
Multilateral treaty to promote shared environment from the adverse effects of mercury
responsibilities in relation to the importation of and its compounds.
hazardous chemicals. Methylmercury is a highly toxic chemical, and it
The convention promotes an open exchange of was bio-accumulated and biomagnified in the fish
information and calls on exporters of hazardous and shellfish in the Minamata Bay and the
chemicals to use proper labelling, safe handling, Yatsushiro Sea (also called the Shiranui Sea).
and inform purchasers of any known restrictions
or bans. Controlling the anthropogenic releases of
Signatory nations can decide whether to allow or mercury throughout its lifecycle is one of the key
ban the importation of chemicals listed in the obligations under the Convention.
treaty. The Convention also addresses interim storage
HAZARDOUS AND OTHER WASTES of mercury and its disposal once it becomes
waste, sites contaminated by mercury as well as
(MANAGEMENT & TRANSBOUNDARY
health issues.
MOVEMENT) AMENDMENT RULES, 2019
More than 140 countries including India (2018)
In order to strengthen the implementation of have ratified the Convention.
environmentally sound management of hazardous
waste in the country, the Ministry of Environment, The Convention also excludes the use of mercury
Forest and Climate Change (MOEFCC) notified this. in Ayurvedic, Siddha and Unani medicines.

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 ELECTRONIC WASTE | E-WASTE
E-Waste is short for Electronic-Waste and the CONCERNS
term is used to describe old, end-of-life
o Toxicity: E-waste consists of toxic elements such
or discarded electronic appliances. It includes
as Lead, Mercury, Cadmium, Chromium,
their components, consumables, parts and
Polybrominated biphenyls and Polybrominated
spares.
diphenyl.
It is categorised into 21 types under two broad
categories: o Effects on Humans: serious illnesses such as lung
o Information technology and communication cancer, respiratory problems, bronchitis, brain
equipment. damages, etc due to inhalation of toxic fumes,
o Consumer electrical and electronics. exposure to heavy metals and alike.
Laws to manage e-waste have been in place in
o Effects on Environment: causing groundwater
India since 2011, mandating that only authorised
pollution, acidification of soil and contamination
dismantlers and recyclers collect e-waste. E-
of groundwater and air pollution due to the
waste (Management) Rules, 2016 was enacted in
burning of plastic and other remnants.
2017.
e-waste clinic for segregating, E-WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016
processing and disposal of waste from household
and commercial units has been set-up in Bhopal, Over 21 products (Schedule-I) were included
Madhya Pradesh. under the purview of the rule. It
included Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) and
E-WASTE IN NUMBRES
other mercury containing lamps, as well as other
According to a recent United Nations such equipment.
University (UNU) report, global e- For the first time, the rules brought the producers
waste will increase by 38% in the decade under Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR),
between 2020 and 2030. along with targets. Producers have been made
There was 53.6 million tonnes (MT) e-waste in responsible for the collection of E-waste and for
2019, which is a nearly 21% increase in just five its exchange.
years.
Asia generated the greatest volume (around 24.9 Various producers can have a separate Producer
MT) followed by the Americas (13.1 MT) and Responsibility Organisation (PRO) and ensure
Europe (12 MT). collection of E-waste, as well as its disposal in an
Less than 18% of the e-waste generated in 2019 environmentally sound manner.
was collected and recycled. Deposit Refund Scheme has been introduced as
o E-waste consisting of gold, silver, copper, an additional economic instrument wherein the
platinum and other high-value, recoverable producer charges an additional amount as a
materials worth at least USD 57 billion was deposit at the time of sale of the electrical and
mostly dumped or burned. electronic equipment and returns it to the
According to the Central Pollution Control consumer along with interest when the end-of-
Board (CPCB), India generated more than 10 lakh life electrical and electronic equipment is
tonnes of e-waste in 2019-20, an increase from 7 returned.
lakh tonnes in 2017-18.
Against this, the e-waste dismantling The role of State Governments has been also
capacity has not been increased from 7.82 lakh introduced to ensure safety, health and skill
tonnes since 2017-18. development of the workers involved in
In 2018, the Ministry of Environment had told the dismantling and recycling operations.
NGT that 95% of e-waste in India is recycled by A provision of penalty for violation of rules has
the informal sector and scrap dealers also been introduced.
unscientifically dispose of it by burning or
dissolving it in acids.

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Urban Local Bodies (Municipal Allocation of proper space to existing and
Committee/Council/Corporation) have been upcoming industrial units for e-waste
assigned the duty to collect and channelize dismantling and recycling
the orphan products to authorized dismantlers
or recyclers.

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 Environmental Legislations – Revision sheet

ACT INDIAN FOREST ACT, 1927

• To consolidate laws relating to forests, the transit of forest
produce and the duty that can be levied on timber and
other forest produce.
• Defines the procedure to be followed for declaring an area
Objective/basic
to be a Reserved Forest, a Protected Forest or a Village
features
Forest.
• It defines what is a forest offence, what are the acts
prohibited inside a Reserved Forest, and penalties leviable
on violation of the provisions of the Act.
• It is the power of a State Government to issue a
notification under the Act declaring the land with details
Power distribution
of its location, area and boundary description, into a
Reserved Forest.
• Was largely based on previous Indian Forest Acts
Evolution & implemented under the British.
Comparison with other • In the colonial era, the British diverted abundant forest
acts wealth of the nation to meet their economic needs by
depriving the rights of forest dwellers.

t.me/iLearnIASacademy P a g e 1 | 10
 • Therefore, procedure for settlement rights was provided
under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, so that they could
easily exploit the Indian forests.
Concept Introduced • Reserved Forest, a Protected Forest or a Village Forest.

ACT FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT,1980(Amendment 1988)

• It was enacted to consolidate the law related to forest, the
transit of forest produces and the duty liveable on timber
Objective/basic and other forest produce.
features • The Act deals with the four categories of the forests,
namely reserved forests, village forests, protected
forests and private forests.
• Under the provisions of this Act, prior approval of the
Power distribution Central Government is required for diversion of
forestlands for non-forest purposes.
Ministry Involved • Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Evolution &
• The Act is conservation oriented and does not recognize
Comparison with other
acts the rights of Forest Dwellers.
• Reserved forest: A state may declare forestlands or
waste lands as reserved forest and may sell the produce
from these forests. Any unauthorized felling of trees
quarrying, grazing and hunting in reserved forests is
punishable with a fine or imprisonment, or both
• Village forests: Reserved forests assigned to a village
Concept
community are called village forests.
Introduced
• Protected forests: The state governments are empowered
to designate protected forests and may prohibit the felling
of trees, quarrying and the removal of forest produce from
these forests. The preservation of protected forests is
enforced through rules, licenses and criminal
prosecutions.
• To slow deforestation caused by the conversion of forestlands
Application
to non- forest purposes

