Introduction to Network

Basic concept of networking: Networking is the practice of connecting computers

and other devices together to share resources and communicate. It involves both
hardware (such as routers, switches, and cables) and software (protocols and
applications) that enable data to be transmitted between devices. Key concepts include:

 Nodes: Devices like computers, printers, or servers connected in a network.

 Data Transmission: Sending and receiving data over the network using cables
or wireless connections.
 Protocols: Rules and conventions for communication between devices, ensuring
data is transmitted reliably and efficiently.
 IP Addresses: Unique numerical identifiers assigned to devices on a network,
allowing them to be identified and located.
 Routers and Switches: Devices that manage traffic and direct data between
different networks and devices within a network.
 Types of Networks: Local Area Network (LAN), connecting devices within a
limited area, and Wide Area Network (WAN), connecting devices over a larger
geographical area.
 Security: Measures to protect data from unauthorized access, such as firewalls,
encryption, and authentication protocols.

Network Topologies: Network topology refers to the layout or structure of a network,

which defines how devices are connected and how they communicate. There are
several common network topologies:

1. Bus Topology:

 All devices are connected to a central cable, known as the bus or backbone.
 Data is transmitted in both directions from one end to the other.
 Easy to install and cost-effective for small networks, but if the main cable fails,
the entire network can be affected.

2. Star Topology:

 All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.

 Data flows through the hub or switch to reach other devices.
 Failure of one device usually does not affect others, making it reliable.
 Common in Ethernet networks.

3. Ring Topology:

 Each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming a closed loop.
  Data travels in one direction around the ring.
 If one device or connection fails, it can disrupt the entire network.
 Less common in modern networks due to its vulnerability to failures.

4. Mesh Topology:

 Each device is connected to every other device in the network.

 Provides redundant paths for data, enhancing reliability.
 Complex and costly to install and maintain due to the large number of
connections.
 Used in critical networks where reliability is crucial, such as in large-scale data
centers.

5. Hybrid Topology:

 Combines two or more different types of topologies into one.

 Designed to take advantage of the strengths of different topologies while
mitigating their weaknesses.
 Often used in large networks to balance cost, performance, and reliability.

Layered architecture: Layered architecture in computer networks refers to organizing

network protocols and functionalities into distinct layers, each responsible for specific
tasks. This approach helps in modularizing and simplifying network design,
maintenance, and troubleshooting. The most commonly referenced layered architecture
is the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which consists of seven layers:

1. Physical Layer: Deals with the physical connection between devices and
transmission of raw data bits over a physical medium.
2. Data Link Layer: Manages the communication between neighboring network
devices, ensuring data is delivered error-free across the physical layer.
3. Network Layer: Handles routing and forwarding of data packets across
different networks, using logical addressing and routing protocols.
4. Transport Layer: Provides reliable data transfer services between devices,
ensuring data integrity and flow control.
5. Session Layer: Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between
applications on different devices.
6. Presentation Layer: Translates, encrypts, and compresses data to ensure it
is presented correctly to the application layer.
7. Application Layer: Provides network services directly to user applications,
allowing access to network resources.

Physical layer functionality: The physical layer in a computer network is responsible

for transmitting raw data bits over a physical medium. Its key functionalities include:

 Physical Connection: Establishes and maintains physical connections between

network devices (e.g., cables, wireless signals).
  Data Encoding: Converts data bits into signals suitable for transmission over the
medium (e.g., modulation techniques).
 Transmission Rate: Determines the rate at which data is transmitted over the
medium (e.g., bandwidth).
 Signal Reception: Receives incoming signals, decodes them into data bits, and
checks for errors.
 Media Access Control: Controls how devices access the physical medium to
avoid collisions (in shared media networks).

