GROUNDWATER A NEW PARADIGM: Geological Society of South Africa Biennial Conference

17-19 September 2013 Transactions CD

THE THERMAL SPRINGS OF SWAZILAND – A REVIEW

N S Robins

British Geological Survey, Maclean Building, Wallingford, OX10 8BB, UK

Abstract

The thermal springs of Swaziland and adjacent KwaZulu Natal have, over the years, attracted attention
from hydrogeologists, hydrochemists and structural geologists. While some of the springs in Swaziland
are well known amenities, others are less well visited and some difficult to access. There are eleven warm
springs in Swaziland discharging between 1 and 10 l/s from Precambrian age rocks; all are situated at or
near valley bottoms. The springs have surface discharge temperatures of between 25 and 52 oC and total
dissolved solids concentrations less than 400 mg/l. In all cases the water is meteoric in origin.
Geothermometry indicates that maximum temperatures up to 100 oC are achieved during circulation. If
the average geothermal gradient is about 20 oC/km as recorded in a deep mine at Barberton, then this
would require circulation up to a depth of several kilometres. However, it is likely that circulation
bottoms at about 1 km, as pressure of overburden inhibits dilation of fractures at such depths and the
excess temperature may derive from a locally enhanced geothermal gradient. The discharge water is
young, with 14C ages of between 4000 and 5000 years.

1. INTRODUCTION

Swaziland straddles the eastern escarpment of the Precambrian Basement plateau with Precambrian
granite exposed along the base of the escarpment, east of which Karoo sediments outcrop to form the
Lowveld. Typical average borehole yield in the Precambrian Basement aquifer is 1.1 l/s with over a third
of boreholes drilled yielding less than 0.5 l/s (UNITED NATIONS, 1989). Prospects are better in the
Karoo, particularly where it is disturbed by volcanic dykes, where borehole yields are sufficient to supply
commercial irrigation schemes. Mwendera (2006) reports that modern borehole drilling is, in places,
providing yields suitable for electric submersible pumps to supply rural water supply schemes. Much use
is also made of the available surface water resources.

Groundwater flow systems are mostly shallow, and residence times are inferred to be in the order of tens
of years. The cumulative groundwater discharge (cold springs and seepages) sustains some flow in the
small streams on the plateau and the escarpment, even during extended dry seasons. Groundwater
recharge is between 0.5 and 15% of average annual rainfall (PITEAU ASSSOCIATES, 1992).

The thermal springs in Swaziland (Figure 1) have been described at eight locations, Mkoba, Ezulwini,
Lobamba, Mawelawela, Ngwempisi, Mpopoma (sometimes referred to as Manzane, literally ‘hot spring
in Siswati), Siphofaneni and Mbondela (Spargo, 1965; Hunter, 1968, Mazor et al., 1974). In addition
Madubula Thermal Spring was recorded on a 1920s mining concession map and two further springs, one
at Fairview and the other at Mvuntshini, were located during geological field mapping in the late 1970s.
The Ezulwini sources supply a therapeutic spa centre and the celebrated ‘Cuddle Puddle’, the springs at
Lobamba are traditionally patronised by the Royal Family, while those at Siphofaneni are a tourist
attraction. Other springs are more remote and have attracted little attention. There are three additional
springs in South Africa just south of the Swazi/South African border.

This paper describes the thermal springs and their geological and topographical setting. It reviews the
available chemical and isotopic data that have been applied as indicators of circulation temperature and
likely circulation paths and discusses the tectonic setting for such circulation. The objective is to assess
the springs as a hydrochemical group and to comment on the likely circulation systems.
 GROUNDWATER A NEW PARADIGM: Geological Society of South Africa Biennial Conference
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Figure 1. The Swazi thermal spring locations and adjacent Thermal

sources in South Africa

2. GEO-ENVIRONMENT OF THE SWAZI SPRINGS

All the springs occur at or just above valley bottoms. All, therefore, offer the prospect of gravity driven
circulation from a recharge zone at a higher elevation. They all circulate in Precambrian crystalline rock
and discharge comes mainly from fracture outcrop. The last tectonic activity in the area was in Jurassic
age and deep and dilated fracturing seems unlikely. Hartnady (1985), however, suggests that neotectonic
activity may still be occurring and that there is a likely mantle hotspot near 30 oS and 29oE. The tectonic
origin of the lineaments at depth in the granitic terrain may relate to the continental plate riding over an
oceanic ridge in the upper subduction zone (Kent, 1981). The major tectonic trends are north-south with a
secondary north easterly trend best developed in the granodiorites.