ACT THE SCHEDULED TRIBES AND OTHER TRADITIONAL

FOREST DWELLERS (RECOGNITION OF FOREST RIGHTS)
ACT, 2006
• The act recognize and vest the forest rights and
Objective/basic
occupation in Forest land in forest Dwelling Scheduled
features
Tribes (FDST) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers

t.me/iLearnIASacademy P a g e 2 | 10
 (OTFD)who have been residing in such forests for
generations.
• The act also establishes the responsibilities and authority
for sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and
maintenance of ecological balance of FDST and OTFD.
• It strengthens the conservation regime of the forests while
ensuring livelihood and food security of the FDST and
OTFD.
• It seeks to rectify colonial injustice to the FDST and OTFD
who are integral to the very survival and sustainability of
the forest ecosystem.
• The Gram Sabha is the authority to initiate the process
Power distribution for determining the nature and extent of Individual Forest
Rights (IFR) or Community Forest Rights (CFR)
Ministry Involved • The Ministry of Tribal Affairs
Evolution & • A shift from absolute protection of forest to a people
Comparison with other centric conservation approach by recognising traditional
acts rights of forest dwellers
• The ministry has exempted linear projects such as roads,
Exemptions railway lines, transmission lines passing through the area
from taking permissions of gram sabhas.
• The act identify four types of rights:
• Title rights: It gives FDST and OTFD the right to
ownership to land farmed by tribal or forest dwellers
subject to a maximum of 4 hectares. Ownership is only
for land that is actually being cultivated by the concerned
family and no new lands will be granted.
• Use rights: The rights of the dwellers extend to extracting
Minor Forest Produce, grazing areas, to pastoralist routes,
etc.
• Relief and development rights: To rehabilitation in case
Concept
Introduced of illegal eviction or forced displacement and to basic
amenities, subject to restrictions for forest protection
• Forest management rights: It includes the right to
protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community
forest resource which they have been traditionally
protecting and conserving for sustainable use.
• Act defines a Minor Forest Produce (MFP) as all non-timber
forest produce of plant origin and includes bamboo,
brushwood, stumps, canes, Tusser, cocoon, honey, waxes,
Lac, tendu/kendu leaves, medicinal plants and herbs, roots,
tuber and the like.
• This Act is crucial to the rights of millions of tribals and
other forest dwellers in different parts of our country as it
provides for the restitution of deprived forest rights across
Application
India, including both individual rights to cultivated land in
forestland and community rights over common property
resources.

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ACT WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972
• Effectively protect the wild life of this country and to control
poaching, smuggling and illegal trade in wildlife and its
Objective/basic derivatives.
features • To provide protection to the listed endangered flora and fauna
and ecologically important protected areas.
• National Board for Wildlife:
o Primary function of the Board is to promote the
conservation and development of wildlife and forests.
o It is chaired by Prime Minister
o It has power to review all wildlife-related matters and
approve projects in and around national parks and
sanctuaries.
o No alternation of boundaries in national parks and
wildlife sanctuaries can be done without approval of the
NBWL.
• National Tiger Conservation Authority:
o The National Tiger Conservation Authority is a
statutory body for strengthening tiger conservation, as
Institutions Created per powers and functions assigned to it under the Act.
o Environment Minister is the Chairman of the NTCA.
• Wildlife Crime Control Bureau
o The bureau would complement the efforts of the state
governments, primary enforcers of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972 and other enforcement agencies
of the country.
• Five types of protected areas as provided under the Act
o Sanctuaries
o National Parks
o Conservation Reserves
o Community Reserves
o Tiger Reserve

Power distribution • Extends to the whole of India

Ministry Involved • Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
As per the Constitution,
• Art. 48-A says that the state shall endeavour to protect and
Evolution & improve the environment and to safeguard the forest and
Comparison with other wildlife of the country.
acts • Art. 51A (g) imposes fundamental duty on the every citizen of
India to protect and improve the environment and have
compassion for living creatures.
• It provides for prohibition on use of animal traps except under
certain circumstances
Exemptions • It provides for protection of hunting rights of the Scheduled
Tribes in Andaman and Nicobar Islands

t.me/iLearnIASacademy P a g e 4 | 10
 • It has six schedules which give varying degrees of protection
• Species listed in Schedule I and part II of Schedule II
get absolute protection -offences under these are
prescribed the highest penalties. Eg:-Tiger, blackbuck,
Himalayan Brown Bear,Indian Gazelle, etc.
• Species listed in Schedule III and Schedule IV are also
protected, but the penalties are much lower. Eg:- hyena,
Himalayan rat, porcupine, etc.
• Schedule V includes the animals which may be hunted.
Eg:- mice, rat, rhesus monkey, fruit bats, etc.
Concept • The plants in Schedule VI are prohibited from cultivation
and planting. Eg:- blue vanda, red vanda, kuth, etc.
Introduced
• Vermins
• Vermin are wild animals that are believed to be harmful.
• When an animal is classified as “vermin” by the Central
Government, the protection over the animal under the
Wildlife Protection Act is removed. When as species is
declared vermin, it can be culled or hunted without
restriction
• Any species can be declared as vermin except for those
species that are listed in Schedule I and part II of the
schedule II of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

ACT COMPENSATORY AFFORESTATION FUND (CAF) ACT,2016

Objective/basic • The Act was enacted to manage the funds collected for
features compensatory afforestation
• Permanent Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management
and Planning Authority (CAMPA)
• It creates Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF) by the
Ministry of Environment and Forests
• National Compensatory Afforestation Fund and a State
Compensatory Afforestation Fund under each State
Institutions • The National Fund will be under the central government,
Created and managed by a National Compensatory Afforestation
Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA).
• The central government will appoint a State CAMPA in each
state.
• The State CAMPA will be responsible for the management
of the State Fund

• As per the act, 90% of the CAF money is to be given to the

Power distribution
states while 10% is to be retained by the Centre.
Ministry Involved • Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

t.me/iLearnIASacademy P a g e 5 | 10
 • Compensatory afforestation means that every time forest
land is diverted for non-forest purposes such as mining or
Concept Introduced industry, the user agency pays for planting forests over an
equal area of non-forest land, or when such land is not
available, twice the area of degraded forest land.
• The funds can be used for treatment of catchment areas,
assisted natural generation, forest management, wildlife
protection and management, relocation of villages from
Application
protected areas, managing human-wildlife conflicts, training
and awareness generation, supply of wood saving devices and
allied activities.

ACT BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ACT, 2002.