Data link layer functionality: The data link layer in a computer network provides
reliable data transfer across a physical link, ensuring error-free transmission between
adjacent network devices. Its key functionalities include:

1. Frame Creation and Encapsulation: Divides data into frames and adds
headers and trailers to each frame for transmission.
2. Error Detection and Correction: Detects and sometimes corrects errors that
may occur during data transmission using techniques like CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check).
3. Flow Control: Regulates the flow of data between devices to ensure that the
sender does not overwhelm the receiver.
4. Access Control: Manages access to the physical medium, especially in shared
media environments, to avoid collisions.
5. Link Layer Addressing: Assigns unique MAC (Media Access Control)
addresses to devices for identification within the local network.
6. Logical Link Control: Provides services to the network layer, including framing,
error checking, and flow control.

Multiple access techniques: Multiple access techniques refer to methods for allowing
multiple devices to share the same communication medium in a computer network.
Here are some common multiple access techniques:

1. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA):

 Devices listen to the medium before transmitting. If the medium is busy, they wait
for it to become idle before transmitting.
 Variants include CSMA/CD (Collision Detection), used in Ethernet networks,
where devices detect collisions and retransmit after a random backoff period.

2. Token Passing:

 A token circulates among devices in a predefined sequence. Only the device with
the token can transmit data.
 Used in Token Ring networks to prevent collisions and manage access control.

3. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):

  Divides the channel into time slots. Each device is allocated a specific time slot
during which it can transmit data.
 Efficient for managing resources in wireless networks and satellite
communication.

4. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):

 Divides the channel into frequency bands. Each device is allocated a unique
frequency band for transmitting data.
 Commonly used in cellular networks to separate different users by frequency.

5. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

 Allows multiple users to share the same frequency band simultaneously by

assigning unique codes to each user.
 Codes are used to encode the signals, and receivers use the corresponding
codes to decode the desired signal.
 Widely used in modern cellular networks (e.g., CDMA2000, WCDMA).

Circuit switching and Packet switching:

Circuit Switching:

 Concept: Establishes a dedicated communication path between nodes before

transmission begins.
 Operation: Reserves bandwidth for the duration of the communication session.
 Characteristics: Provides guaranteed, consistent bandwidth but can be
inefficient for bursty traffic.
 Example: Traditional telephone networks use circuit switching for voice calls.

Packet Switching:

 Concept: Breaks data into packets that are independently routed from source to
destination.
 Operation: Each packet travels through the network independently and may take
different paths.
 Characteristics: Efficient use of network resources, better suited for bursty data.
 Example: Internet Protocol (IP) networks use packet switching for data
transmission.

Comparison:

 Resource Allocation: Circuit switching allocates resources upfront for the entire
communication, while packet switching dynamically shares resources as needed.
 Efficiency: Packet switching is generally more efficient for handling varying
traffic loads and prioritizing different types of data.
  Flexibility: Packet switching allows for flexible routing and scalability compared
to the fixed path of circuit switching.

LAN Technologies: LAN (Local Area Network) technologies are used to connect
devices within a limited geographical area, such as an office building, school campus, or
home. Some common LAN technologies include:

1. Ethernet:
o Description: Most widely used LAN technology.
o Operation: Uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection) for media access control.
o Speeds: Common speeds include 10 Mbps (Ethernet), 100 Mbps (Fast
Ethernet), 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet), and higher.
o Media: Uses twisted pair cables (e.g., Cat 5e, Cat 6) or fiber optic cables.
o Applications: Suitable for both small-scale and large-scale networks.
2. Wi-Fi (Wireless LAN):
o Description: Wireless LAN technology based on IEEE 802.11 standards.
o Operation: Uses radio waves for communication between devices and
access points.
o Speeds: Various standards (e.g., 802.11n, 802.11ac) offer different
speeds (up to several Gbps).
o Media: Airwaves (radio frequency spectrum).
o Applications: Provides flexibility and mobility, commonly used in homes,
offices, and public places.
3. Token Ring:
o Description: Older LAN technology using token passing access method.
o Operation: Devices pass a token around the network to control access to
the shared medium.
o Speeds: Typically operated at 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps.
o Media: Uses twisted pair cables or shielded cables.
o Applications: Less commonly used today compared to Ethernet and Wi-
Fi.
4. FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface):
o Description: LAN technology using fiber optics for high-speed data
transmission.
o Operation: Uses token passing for medium access control.
o Speeds: Operates at speeds of 100 Mbps.
o Media: Fiber optic cables.
o Applications: Historically used in backbone networks, now largely
replaced by Ethernet.

