COMPUTER

The term computer is derived from the word compute. The word compute
means to calculate. A computer is an electronic machine that accepts data
from the user, processes the data by per- forming calculations and operations
on it, and generates the desired output results. Computer performs both
simple and complex operations, with speed and accuracy.
FEATURES
1.Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of
instructions Per second. Some calculations that would have taken hours and days to
complete otherwise, can be completed in a few seconds using the computer. For
example, calculation And generation of salary slips of thousands of employees of an
organization, weather Forecasting that requires analysis of a large amount of data
related to temperature, pressure and humidity of various places, etc.
2. Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For
example, the computer can accurately give the result of division of any
two numbers up to 10 decimal places.
3.Diligence: When used for a longer period of time, the computer does
not get tired or fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations
with the same speed and accu-racy from the start till the end.
4. Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and information can be
stored in the com- puter and also retrieved whenever required. A limited
amount of data can be stored, temporarily, in the primary memory.
Secondary storage devices like floppy disk and compact disk can store a
large amount of data permanently.
5. Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different
types of tasks with the same ease. At one moment you can use the
computer to prepare a letter document and in the next moment you may
play music or print a document
Digital Computer
The digital computer is a digital system that performs various computational
tasks. The word ‘digital‘ implies that the variables represent the computer’s
information that takes a limited number of discrete values.
The Block Diagram of the Digital Computer is shown below.

A computer system composes of its hardware and the system software available
for its use. The system software consists of a collection of programs. The
programs are included in a systems software package referred to as
the operating system. The hardware of the computer is usually divided into three
major parts:
i. Random Access Memory
ii. Central Processing Unit
iii. Input-Output Processor

i. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) contains an arithmetic and logic unit for
manipulating data. Several registers for storing data, and control circuits for
fetching and executing instructions.

ii. The memory of a computer contains storage for instructions and data, It says
a Random·Access Memory (RAM). The CPU can access any location in memory at
random and retrieve the binary information within a fixed interval of time.

iii. The Input and Output Processor (IOP) contains electronic circuits for
communicating and controlling the transferred information between the
computer and the outside world. The input and output devices connected to the
computer include keyboards, printers, terminals, magnetic disk drives, and other
communication devices.

Classification of Computers
Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified
according to
PURPOSE- According to purpose, computers are either general purpose or specific
purpose. General purpose computers are designed to perform a range of
tasks. They have the ability to store numerous programs, but lack in speed and
efficiency. Specific purpose computers are designed to handle a specific problem or
to perform a specific task. A set of instructions is built into the machine.
DATA HANDLING- according to data handling, computers are analog, digital or
hybrid.
 Analog computers work on the principle of measuring, in which the
measurements obtained are translated into data. Modern analog computers
usually employ electrical parameters, such as voltages, resistances or
currents, to represent the quantities being manipulated. Such computers do
not deal directly with the numbers. They measure continuous physical
magnitudes.
 Digital computers are those that operate with information, numerical or
otherwise, represented in a digital form. Such computers process data into a
digital value (in 0s and 1s). They give the results with more accuracy and at a
faster rate
 Hybrid computers incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer and
counting feature of a digital computer. For computational purposes, these
computers use analog components and for storage, digital memories are
used.
FUNCTIONALITY-According to functionality, Type of computers are classified as :
1. Analog Computer - an analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a
form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical,
mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.
2. Digital Computer- A computer that performs calculations and logical
operations with quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary number
system
3. Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital) - A combination of computers those are
capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and analog signals. A hybrid
computer system setup offers a cost effective method of performing complex
simulations.
Basis of size-
I. Super Computer - The fastest and most powerful type of computer
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized
applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. For
example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of
 supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations,
nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration.The chief difference
between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels
all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas
a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.
II. Mainframe Computer- A very large and expensive computer capable of
supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. In the
hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for example) at
the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just
below supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than
supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But
supercomputers can execute a single program fasterthanamainframe.
III. Mini Computer A mid sized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie
between workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction
between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as
has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in
general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting
from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.

IV. Micro Computer or Personal Computer- Micro Computer or Personal

Computer

 Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a

desk.
 Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen
and keyboard. It is generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and
larger than a notebook computer.
 Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer.
Palmtops have no keyboard but the screen serves both as an input
and output device.
V. Workstations -A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this
context, workstation is just a generic term for a user’s machine (client
machine) in contrast to a “server” or “mainframe.”

Computer Memory
Computer memory is just like the human brain. It is used to store
data/information and instructions. It is a data storage unit or a data storage
device where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored.
In general, memory is of 3 types
 Primary memory
 Secondary memory
 Cache memory
1. Primary Memory: It is also known as the main memory of the
computer system. It is used to store data and programs or instructions during
computer operations. It uses semiconductor technology and hence is
commonly called semiconductor memory. Primary memory is of two types:
(i) RAM (Random Access Memory): It is a volatile memory. Volatile
memory stores information based on the power supply. If the power supply
fails/ interrupted/stopped, all the data & information on this memory will be
lost. RAM is used for booting up or start the computer. It temporarily stores
programs/ data which has to be executed by the processor.