• The main objectives are
• Conservation of biological diversity,
Objective/basic
• Sustainable use of its components
features
• Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of
utilization of genetic resources
• National Biodiversity Authority - NBA focuses on
advising the Central Government on matters relating to
the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its
components and equitable sharing of benefits arising out
of the utilization of biological resources; and advising the
State Governments in the selection of areas of biodiversity
importance to be notified as heritage sites and measures
for the management of such heritage sites. The NBA with
its headquarters in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, since its
establishment has supported creation of SBBs in all
States.
• State Biodiversity Boards – SBBs Focus on advising the
State Governments, subject to any guidelines issued by
Institutions
the Central Government, on matters relating to the
Created
conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its
components and equitable sharing of the benefits arising
out of the utilization of biological resources
• National Biodiversity Funds -Whatever money National
Biodiversity Authority receives as fees, fines etc. and
whatever money it gets as grants etc. is kept in the
National Biodiversity Fund. The money from this fund is
used to benefit the claimers and promotion of
conservation and socio-economic development in source
areas.
• State Biodiversity Funds -This fund has to be created at
state level to credit any grants and loans made to the
State Biodiversity Board by the National Biodiversity

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 Authority and money from other sources. The money is
used in the management and conservation of heritage
sites; compensating or rehabilitating any section of the
people economically affected when an area is declared
Biodiversity Heritage Sites; and conservation and
promotion of biological resources.
• Biodiversity Management Committee -As per the
Biological Diversity Act 2002, BMCs are created for
“promoting conservation, sustainable use and
documentation of biological diversity” by local bodies
across the country. The main function of the BMC is
to prepare People’s Biodiversity Register in
consultation with the local people. The Register shall
contain comprehensive information on availability and
knowledge of local biological resources, their medicinal
or any other use or any other.
• It extends to the whole of India.
• If a dispute arises between the National Biodiversity
Power distribution Authority and a State Biodiversity Board, the said
Authority or the Board, as the case may be, may prefer
an appeal to the Central Government within such time as
may be prescribed.
Ministry Involved • Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Evolution & • The act provides a legal framework to realize the objectives of
Comparison with other UN Convention on Biological Diversity 1992.
acts
• Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS): Biodiversity
Concept heritage sites (BHS) should includes both wild and
Introduced domesticated biodiversity and human cultural relations
with such biodiversity.

ACT WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT,

1974 (Amendment 1988)
• To prevent and control water pollution
• To assess pollution levels and punish polluters
• To maintain or restore the wholesomeness of water
Objective/basic • The 1988 amendments modified Sec. 49 to allow citizens to
features bring actions under the Water Act. Now a State Board must
make relevant reports available to complaining citizens,
unless the Board determines that the disclosures would
harm “public interest”.
• Establishment of central and state boards for pollution
Institutions control
Created • Principal functions of the Central Pollution Control
Board(CPCB), as spelt out in the Water (Prevention and

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 Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Air (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, to
o Promote cleanliness of streams and wells in
different areas of the States by prevention, control
and abatement of water pollution, and
o Improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or
abate air pollution in the country.
• The Act vests regulatory authority in State Pollution Control
Boards to establish and enforce effluent standards for
factories.
Power distribution
• A Central Pollution Control Board performs the same
functions for Union Territories and formulate policies
and coordinates activities of different State Boards.
Ministry Involved • Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
• Prior to its amendment in 1988, enforcement under the Act
Evolution
was achieved through criminal prosecutions initiated by
&
the Boards.
Comparison with other
• The 1988 amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to
acts
close a defaulting industrial plant.

ACT THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT

OF 1981 AND AMENDMENT, 1987
Objective/basic • To improve the quality of air and to prevent, control and
features abate air pollution in the country.
• The Air Act expanded the authority of the central and state
Institutions
boards established under the Water Act, to include air
Created
pollution control
• All industries operating within designated air pollution
control areas must obtain a “consent” (permit) from the State
Boards.
Power distribution
• The states are required to prescribe emission standards for
industry and automobiles after consulting the central board
and noting its ambient air quality standards.
Ministry Involved • Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Evolution & • 1987 amendment introduced a citizen’s suit provision into
Comparison with other the Air Act and extended the Act to include noise pollution.
acts

ACT ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT OF 1986

Objective/basic • The Act is an “umbrella” for legislations designed to provide a

features framework for Central Government, coordination of the
activities of various central and state authorities established
under previous Acts, such as the Water Act and the Air Act.

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 • The Act explicitly prohibits discharges of environmental
pollutants in excess of prescribed regulatory standards.
• There is also a specific prohibition against handling
hazardous substances except those in compliance with
regulatory procedures and standards.
• Through this Act Central Government gets full power for the
Power distribution purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the
environment.
Ministry Involved • Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
• In the wake of the Bhopal tragedy, the government of India
enacted the Environment Act of 1986.
Evolution • The purpose of the Act is to implement the decisions of
& the United Nations Conference on the Human
Comparison with other Environment of 1972.
acts • The act provides that any person, in addition to authorized
government officials, may file a complaint with a court
alleging an offence under the Act.
• Environment is defined to include water, air and land and
the inter-relationships which exist among water, air and land
and human beings and other living creatures, plants, micro-
organisms and property.
• Environmental pollution is the presence of pollutant,
defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in
such a concentration as may be or may tend to be injurious
Concept to the environment.
Introduced • Hazardous substances include any substance or
preparation, which may cause harm to human beings, other
living creatures, plants, microorganisms, property or the
environment.
• Eco sensitive Zones are defined as those areas ‘that are
ecologically and economically important, but vulnerable even
to mild disturbances, and hence demand careful
management’.

ACT NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL ACT, 2010

• Enables creation of National Green Tribunal(NGT) to handle
the expeditious disposal of the cases pertaining to
environmental issues.
• The specialized architecture of the NGT will facilitate fast
Objective/basic track resolution of environmental cases and provide a boost
features to the implementation of many sustainable development
measures.
• NGT is mandated to dispose the cases within six months of
their respective appeals.

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 • National Green Tribunal
• The Tribunal's dedicated jurisdiction in environmental
matters shall provide speedy environmental justice and
help reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts.
Institutions
• The Tribunal shall not be bound by the procedure laid down
Created
under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, but shall be
guided by principles of natural justice.
• The Chairperson of the NGT is a retired Judge of the
Supreme Court.
Ministry Involved • Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Evolution • It was enacted under India’s constitutional provision
& Comparison with of Article 21, which assures the citizens of India the right to
other acts a healthy environment.
• The Tribunal has Original Jurisdiction on matters of
“substantial question relating to environment” (i.e. a
community at large is affected, damage to public health at
Application
broader level) & “damage to environment due to specific
activity” (such as pollution).
• The term “substantial” is not clearly defined in the act.

ACT THE PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO ANIMALS ACT, 1960

• To prevent the infliction of unnecessary pain or suffering on
Objective/basic
animals and to amend the laws relating to the prevention of
features
cruelty to animals.
• The Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) scheme relates
to provision of assistance for the following type of activities:
o Financial assistance to animal welfare organizations for
maintaining the stray animals in distress and for their
treatment
o Human education programmes for the welfare of
Institutions animals are implemented by the AWBI.
Created o Expenditure on a variety of other animal welfare
activities such as rescue of cattle from illegal smuggling
and transportation, rehabilitation of rescued circus
animals, lab animals, inspections, legal expenses in
connection with court cases pertaining to animal
welfare, mobile clinics is also incurred.
• Animal Welfare Board is under Ministry of Fisheries,
Animal Husbandry and Dairying (Department of Animal
Ministry Involved Husbandry and Dairying).
• PCA Act has recently been moved under Ministry of
Agriculture from MoEFCC.
• Nothing contained in this Act shall render it an offence to kill
Exemptions any animal in a manner required by the religion of any
community

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 Protected Area Networks – Revision sheet

Bhitarkanik Keoladeo Nanda devi

PAN Similipal Sunderban Corbet
a Ghana & Valley of
Flowers
State Odisha Odisha West Bengal Rajasthan Uttarakhand Uttarakhand
Brahmani,
Budhabalan Ganga- Gambhir an Ramganga
Baitarani
Rivers ga and Brahmaputr d Banganga River
and
Dhamra Kharkai a Delta rivers
Bio- Mostly Tropical Dense
diversity Mangrove Moist dry moist decid
Mangrove Known for
ecosystem deciduous deciduous uous
Forests its meadows
and forests ecor forests forest mainl
(Largest in of endemic a
crocodile egion (some intermixed y consists
India) lpine flowers
reserve part covered with dry of sal,
and the
by grasslands peepal etc.