Wireless network: A wireless network in computer networking refers to a type of

network that uses radio waves or infrared signals to transmit data between devices. Key
characteristics include:
 1. Wireless Access Points (APs): Devices that create wireless networks by
broadcasting signals for devices (such as laptops, smartphones) to connect to.
2. Wi-Fi Standards: IEEE 802.11 standards (e.g., 802.11ac, 802.11ax) define the
technologies and protocols used for wireless communication.
3. Wireless LAN (WLAN): A type of local area network (LAN) that uses wireless
communication to connect devices within a limited area, such as a home, office,
or campus.
4. Advantages: Provides flexibility and mobility, allowing devices to connect without
physical cables, supporting mobile devices and IoT (Internet of Things) devices.
5. Security: Requires strong encryption (e.g., WPA2, WPA3) and authentication
mechanisms to protect data transmitted over the airwaves.
6. Speeds: Offers various speeds depending on the Wi-Fi standard and equipment
used, ranging from Mbps to Gbps.
7. Applications: Widely used in homes, offices, public spaces, and industrial
environments for internet access, file sharing, printing, and IoT connectivity.

MAC addressing: MAC (Media Access Control) addressing is a unique identifier

assigned to network interfaces for communication on a physical network segment. Key
points about MAC addressing include:

1. Uniqueness: Each network device (e.g., network interface card - NIC) has a
globally unique MAC address burned into its hardware by the manufacturer.
2. Format: MAC addresses are 48 bits (6 bytes) long, typically represented as six
groups of two hexadecimal digits separated by colons or hyphens (e.g.,
00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
3. Role: MAC addresses are used at the data link layer (Layer 2 of the OSI model)
to uniquely identify devices on the same physical network segment.
4. Function: MAC addresses are used by network protocols like Ethernet to deliver
data packets to the correct destination within a LAN, regardless of the higher-
layer IP address.
5. Examples: Used in Ethernet LANs, Wi-Fi networks, and other technologies
where devices need to communicate within a local network.

Networking Devices: Networking devices in a computer network facilitate

communication and data exchange between devices. Here are some key networking
devices:

1. Router:
o Function: Connects multiple networks and routes data between them
based on IP addresses.
o Features: Provides firewall security, network address translation (NAT),
and port forwarding.
2. Switch:
o Function: Connects devices within a local area network (LAN) and
forwards data based on MAC addresses.
 o Features: Improves network efficiency by reducing collisions and
optimizing bandwidth usage.
3. Hub:
o Function: Connects multiple Ethernet devices, allowing them to
communicate with each other.
o Features: Operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model and
simply broadcasts data to all connected devices.
4. Access Point (AP):
o Function: Enables wireless devices to connect to a wired network using
Wi-Fi.
o Features: Supports IEEE 802.11 standards and provides wireless
coverage within a specified area.
5. Modem:
o Function: Converts digital data from a computer into analog signals for
transmission over telephone lines (for DSL) or cable lines (for cable
internet).
o Features: Provides Internet connectivity by communicating with the
Internet Service Provider (ISP).
6. Firewall:
o Function: Protects a network by filtering and controlling incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules.
o Features: Prevents unauthorized access, monitors traffic, and detects
potential threats.
7. Bridge:
o Function: Connects two or more network segments and forwards data
between them based on MAC addresses.
o Features: Helps reduce network traffic by dividing a larger network into
smaller segments.