The spring locations, discharges and discharge temperatures are summarised in Table 1 and some sites
offer multiple discharge points (Robins and Bath, 1979). The spring waters range from odourless to a
distinct sulphurous smell, some discharges have a white encrustation and some release gas bubbles. The
springs emanate from granite, granodiorite and gneiss, some through overburden material. The discharge
temperatures vary from 25 oC to 52 oC, with a mean of 41 oC, and the mean discharge is 2.5 l/s, the
greatest discharge is 6 l/s at Mawelawela.
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Table 1. The thermal springs of Swaziland

Discharge Temperature
Spring Location Sources Comments
(l/s) (oC)
Mkoba 26o 03' S 31o 21' E north ) 2.5 49 Discharge from N-S oriented fractures in granite. All
centre ) 48 three sources have sulphurous smell and occasional
south 1.5 52 bubbles – no encrustation
Mvuntshini 26o 22' S 31o 10' E 1 4.0 45 Migmatitic granite and gneiss, discharge through
overburden. Faint smell of H2S.
Ezulwini 26o 24' S 31o 11' E upper 4.0 37 In granite gneiss. The upper source is a shallow well
spring 2.0 40 casing driven into a fracture containing a pump, the
seepage small 40 spring is 25 m away adjacent to a dolerite dyke
Lobamba 26o 26' S 31o 12' E Guest House 1 1.0 48 In weathered granodiorite. Slight sulphurous smell.
Guest House 2 2.0 47 Guest House sources 50 m apart and used for bathing.
26o 27' S 31o 13' E 3 (to SE) 1.5 43
Mawelawela 26o 36' S 31o 10' E 1 6.0 35 Discharge from NW trending fracture in granite.
Ngwepisi 26o 42' S 31o 12' E 1 3.5 46 Discharges beneath large granite boulder. Strong
sulphurous smell and some encrustation
Mpopoma 26o 58' S 31o 08' E 1 3.0 33 Discharge as seepages via overburden. Strong
2 1.0 33 sulphurous smell and slight encrustation.
Mbondela 27o 03' S 31o 05' E 1 2.0 25 Issues from gneiss. Sulphurous smell, bubbles and a thin
2 0.5 28 encrustation on the surface
Madubula 26o 42' S 31o 18' E north bank 2.0 52 In granite. Strong sulphurous smell, rising bubbles and
south bank 8.0 52 slight encrustation
Fairview 26o 11' S 31o 42' E 1 3.0 38 In alluvium over granodiorite into ponds
Siphofaneni 26o 42' S 31o 41' E Men’s bath 3.0 39 In overburden over granite. Slight sulphurous smell and
Women’s bath 3.0 39 bubbles rising.
 GROUNDWATER A NEW PARADIGM: Geological Society of South Africa Biennial Conference
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The springs fall on two distinct lineaments (Figure 2) trending roughly north-north-east. Springs in
the Temperley (western) Lineament (Temperley, 1964; Kent, 1981) are from north to south: Mkoba,
and in the Ezulwinin valley Mvuntshini, Ezulwini and Lobamba, then Mawelawela, Ngwempisis,
Mpopoma and Mbondela. 15 km to the south south west across the border in South Africa are
Sulphur Springs and Warm Bad but this major line of warm, springs continues into South Africa as
far again to the south south west.

The less well defined Eastern Line from north to south comprises Fairview, Siphofaneni and just
across the border in the south south west the Onverwacht springs. The Eastern Line is parallel to the
major swarm of intrusive dykes in the east of Swaziland. Madubula spring, however, is unique in that
it is situated between the two spring line fracture or fault lineaments. It is nevertheless likely that its
location reflects fractures and faults that have allowed deep circulation. Spargo (1965) accounts for
the Mkoba spring discharge resulting from circulation in a north-south oriented fault.

The lineaments clearly offer pathways for deep groundwater circulation. Although the dominant
tectonic trend is north south, there is also a subordinate, but likely deep seated, north-north-easterly
trend particularly in the granodiorites.

Figure 2. Thermal spring trend lines: the Eastern Line and the western
Temperley Line
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3. HYDROCHEMISTRY AND GEOTHERMOMETRY

Mazor et al. (1974) show, mainly on the basis of stable isotopes, that the thermal spring waters are
meteoric in origin. 14C age dating suggests a groundwater residence time of between 4000 and 5000
years. The spring discharges are moderately mineralised with total dissolved solids <400 mg/l (Table
2). The majority are Na-HCO3 type groundwaters while Madabula and Fairview are Na/Cl-HCO3
type, both also slightly more mineralised than the other springs (Figure 3). The mineralisation is
primarily due to silicate hydrolysis. The thermal sources along the Temperley Line are slightly less
mineralised than those on the Eastern Line and less Cl dominated, possibly reflecting a slightly more
mature circulating system than springs on the Eastern Line. Local non-thermal waters tend to be less
mineralised than the thermal waters and are mainly Ca-HCO3 type but there is little evidence that
mixing of shallow cold groundwaters occurs before the thermal waters emerge at the surface. The pH
of the spring waters ranges between 7.3 at Ezulwini to 9.7 at Mpopoma; the average pH is 8.2.