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 the grasslan variety of
ds and the flora.
savannas)

Bengal
tiger,
Bengal
Saltwater estuarine Golden
crocodile tiger, crocodile, Jackal, Asiatic black
Asian
Olive Ridley northern Sambar, bear, snow Bengal tiger,
elephant,
Protected Turtles, river Nilgai, leopard, Elephant,
Species Rare white gaur, terrapins Blackbuck musk deer, leopard
Chausingha,
crocodile olive ridley Siberian brown bear
Mugger
(due to sea turtles, Crane
albino effect) crocodile Gangetic
dolphin

Temperate
and Alpine
The areas of
the site are

• 630.33 k
m2 -
Nanda
Devi
National Mostly
Park Tropical
core area climate
higher
Climate • 87.50 k
reaches of
Specificatio Tropical Tropical Tropical Tropical m2-
the park
n Valley of
comes
Flowers
under sub-
National
tropical
Park
climate
core area
(Comple
tely
within
Tempera
te zone)
• 5,148.57
km2 (Buf
fer zone)

Coastal Transition
Hill/ (Eastern zone Foothills of
Mountain coast of between the Himalayas
Ranges India) (The mountain and
deltaic ranges of Shivaliks

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 region Middle
formed by Himlayas
the alluvial and Great
deposits of Himalayas
river
Brahmani,
Baitarani
and
Dhamara
rivers)
Munda,
Santhal,
Bhumij Chunere an
Ho, Santhal Oraon, Ho, d Boksas
Tribes Mina, Bhil
Baiga,
Lodha and
Khond
etc
UNESCO
National World Bharatpur
Park Heritage Bird UNESCO
Site, Sanctuary,
Wildlife World
Sundarbans UNESCO
sanctuary Heritage National
Ramsar Site Biosphere National World Site, Park,
Important Reserve, Park, Heritage Biosphere Tiger
National Wildlife Site,
Multiple Bird Area Reserve, Reserve
Importance (Borders Park, Sanctuary, National National (First site
Gahirmatha Tiger Ramsar Site Park, Park, under
marine Reserve (Added in Ramsar Important project tiger)
santuray 2019 and Wetland Bird Area
located now the Site,
along the largest Montreux
Ramsar site Record
coastline)
in India)

PAN Manas Keibul Lamjao Nokrek Namdapha Neora Valley

Arunachal
State Assam Manipur Meghalaya West Bengal
Pradesh
Neora River
Imphal river/
Noa (left bank
Manipur river Simsang river
Rivers Manas river Dihing River tributary of
Loktak Lake
Teesta)

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 Sub-
Himalayan
Semi- The land cover
Evergreen changes with
forests in the increasing
northern parts. Eastern elevation
Submontane from tropical
East Semi- evergreen
Moist semi–
Himalayan Evergreen forest to temp
evergreen Tropical, sub-
mixed Moist Forest, erate
forests, with a tropical, sub-
and Dry patches of broadleaf and
rich amalgam temperate, and
Deciduous Moist coniferous
Biodiversity of aquatic, wetl temperate
forests Deciduous forest types
and and vegetative
forest, and to alpine
terrestrial ecos systems
Low Alluvial a narrow fringe vegetation
ystem
Savanna of Evergreen Forest (higher
Woodland and Semi- reaches are
evergreen snow covered)
Assam Valley forest Also there is
Semi- extensive bam
Evergreen boo forests.
Alluvial
Grasslands

Tiger,
Red giant/
One horned Namdapha
Rhino flying
Golden Sangai Deer, Asian squirrel,
langur, Hog Deer, Elephant, Snow Tiger,
Protected pygmy hog, Otter, a host of Hoolock Leopard, Clouded
Species wild water water fowls Gibbon, Red Clouded leopard, Red
buffalo, and migratory Panda, Leopard, panda
Bengal birds Clouded Hoolock
Florican, leopard Gibbon, Red
Panda, Snow
leopard

Due to wide
range of
Tropical, altitude
characterized Varies from variation
Tropical to
by high rainfall the climate con
Climate Tropical Tropical subtropical to
and humidity dition of
Specification during temperate to the park varies
monsoon alpine. from tropical
to temperate
or even Sub-
alpine in

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 Rachilla
Danda area.

Foothill Between the

Himlayan
plains and Mishmi Hills
Hill/Mountain Foothills and
Eastern Garo Hills and the
Ranges Eastern
Himalayan Patkai range
Himalayas
foothills
Lisu, Chakma,
Tangsa and Si Lepchas and
Tribes Bodos Garo
ngpho Bhutias

National Park,
Wildlife
The only
Sanctuary,
UNESCO floating park in
Natural World the world, Biosphere
Loktak lake is Reserve,
Heritage site,
a Ramsar Site National park,
Multiple Tiger reserve, National Park ,
Importance an elephant and is in Important Bird Tiger reserve National Park
reserve, Montreux Area
biosphere Record,
reserve, Important Bird
Important Bird Area
Area

PAN Kangchenjunga Kaziranga Mudumalai Silent Valley Nagarhole

State Sikkim Assam Tamil Nadu Kerala Karnataka

Lakshmmantirt
Rivers Teesta Brahmaputra Moyar Kunti
ha, Kabini
Eastern Tropical
Includes range of Himalaya biodi semi-
ecolines, varying versity hotspot evergreen Mountain
from sub-tropic , forest, rainforests, Moist
Brahmaputra Tropical deciduous and
to Arctic Tropical
Biodiversity Valley semi- moist dry deciduous
(tundra), as well moist
as natural forests evergreen deciduous evergreen forests
forests and forest
in different forest,
biomes the frequently- Tropical dry
flooded Terai-
deciduous
Duar savanna

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 and
grasslands

Bengal tiger,
leopard, sloth
Lion-tailed bear, dhole,
Indian macaque, antelope,
Indian one-
elephant, Niligiri barking beer,
Musk deer, Snow horned
Bengal tiger, langur, sambar deer
Protected leopard, Red rhinoceroses,
Gaur and Malabar and elephant,
Species panda and Tigers,
Indian giant Critically
Himalayan Tahr elephants,
leopard. squirrel, endangered
Nilgiri tahr Oriental white-
backed vulture

Sub-tropic to
Temperate
Tropical
climate in the
Climate Climate with
south to severe Tropical
Specificatio Tropical Tropical heavy
mountain Climate
n monsoon
climates
season
(Alpine/Tundra)
in the north
Kangchenjunga/ Nilgiris/ Brahmagiri
Hill/Mounta Western
Eastern Western Hills/Western
in Ranges Ghats
Himalayas Ghats Ghats
Kurumbas,
Mudugar,
Todas,
Mising tribe Irula, Jenu Kurubas
Tribes Lepcha, Bhutia . Kotas,
Kurumba
Kattunayaks