Network layer protocols: Network layer protocols in computer networking are

responsible for routing and forwarding data packets across different networks. Here are
some key network layer protocols:

1. Internet Protocol (IP):

o Function: Provides logical addressing (IP addresses) to devices and
delivers data packets between them.
o Features: Supports both IPv4 (32-bit addresses) and IPv6 (128-bit
addresses) versions, ensuring global connectivity.
2. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP):
o Function: Supports diagnostic functions and reports errors in IP packet
delivery.
o Features: Includes tools like ping and traceroute for troubleshooting
network connectivity issues.
3. Routing Protocols (e.g., RIP, OSPF, BGP):
o Function: Determine the best paths for data to travel across
interconnected networks.
 oFeatures: Exchange routing information, calculate optimal routes, and
adapt to network changes dynamically.
4. Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP):
o Function: Manages membership in multicast groups and enables hosts to
join or leave multicast group memberships.
o Features: Essential for efficient delivery of multicast traffic in IP networks.
5. IPsec (IP Security):
o Function: Provides security services, including authentication, integrity,
and confidentiality, for IP packets.
o Features: Ensures secure communication over IP networks, commonly
used for VPN (Virtual Private Network) connections.

IPv4 and IPv6: IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) and IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)
are two versions of the Internet Protocol used for identifying and addressing devices on
a network. Here’s a short comparison:

IPv4:

 Address Length: Uses 32-bit addresses, expressed as four decimal numbers

(e.g., 192.168.1.1).
 Address Space: Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses.
 Deployment: Widely deployed and used across the Internet and private
networks.
 Features: Supports protocols like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP
(User Datagram Protocol).
 Challenges: Limited address space, leading to IPv4 address exhaustion.

IPv6:

 Address Length: Uses 128-bit addresses, expressed as eight groups of

hexadecimal digits (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
 Address Space: Provides significantly larger address space, capable of
supporting approximately 340 undecillion (3.4 × 10^38) unique addresses.
 Deployment: Increasing adoption, especially as IPv4 addresses become scarce.
 Features: Enhancements include built-in security (IPsec), simplified header
structure, and support for multicast and anycast.
 Transition: Coexists with IPv4 through mechanisms like dual-stack, tunneling,
and translation technologies.

Summary:

 IPv4 is the traditional and still dominant protocol but faces address depletion
issues.
 IPv6 offers a larger address space and additional features to meet the growing
demands of internet-connected devices.
IP Addressing: IP (Internet Protocol) addressing is a fundamental aspect of computer
networking, allowing devices to communicate with each other within a network or across
different networks. Here’s a concise overview of IP addressing:

1. Purpose: IP addresses uniquely identify each device (such as computers,

printers, routers) on a network. They serve as the destination and source
addresses in data packets.
2. IPv4 vs. IPv6:
o IPv4: Uses 32-bit addresses, typically represented in decimal format (e.g.,
192.168.1.1). Provides around 4.3 billion unique addresses.
o IPv6: Uses 128-bit addresses, represented in hexadecimal format (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). Offers approximately 340
un decillion (3.4 × 10^38) unique addresses.
3. Address Classes (IPv4):
o IPv4 addresses are categorized into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E, with
classes A, B, and C used for host addresses.
o Class D is reserved for multicast addresses, and Class E is reserved for
experimental purposes.
4. Sub netting: Dividing a large network into smaller sub-networks (subnets) using
subnet masks. This allows efficient use of IP addresses and better management
of network resources.
5. Address Allocation: IP addresses can be allocated dynamically (using DHCP -
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) or statically (manually assigned).
6. Public vs. Private IP Addresses:
o Public IP: Globally unique addresses used on the Internet.
o Private IP: Used within private networks (e.g., home or office networks)
and not routable on the Internet without Network Address Translation
(NAT).
7. IPv6 Features:
o Supports stateless address auto configuration (SLAAC) and DHCPv6 for
address assignment.
o Includes built-in IPsec (IP security) support for enhanced security.