(ii) ROM (Read Only Memory): It is a non-volatile memory. Non-volatile

memory stores information even when there is a power supply failed/
interrupted/stopped. ROM is used to store information that is used to operate
the system. As its name refers to read-only memory, we can only read the
programs and data that is stored on it. It contains some electronic fuses that
can be programmed for a piece of specific information. The information
stored in the ROM in binary format. It is also known as permanent memory.

2. Secondary Memory: It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup

memory. It is a non-volatile memory and used to store a large amount of data
or information. The data or information stored in secondary memory is
permanent, and it is slower than primary memory. A CPU cannot access
secondary memory directly. The data/information from the auxiliary memory
is first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
Types of secondary memory:

(i) Magnetic Tapes: Magnetic tape is a long, narrow strip of plastic film
with a thin, magnetic coating on it that is used for magnetic recording.
Bits are recorded on tape as magnetic patches called RECORDS that
run along many tracks. Typically, 7 or 9 bits are recorded concurrently.
Each track has one read/write head, which allows data to be recorded
and read as a sequence of characters. It can be stopped, started
moving forward or backward, or rewound.

(ii) Magnetic Disks: A magnetic disc is a circular metal or a plastic plate and
these plates are coated with magnetic material. The disc is used on both
sides. Bits are stored in magnetized surfaces in locations called tracks that
run in concentric rings. Sectors are typically used to break tracks into pieces.

(iii) Optical Disks: It’s a laser-based storage medium that can be written to
and read. It is reasonably priced and has a long lifespan. The optical disc
can be taken out of the computer by occasional users. Types of Optical
Disks :
(a) CD – ROM:
 It’s called Compact Disk. Only read from memory.
 Information is written to the disc by using a controlled laser beam to
burn pits on the disc surface.
 It has a highly reflecting surface, which is usually aluminum.
 The diameter of the disc is 5.25 inches.
 16000 tracks per inch is the track density.
 The capacity of a CD-ROM is 600 MB, with each sector storing
2048 bytes of data.
 The data transfer rate is about 4800KB/sec. & the new access time
is around 80 milliseconds.

(b) WORM-(WRITE ONCE READ MANY):

 A user can only write data once.
 The information is written on the disc using a laser beam.
 It is possible to read the written data as many times as desired.
 They keep lasting records of information but access time is high.
 It is possible to rewrite updated or new data to another part of the
disc.
 Data that has already been written cannot be changed.
 Usual size – 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch diameter.
 The usual capacity of 5.25 inch disk is 650 MB,5.2GB etc.

(c) DVDs:
 The term “DVD” stands for “Digital Versatile/Video Disc,” and there
are two sorts of DVDs: (i)DVDR (writable) and (ii) DVDRW (Re-
Writable)
 DVD-ROMS (Digital Versatile Discs): These are read-only memory
(ROM) discs that can be used in a variety of ways. When compared
to CD-ROMs, they can store a lot more data. It has a thick
polycarbonate plastic layer that serves as a foundation for the other
layers. It’s an optical memory that can read and write data.
 DVD-R: It is a writable optical disc that can be used just once. It’s a
DVD that can be recorded. It’s a lot like WORM. DVD-ROMs have
capacities ranging from 4.7 to 17 GB. The capacity of 3.5 inch disk
is 1.3 GB.

Cache Memory: It is a type of high-speed semiconductor memory that can

help the CPU run faster. Between the CPU and the main memory, it serves
as a buffer. It is used to store the data and programs that the CPU uses the
most frequently.

Advantages of cache memory:

 It is faster than the main memory.
  When compared to the main memory, it takes less time to access it.
 It keeps the programs that can be run in a short amount of time.
 It stores data in temporary use.

Disadvantages of cache memory:

 Because of the semiconductors used, it is very expensive.
 The size of the cache (amount of data it can store) is usually small.

Computer Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined
function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular
problem.
There are two types of software −
 System Software
 Application Software

System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control,
and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System
software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These
software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages,
which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software
serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers,
Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

Close to the system
Fast in speed
Difficult to design
Difficult to understand
Less interactive
Smaller in size
Difficult to manipulate
Generally written in low-level language

Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a
particular environment. All software applications prepared in the computer
lab can come under the category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's
notepad for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a
collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together
to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are the following −
Payroll Software
Student Record Software
Inventory Management Software
Income Tax Software
Railways Reservation Software
Microsoft Office Suite Software
Microsoft Word
Microsoft Excel
Microsoft PowerPoint