National Park,
National
Wildlife
National Park, Park, National Park,
Sanctuary,
UNESCO Mixed UNESCO UNESCO
Tiger reserve,
World Heritage Natural Natural World
National Park, UNESCO
site, World Heritage site as
UNESCO Natural World
Multiple UNESCO Heritage site a part of
World Heritage Heritage site
Importance designated World as a part of Nilgiris,
site, as a part of
Network of Nilgiris, Nilgiris
Tiger reserve Nilgiris,
Biosphere Nilgiris Biosphere
Nilgiris
Reserves (WNBR) Biosphere Reserve
Biosphere
Reserve
Reserve

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 Nagarjunasaga
r-Srisailam Amrabad
Clouded Pilibhit Tiger Papikonda
PAN Tiger Tiger Reserve
Leopard NP Reserve National Park
Reserve(NSTR
)
Andhra Andhra
State Tripura Uttar Pradesh Telangana
Pradesh Pradesh
Sharda/Maha
Krishna river,
kali River
Rivers Nagarjuna Krishna Godavari
River
Sagar Dam
Ghaghara
Tropical Southern Southern
Moist,
Moist tropical dry tropical dry Moist
deciduous to
deciduous mixed mixed deciduous and
semi
Biodiversity forests, tall deciduous deciduous dry deciduous
evergreen
grasslands forest, forest, forests
forests
and swamp Deccan thorn Deccan thorn
scrub forests scrub forests
Leopard,
Tiger, rusty-
Clouded
Tiger, sloth Tiger, sloth spotted
leopard, Tiger, leopard,
bear, Ussuri bear, Ussuri cat, sloth
Civets, Langur, blackbuck,
Protected dhole, blackbu dhole, blackbu bear, small
Rhesus sambar, sloth
Species ck, chinkara a ck, chinkara a Indian
macaque, bear, Bengal
nd chowsingha nd chowsingha civet,Asian
Pigtailed florican, etc
. . palm civet,
macaque, Slow
spotted deer
lories

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Climate
Tropical Tropical Tropical Tropical Tropical
Specification

Indo-Nepal
border in the
foothills of
Papikonda
the Himalayas Nallamalai Nallamalai
Hill/Mountain hill range of
and the Hills Hills
Ranges Eastern Ghats
plains of the
‘terai’ in Uttar
Pradesh

Konda Reddi
Tribes Tharu tribe Chenchus Chenchus and Koya
tribes
The Telangana
State
Legislative Important Bird
Assembly una and
NSTR is on the nimously Biodiversity
National Park Andra Pradesh passed a Area
is side of resolution
a part of Nallamalai requesting the Polavaram
Multiple
Sipahijola Tiger Reserve Hills and Central irrigation
Importance
Wildlife Amrabad Tiger government no project once
Sanctuary Reserve is on t to permit completed will
the Telengana uranium submerge
side mining parts of the
operations national park
in Amrabad
Tiger Reserve

The Great
Guru Ghasidas Pobitora Wildlife Mukurthi Nicobar
PAN
National Park Sanctuary National Park Biosphere
Reserve

Andaman and
State Chhattisgarh Assam Tamil Nadu
Nicobar Islands
Banas- tributary
Rivers Brahmaputra Bhavani
of Son
Montane Tropical
Mixed deciduous
Biodiversity Grassland grasslands and evergreen and
forest with teak,
vegetation shrublands inter Tropical moist

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 sal and bamboo spersed deciduous
trees with sholas forests

The Indian one- Nilgiri

Tiger, Chinkara, horned tahr, Indian The Nicobar long-
Sambar, Four- rhinoceros, elephant, Bengal tailed macaque,
Protected horned Antelope, hosting Assam's tiger, Nilgiri saltwater
Species Civet, Wild Boar second largest marten, Nilgiri crocodile,
etc. population and langur Giant leatherback
highest density of and Bonhote's sea turtle
Rhino mouse
Southern
Climate
Tropical Tropical Montane Tropical
Specification
Wet Temperate

Hill/Mountain Brahmaputra Nilgiris/ Western

Ranges plains Ghats

Nicobarese and
Tribes Gonds, Baiga etc Toda
Shompen tribes
Chhattisgarh
National Park, UNESCO Man
government
Part of Nilgiri and Biosphere
announced Guru
Wildlife Biosphere Program,
Ghasidas National
sanctuary, Reserve, Part of
Multiple Park as its fourth Campbell Bay
Important bird the Western
Importance ‘tiger reserve’. Its National Park,
area Ghats
continuation into
UNESCO World Galathea National
Madhya Pradesh
Heritage Site Park
is called Sanjay
National Park

10 New additions to Ramsar List

Ramsar Site State About

Nandur • Located in Nashik District. It houses a bird sanctuary.
Madhameshwar Maharashtra • It is also known as the Bharatpur of Maharashtra.
bird sanctuary
• It lies in between Ravi and Beas rivers
Keshopur-Miani • It was the first-ever notified community reserve of India, it
community Punjab has the mechanism of joint management of locals and forest
reserve department.
• It has emerged as a favourable home for migratory birds.
• The 185-km stretch of Beas river starting from the Harike
Punjab
headworks to Talwara Conservation Reserve.

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Beas • It is widely known for successful reintroduction of Gharials.
Conservation
Reserve

• Roopnagar district , Near Sutlej river

Nangal wildlife • Numerous species of resident as well as migratory birds.
Punjab
sanctuary • It also houses threatened species like the Indian pangolin.

• Unnao district
• Also known as Chandrashekhar Azad Bird sanctuary
Nawabganj bird Uttar • The sanctuary welcomes many international and national
sanctuary Pradesh migratory birds.
• Among those are Garganey Teal, Mallard, Purple Moorhen,
Little Grebe, Spoonbill Duck, Red Wattled Lapwing, Wigon.
• Gonda district
• Parvati and Aranga are two rain-fed lakes which are 1.5 km
Parvati Aranga Uttar
apart.
bird sanctuary Pradesh
• It is a potential ecotourism site in terms of providing
facilities of bird conservation awareness.
• Hardoi district.
Sandi bird Uttar • Bombay natural history society has listed this sanctuary as
sanctuary Pradesh an “important bird area”.

• It was notified in 1990 with an objective to protect the large

Saman Bird Uttar population of Cranes in the area.
Sanctuary Pradesh • Among the storks it houses include Painted Stork, Block-
necked Stork, Open-billed Stork and Woolly-necked Stork.
• Raebareli district.
• It is known for the preservation of bird species including
various migratory birds.
Samaspur bird Uttar
sanctuary Pradesh • It houses more than 250 species of birds and remains a
favourite bird destination.
.
• Vulture, Kingfishers, Spot Bill Teel common and Teel
Whistling etc. are permanent residents of this sanctuary
• It is a small unprotected wetland, in Etawah District of
Uttar Pradesh.
Sarsai Nawar Uttar • It comprises of two small lakes that attract Sarus Cranes,
Lake Pradesh White Ibis and other water birds in large numbers.
• It houses a large population of the threatened species of
Sarus Cranes which are the world’s tallest flying birds.