Table 2. Major ion chemistry, measured discharge temperatures and inferred base level
temperatures of the thermal waters (mg/l)

Spring Measured pH Na K Ca HCO3 SO4 Cl F SiO2 Chalcedony

temp. (oC) temp. (oC)
Temperley
Line Mkoba 52 9.3 37 1.8 1 99 8 14 7.2 68.4 88
Mvuntshini 45 8.8 37 1.4 3 69 4 7 7.2 53.5 76
Ezulwini 40 8.4 26 1.3 4 55 3 5 4.9 44.9 68
Lobamba 48 9.0 44 1.4 3 77 5 19 8.1 59.9 82
Mawelawela 35 8.4 41 1.4 3 95 4 9 5.4 42.8 66
Ngwempisi 46 8.2 34 1.3 5 69 4 5 6.0 40.6 64
Madubula 52 9.0 68 2.1 3 75 12 37 14.5 65.2 86
Mpopoma 33 9.4 70 1.5 2 96 12 24 12.5 64.2 85
Mbondela 27 - 40 2.2 3 77 7 9 6.0 46.0 69
Sulphur 28 9.0 38 1.9 3 93 5 8 5.4 49.2 72
Springs
Warm Bad 31 9.9 75 1.9 1 132 9 15 11.0 75.5 94
Eastern Line
Fairview 38 9.2 106 2.9 2 99 17 55 21.0 25.7 45

Siphofaneni 39 8.1 140 5.1 9 113 19 120 18.0 55.6 78

Onverwacht 26 9.6 139 4.2 1 210 13 67 27.9 84.2 99

The saturation indices with respect to calcite are close to or slightly less than zero. The Ca2+ and
HCO3- levels are likely controlled by calcite equilibrium at temperatures approaching those of the
surface discharges, assuming carbonate is available on the fracture walls. Saturation indices with
respect to fluorite are also close to zero which is normal for granitic terrain. Chalcedony
geothermometers (Amorsson, 1975) indicate base temperatures of between 60 and 100 oC.

Spring temperature is notably consistent and indicative of a stable circulation environment. Spargo
(1965) recorded temperatures of 49, 53 and 53 oC at Mkoba whereas Robins and Bath (1979) recorded
the same springs at temperatures of 49, 48 and 52 oC. Variation in the middle spring temperature
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results from its discharge through alluvium and likely mixing with river water, whereas the north and
south springs emerge directly from bedrock.

Figure 3. Thermal spring discharge major iron chemistry for springs

in the Eastern trend line and in the Western or Temperley trend line

Spring discharge is variable. The Siphofaneni spring, for example, had changed from a recorded
discharge of 1.9 l/s in the late 1960s (Hunter, 1968) to 6 l/s in the late 1970s (Robins and Bath, 1979)
to only 0.6 l/s in the late 1980s (Dakin et al., 1988), the latter change possibly reflecting the onset of
dryer conditions leading up to the drought of the early 1990s. Similar variation has been recorded at
Mkoba, Lobamba and Mawelawela although the Ezulwini discharges have been remarkably constant.

Dissolved gases in the discharge from one of the springs suggest oxygen and carbon dioxide have
been depleted by oxidation and carbonation processes during circulation (Mazor et al., 1974). Noble
gases and stable isotopes show the waters to have been kept in closed circuit conditions and their
concentrations suggest palaeotemperatures at the time of infiltration of between 21 and 31 oC, similar
to contemporary summer rainy season temperatures.

4. GROUNDWATER CIRCULATION

Deep groundwater circulation results from gravity drainage from a high elevation recharge zone to
discharge at valley bottom. Once flow is established convection provides additional energy. That all
the spring sources occur at valley bottoms suggests association with structural lines of weakness,
some in line with mapped features such as faults and fracture zones, others less obvious.

The geothermal gradient is about 20 oC per km. To achieve the observed circulation temperatures the
spring waters need to penetrate to at least 1000 m depth, less if the geothermal gradient is enhanced
within the thermal lineaments alluded to by Hartnady (1985). Chalcedony geothermometry, however,
indicates that maximum temperatures up to 100 oC are achieved during circulation. If the average
geothermal gradient is only about 20 oC/km, as recorded in a deep mine at Barberton, then this would
 GROUNDWATER A NEW PARADIGM: Geological Society of South Africa Biennial Conference
17-19 September 2013 Transactions CD

require circulation up to a depth of several kilometres. It is, nevertheless, likely that circulation
bottoms at about 1 km, as pressure of overburden inhibits dilation of fractures at such depths and the
excess temperature may derive from a locally enhanced geothermal gradient caused by the fractures.
The discharge water is young, with 14C ages of between 4000 and 5000 years. The flow velocity
needed for groundwater to flow through a system of interconnected dilated fractures to a depth of
1500 m and back in 5000 years is 0.6 m/yr.

5. CONCLUSIONS

The thermal springs of Swaziland and the adjacent springs in South Africa are a consistently weakly
mineralised group of deep circulating groundwaters. The groundwaters are NaHCO3 and Na/Cl-
HCO3 types. They fall within two distinct lineaments and there is some evidence that the Eastern Line
may be less mature than the western Temperley Line.

Assuming that the recharge element of the systems takes place at higher elevation than the discharge
zones, a gravity driven flow system enhanced by convection allows continued circulation of
groundwater. Circulation is likely to a depth of about 1 km although geothermometry suggests deeper
circulation would be necessary, or a locally enhanced geothermal gradient, as base circulation
temperatures are <100 oC. The circulation period is about 5000 years.

Acknowledgement: The author is grateful to Dr George Darling at BGS for calculating chalcedony
geothermometer base temperatures and later reviewing the paper.

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