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Most Important Species

Geographic Protected Current

Species IUCN Status Threats
Extend Area Affairs
Hunting,
disease,habitat
degradation due
to salt activities,
Rann of Kutch
Indian wild Indian Wild Ass the invasion of
(Little Rann of Near
ass/Asiatic wild Sanctuary, Little the Prosopis
Kutch and Great threatened
ass Rann of Kutch juliflora shrub,
Rann of Kutch
and
encroachment
and grazing by
the Maldhari
Odisha has
Hunting for
National renewed its effort
traditional
Native to the Chambal to revive the
Critically medicine, Sand
northern part Gharial Wildlife population of
Gharial endangered mining and
of the Indian Sanctuary, gharials, in their
drastic changes to
subcontinent Ken Gharial natural habitat by
their freshwater
Sanctuary releasing five
habitats.
reptiles into the

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Satkosia gorge of
Mahanadi - the
southernmost
limit of gharials’
home range in
India.
Poaching for
Northern and Kanha NP antlers and meat,
Seeing a revival
Central India (MP), Satpura which are sold in
in the Kanha
Swamp deer/ (also found in Tiger reserve local markets,
Vulnerable National Park and
Barasingha southwestern (MP), Habitat
Tiger Reserve
Nepal) Kaziranga NP destruction,
(KNPTR)
(Assam) Change in river
dynamics, etc
• Govt of India
has launched
Hemis National First National
Park,Ladakh, Protocol on
Pin Valley Snow Leopard
Inhabits alpine National Park, Population
and subalpine Himachal Assessment
Hunting, habitatl • Global Snow
zones Pradesh,
(Trans Nandadevi BR Leopard &
oss, retaliatory
Himalayas and Khangchendzon Ecosystem
Vulnerable killings, poaching
Snow leopard Himalayas and ga BR, Protection
and climate
Mountains of Namdapha NP (GSLEP)
change
Central Asia, etc Program
parts of (Range States • The GSLEP is
Continental East /UTs – J&K, a high-
Asia) Ladakh, HP, level inter-
UK, Sikkim and governmental
Arunanchal alliance of all
Pradesh) the 12 snow
leopard range
countries.
Silent Valley
Habitat
Endemic to National Park,
Lion tailed Endangered degradation,
Western Ghats Nilgiri
macaque change in land
of South India Biosphere
use, hunting,
Reserve
etc.
• Government
has decided to
Kaziranga NP, Poaching, loss of translocate
Indian wild
Indian five female
buffalo/Wild Manas BR, habitat and
Subcontinent wild buffaloes
water Dibru-Saikhowa Endangered breeding with
and Southeast from Manas
buffalo/Wild BR, Indravati domestic
Asia National
Asian Buffalo NP buffaloes.
Park in Assam
to Udanti
Wildlife

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Sanctuary in
Chhattisgarh
• 4National
Aquatic
Animal of
India
• The
Ganges- government is
Loss of habitat planning to
Brahmaputra-
due in large part launch a
Meghna and
to the creation of programme
Gangetic Karnaphuli- Endangered
dams and called
dolphin Sangu river
irrigation “Project
systems of
projects. Dolphin”,
Nepal, India,
and Bangladesh. along the lines
of “Project
Tiger” to
enhance the
population of
these
dolphins.
• Abu Dhabi-
based
International
Fund for
Houbara
Great Indian Conservation
Bustard (IFHC), has
Sanctuary joined forces
Dry grasslands
Solapur, with the
Great Indian and scrublands Critically Hunting and loss
Maharashtra Wildlife
Bustard on the Indian Endangered of its habitat
Institute of
subcontinent
Desert National India to save
Park Sanctuary, the Great
Rajasthan Indian
Bustard and
Lesser
Florican from
extinction in
India.
Dense riverine
forests in the
high valleys and Habitat
mountains of destruction, over-
the Kashmir Dachigam Critically grazing by
Kashmir Stag
Valley National Park Endagered domestic
And northern livestock,
Chamba district And poaching
in Himachal
Pradesh

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Native to the Namdapha
Eastern National Park, Hunting of Red
Himalayas and Nokrek, Panda has
Habitat loss and
Southwestern Khangchendzon decreased as per
fragmentation,
China. ga National study by wildlife
Red Panda Endangered poaching, and
Endemic to Park, trade monitoring
inbreeding
the temperate Neora Valley network
depression.
forests of the National Park, TRAFFIC
Himalayas. Singalila
National Park
Threats across
Western Indian
their migratory After a gap of
Ocean, Indian
route, habitat and seven years, mass
subcontinent
Gahirmatha nesting beaches, nesting of Olive
and Southeast
Marine due to human Ridley Turtles
Asia.
Sanctuary, activities such was witnessed
Olive Ridley
Rushikulya Vulnerable as turtle fishing during the
Turtle Breeding area:
rookery, practices, daytime along the
Indian Ocean
Bahuda river development and Rushikulya
along the Bay of
mouth exploitation of rookery coast in
Bengal
nesting beaches Odisha
primarily
for ports, and
Orissa.
tourist centres.
Unpredictable
Asiatic Lion
events, such as an
Gir Forest Census in Gujarat
Endangered epidemic or large
Asiatic Lion Gir, Gujarat National Park 2020 by Wildlife
forest
Institute of India
fire, poaching etc
(WII)
.
India and four
rhino range
nations (Nepal,
Poaching for
Bhutan, Malaysia
rhinoceros horn,
& Indonesia)
demonstrated
have signed a
reductions in the
declaration ‘The
extent of
Kaziranga New Delhi
grasslands and
National Park , Declaration on
North East and wetland habitats
One-Horned Pobitora WS, Asian Rhinos
Eastern India, Vulnerable due to woodland
Rhino Manas NP 2019’ for the
Bhutan, Nepal encroachment
Jaldapara NP, conservation,
and silting up of
Dudhwa NP review population
beels,
of Greater one-
grazing by
horned, Javan and
domestic
Sumatran rhinos
livestock
every 4 years and
protection of the
species at the
Second Asian

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Rhino Range
Countries
at New Delhi and
organised by the
Ministry of
Environment,
Forest and
Climate Change
in collaboration
with the IUCN
Asian Rhino
Specialist Group,
WWF- India and
Aaranyak.
Loss and
degradation
of habitat due to
Confined to a human
very few settlements,
locations in and agricultural
Critically
Pygmy Hog around Manas encroachments,
endangered
National Park in dry-season
north-western burning,
Assam livestock grazing,
commercial
forestry and flood
control schemes.
Wool is known as
Endangered due
shahtoosh and is
to poaching.
used to weave
Endemic to the They are hunted
shawls. At
Tibetan plateau, Near for their soft and
present,
Chiru Trans Threatened. warm wool
international trade
Himalayan which is usually
in their products
region of India obtained after
is strictly
death
prohibited.

Widely and
heavily hunted by
humans for their
Warm coastal meat, hides, and
waters of the oil.
Gulf of Mannar
Indian(Gulf of Habitat
Biosphere Vulnerable
Dugong Kutch and Gulf deterioration, loss
Reserve
of Mannar) and of sea grasses,
Pacific oceans accidental
entanglement in
fishing nets, and
collisions with
boats

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Geographic Protected Current

Species IUCN Status Threats
Extend Area Affairs
Steadily
degenerating
habitat of
phumdi as a
result of
continuous
inundation and
flooding caused
due to artificial
Sangai/ Endemic deer Keibul Lamjao reservoir. Manipur Sangai
brow-antlered found only in National Park Endangered Festival
deer/ Eld's deer Manipur Water quality of
the reservoir is
degrading due to
pollution and
stoppage of
nutrient supply.

Invasion of non-
native plants
like Paragrass.
Hunting, habitat The Nilgiri tahr
Endemic to Eravikulam
loss (mainly sightings in the
the Nilgiri National Park
from domestic Mukurthi
Hills and the
Nilgiri tahr Endangered livestock and National Park
southern portion Nilgiri
spread of have risen from
of the Western Biosphere
invasive plants), 568 in 2018 to
Ghats Reserve
climate change 612 in 2019
Indonesian part The last
Critically Poaching and
Sumatran of Borneo and Extinct in surviving
Endangered loss of habitat
Rhinoceros Sumatra Island India. Sumatran Rhino
in Malaysia,

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Iman, died in
Borneo Rhino
Sanctuary. The
Rhino died of
cancer. With
this Sumatran
rhino have
become extinct
in Malaysia.
In Ladakh, the
A small gazelles share
population of their habitat
Tibetan Gazelles with the
is spread across Habitat loss Changpa
Native to the the Indian through people, the
Tibetan plateau Changthang in Near development of native
Tibetan gazelle/
Ladakh and southern and Threatened rangeland and community of
Goa
Sikkim regions south-eastern increases in the
of India Ladakh and the domestic Changthang,
Gurudongmar- livestock and their
Tso Lhamo livestock,
plateau in north leading to
Sikkim. competition for
forage
availability.
Hunting and
poaching for
local The Madhya
Widely
consumptive use Pradesh forest
distributed in
(e.g. as a protein department, for
The Indian India, except the Endangered
source and the first time,
pangolin arid region, high
traditional has radio-tagged
Himalayas and
medicine) and an Indian
the North-East.
international Pangolin.
trade for its
meat and scales
The Great
Indian
Bustard, Asian
Elephant and
Bengal
From Uttar
Dibru-Saikhowa Florican have
Pradesh through
Bengal BR, Loss of its been included
the Terai of Nep Critically
florican/ Kaziranga NP grassland in Appendix I
al to Assam and Endangered
Bengal bustard and Dudhwa habitat. of UN
Arunachal Tiger Reserve Convention on
Pradesh
Migratory
Species at
the 13th Confere
nce of the
Parties (COP) to

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the Convention
on Migratory
Species
(CMS) in
Gandhinagar
(Gujarat).
Asian Elephant
have been
included
in Appendix I of
Northern limit Habitat loss and
UN Convention
of distribution fragmentation,
All of India on Migratory
Asian of Indian human-elephant
except very high Species at
elephant/India elephant is Endangered conflict, and
altitudes and the 13th (COP)
n Elephant Rajaji National poaching and
latitudes to the
Park, illegal trade of
Convention on
Uttrakhand elephants.
Migratory
Species
(CMS) in
Gandhinagar

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 Theory of Prelims 2.0

Environment & Ecology

FAUNAL GROUPS THAT SHOULD BE SPECIALLY NOTED

( OTHER THAN SUPERSTAR SPECIES)

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 GEOGRAPHIC PROTECTED IUCN CURRENT
SPECIES THREATS
EXTEND AREA STATUS AFFAIRS

1.CROCODILE

Found in coastal
Odisha, WB and TN.
According to annual reptiles census
They have the broadest
Hunted for its skin 2020, the population of the saltwater or
distribution of any
Saltwater Bhitarkanika Threatened by illegal estuarine has increased in the water
crocodile, ranging from LC
Crocodile NP killing and habitat loss bodies of Odisha’s Bhitarkanika
the eastern coast of
National Park and its nearby areas in
India, throughout SE
Kendrapara district
Asia & Northern
Australia.
Inhabits freshwater Habitat destruction,
lakes, sluggish rivers fragmentation, and
Mugger Throughout
and swamps VU transformation, mortality
Crocodile India
Found throughout the due to increased fishing
Indian subcontinent. activities
Katarniaghat WLS, Odisha has renewed its effort to revive
Chambal WLS, Gandak, National Hunting for traditional the population of gharials, in their
Yamuna, Son , Chambal CR medicine, Sand mining natural habitat by releasing five reptiles
Gharial
Mahanadi Rivers and Gharial WLS, and drastic changes to into the Satkosia gorge of Mahanadi -
the Rapti-Naryani Ken WLS their freshwater habitats. the southernmost limit of gharials’ home
River in Nepal. range in India.

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2.VULTURE SPECIES

GEOGRAPHIC PROTECTED IUCN

SPECIES THREATS
EXTEND AREA STATUS

Jatayu
Long Billed Native to India, Breeding CR The major threat to the survival of these species is the introduction of
Vulture Pakistan and Nepal. Centre, the veterinary drug, diclofenac
Pinjore

Slender- Sub-Himalayan Diclofenac

CR
Billed regions and Southeast Carcasses poisoning
Vulture Asia Starvation

Jim Corbett
Very common
NP,
especially in the
Utarakhand
White- Gangetic plains of Diclofenac
CR
Rumped India, and often seen Starvation
Dudhwa and
Vulture nesting on the avenue
Kartamiaghat
trees within large cities
forest reserves
in the region.
in UP

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3.TURTLE SPECIES

GEOGRAPHIC PROTECTED IUCN

SPECIES THREATS CURRENT AFFAIRS
EXTEND AREA STATUS

Andaman & Nicobar

Hawksbill CR
, Tamil Nadu and
sea turtle
Orissa. Susceptible to
entanglement in
gillnets and accidental
Four-toed India, Bangladesh
CR capture on fishing
River (Sunder bans) and
hooks,
Terrapin Nepal.
loss of nesting and Marine Turtle Policy and Marine
feeding habitats, Standing Policy
excessive egg
Bengal
collection, fishery-
roof or Uttar Pradesh,
National related mortality,
Red- Rajasthan and CR
Chambal pollution, and coastal
Crowned Madhya Pradesh
Sanctuary development.
Roof
Turtle

Nest mainly in the The largest number of nests of the

Leatherba Intense egg collection
Andaman and VU rare Leather back sea turtles were
ck turtles Fisheries bycatch
Nicobar islands found in Thailand. This was mainly

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 because, the beaches in Thailand
were deserted due to COVID-19
lock down.
Habitat loss or Government to launch Marine
Inhabits the Atlantic,
disturbance and Turtle Policy and Marine Standing
Loggerhea Indian, and Pacific
VU pollution Policy to address pollution caused
d turtles Oceans and the
Tourism by micro-plastics in the marine
Mediterranean Sea Fishing ecosystem.
Threats across their
Western Indian migratory
Ocean, Indian route, habitat and
After a gap of seven years, mass
subcontinent and nesting beaches, due to
nesting of Olive Ridley Turtles was
Olive Southeast Asia. Gahirmata human activities such
witnessed during the daytime along
Ridley Marine VU as turtle fishing
the Rushikulya rookery coast in
Turtle Breeding area: Sanctuary practices, development
Odisha
Indian Ocean along and exploitation of
the Bay of Bengal is nesting beaches for
Orissa. ports, and tourist
centres.

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4. RIVER DOLPHINS

PROTEC
GEOGRAPHIC IUCN
SPECIES TED THREATS CURRENT AFFAIRS
EXTEND STATUS
AREA
Fisheries
During the Dolphin Census in Chilika lake, direct sighting of 146
Irrawaddy South and EN bycatch
Irrawaddy dolphins has been reported.
Dolphin Southeast Asia & habitat loss

The distribution Damming

range covers of river which
Vikramsh
seven states degrades the
ila
namely, Assam, habitat, and The government is planning to launch a programme called
Ganges Gangetic EN
UP, MP, isolates the “Project Dolphin”, along the lines of “Project Tiger” to enhance
Dolphin Dolphin S
Rajasthan, populations; the population of these dolphins.
anctuary,
Bihar, Jharkhand preventing
Bihar
and West seasonal
Bengal. migration.

Indus river
dolphins are
Damming
found in
Indus EN of river which
Pakistan and
Dolphin degrades the
River Beas in
habitat
India

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5. BIG CATS IN INDIA

PROTEC
GEOGRAPHIC IUCN
SPECIES TED THREATS CURRENT AFFAIRS
EXTEND STATUS
AREA

Poaching, and In the year 2018, the highest number of tigers found in Madhya
Royal bengal Indian
EN fragmentation pradesh (526) while in Karnataka it is 524 and Uttarakhand is on
tiger subcontinent
of habitat the third place with a total of 442 tigers.
Hunting, habit
Hemis NP at loss, Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection (GSLEP)
Snow Trans Himalayas VU
Pin climate Program
leopard and Himalayas)\
Valley NP change

Gir Unpredictable
Forest events, such
EN Asiatic Lion Census in Gujarat 2020 by Wildlife Institute of India
Asiatic Lion Gir, Gujarat National as an
(WII)
Park epidemic or
forest fire
Himalayan A research paper published by over 20 researchers from across the
Clouded Deforestation
foothills through globe has helped understand habitats, migration corridors of
Leopard and reduction
Clouded mainland VU clouded leopards and laid out the conservation strategies.
National in rainfall
Leopard Southeast Asia In India, the Dampa tiger reserve in Mizoram was chosen as the
Park, patterns
into southern study site.
Tripura
China.

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Theory of Prelims 2.0
Environment & Ecology
IMPORTANT POLLUTANTS

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POLLUTANT SOURCE IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT HEALTH EFFECTS REGULATORY PROVISIONS

Petrol, diesel, lead decreased growth and Damages nervous system & Use of lead or lead compounds in
LEAD batteries, paints, hair reproductive rates in plants cause digestive problems & Household and Decorative Paints in
dye products, industries and animals, and in some cases causes cancer excess of 90 parts per million is
etc neurological effects in prohibited.
vertebrates.
Seepage of industrial Death, inhibition of growth, Chronic exposure to arsenic Maximum contaminant level (MCL)
and mine discharges, fly photosynthesis and causes black foot disease. for arsenic in drinking water is 10
ash ponds of thermal reproduction, and ppb (according to WHO) followed
ARSENIC power plants behavioural effect. by most of the developed countries.
Environments contaminated In developing countries
with arsenic contain only a including India and Bangladesh, 50
few species and fewer ppb is considered as the accepted
numbers within species. level for arsenic in drinking water.
Volcanoes, forest fires, When released into Mercury contamination is a According to Minamata
fossil fuels such the environment, it significant public health Convention, the maximum
as coal and petroleum, accumulates in water laid and environmental problem acceptable quantity of mercury in
MERCURY
discharge from sediments where it converts because methylmercury fish and other food items is 0.5 ppm
hydroelectric, mining, into toxic methylmercury easily enters the (by weight) and 1.0 ppm (by
pulp, and paper and enters the food chain. bloodstream and affects the weight), respectively, whereas the
industries. brain. acceptable quantity of
methylmercury (a more toxic form
of mercury) in all food items is 0.25
ppm (by weight).

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 It is contained in an Ground water Kidney toxicity As per Bureau of Indian Standard
aquifer’s rocks. Contamination (BIS), maximum permissible limit
URANIUM
The interaction of the of Uranium is 0.03 mg/l (as per
extracted uranium with (There is prevalence of WHO provisional guidelines) in all
other chemicals in the Uranium concentration drinking water standards after
groundwater, which can above 30 micro-gram per following due process.
further enhance its litre in some of the
solubility. localized pockets of few
States/UTs in the country. )
Plutonium has been Plutonium may enter Plutonium that is ingested
released into the surface water from from contaminated food or
environment in aqueous accidental releases and water does not pose a
PLUTONIUM solution from nuclear disposal of radioactive serious threat to humans
reprocessing and wastes. Soil can because the stomach does
uranium enrichment become contaminated with not absorb
plants. plutonium through fallout plutonium easily and so it
during nuclear weapons passes out of the body in
testing. Plutonium moves the feces.
slowly downwards in the
soil, into the groundwater.

Phosphate fertilisers Water and Soil Dental fluorosis, stiffness Permissible range of 0.6 to 1.5 mg/l.
Coal used for Contamination of joints (particularly spinal
combustion in various cord) causing humped back
FLUORIDES industries and in brick Neuromuscular disorders,
kilns. gastro-intestinal problems,
teeth deformity

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 The improper disposal
of fly ash on ground
surface
The aerial emission of
fluoride in gaseous
forms
Formed when NOx Plants experiencing a Chest pain, coughing, throat The permissible
particle from vehicle reduction in irritation, and airway limit for ozone levels according to
exhaust & volatile photosynthesis and slower inflammation CPCB standards is 100 micrograms
OZONE
Hydrocarbons interact growth rate Bronchitis, emphysema etc per metre cube (µg/m3) over eight
with each other in hours.
presence of sunlight
Incomplete combustion Effects the amount of Combines with
of carbon based fuels, greenhouse gases, which haemoglobin to form
CARBON
Automobile exhaust, are linked to climate change carboxyhaemoglobin,
MONOXIDE
Cigarette smoke etc. and global warming. which is highly stable &
reduces oxygen carrying
capacity of blood

Fossil fuels , Loss of species diversity (less Reduce the amount of oxygen
Burning of vegetation / variety of plants, animals, breathed from the air.
METHANE rotting insects, and fish)
Changes to the specific This can result in mood changes,
assortment of plants present in a slurred speech, vision problems,
forest memory loss, nausea, vomiting,
Changes to habitat quality facial flushing and headache.
Unconsciousness
Changes to water and nutrient
cycles.

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