Sub netting: Sub netting is the process of dividing a single, large network into smaller,
more manageable sub-networks (subnets). Here’s a concise overview:

1. Purpose: Sub netting allows for efficient use of IP addresses and better
management of network resources by dividing a large network into smaller
segments.
2. Subnet Mask: Determines the boundary between the network portion and the
host portion of an IP address. It is used in conjunction with IP addresses to
define subnets.
3. Benefits:
o Address Efficiency: Reduces wastage of IP addresses by allocating
them more effectively.
 o Network Management: Facilitates better organization and administration
of network resources.
o Traffic Control: Improves network performance by controlling and
isolating traffic within smaller segments.
4. Process:
o Choose a suitable subnet mask based on the number of required subnets
and hosts per subnet.
o Apply the subnet mask to the IP addresses to determine the network and
host portions.
o Assign IP addresses to devices within each subnet accordingly.
5. Example:
o An organization may subnet a network to create separate subnets for
different departments (e.g., Sales, Marketing, IT), each with its own range
of IP addresses.

CIDR: CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) is a methodology used for efficiently

allocating and managing IP addresses. Here’s a short overview:

1. Purpose: CIDR allows for more flexible allocation of IP addresses compared to

the traditional class-based IP addressing scheme (Class A, B, C, etc.).
2. Addressing: CIDR combines IP addresses with their subnet mask using a slash
notation (e.g., 192.168.1.0/24), where the number after the slash represents the
number of network bits in the subnet mask.
3. Advantages:
o Address Space Utilization: Allows for allocation of variable-sized
address blocks, reducing wastage of IP addresses.
o Routing Efficiency: Simplifies routing by aggregating IP addresses into
larger blocks, reducing the size of routing tables.
o Scalability: Supports easy expansion and subdivision of networks without
reconfiguring the entire IP addressing scheme.
4. Example:
o Instead of using traditional class-based addressing (e.g., Class A, B, C),
CIDR allows networks to be defined with more granularity (e.g.,
192.168.1.0/24 for a subnet with 254 usable IP addresses).

Routing Protocol: A routing protocol in computer networking is a set of rules and

conventions that routers use to communicate and share information to determine
optimal paths for forwarding data packets between networks. Here’s a concise
overview:

1. Purpose: Routing protocols enable routers to dynamically exchange routing

information, calculate optimal paths, and maintain up-to-date routing tables.
2. Types:
o Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs): Used within an autonomous system
(AS) or a single organization. Examples include:
  RIP (Routing Information Protocol): Simplest IGP, uses hop
count as the metric.
 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): Link-state routing protocol,
uses a cost metric based on bandwidth.
 EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol): Cisco
proprietary, uses bandwidth, delay, reliability, and load.
o Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs): Used between different
autonomous systems. Example:
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): Path vector protocol, used for
inter-domain routing on the Internet.
3. Operation:
o Routers running a routing protocol exchange routing updates to learn
about reachable networks and their associated metrics (costs).
o Based on this information, routers build and maintain routing tables to
determine the best paths to forward packets toward their destinations.
4. Metrics:
o Each routing protocol uses specific metrics to determine the best path,
such as hop count, bandwidth, delay, reliability, and load.
5. Dynamic vs. Static Routing:
o Dynamic Routing: Automatically adjusts to network changes, providing
flexibility and scalability.
o Static Routing: Requires manual configuration of routes, suitable for
small networks with stable topologies.

Transport Layer Protocol: The transport layer in computer networking provides

communication services directly to the application processes running on different hosts.
It ensures reliable data transfer between these processes through the use of various
protocols. Here are some key points about transport layer protocols:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):

o Function: Provides reliable, connection-oriented delivery of data packets.
o Features: Handles error-checking, flow control, and retransmission of lost
packets to ensure data integrity and order.
o Use Cases: Ideal for applications requiring reliable data transfer, such as
web browsing, email, and file transfer.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP):
o Function: Provides connectionless, unreliable delivery of data packets.
o Features: Lightweight and faster than TCP, but does not guarantee
delivery or order of packets.
o Use Cases: Used in applications where real-time communication and
speed are prioritized over reliability, such as video streaming, online
gaming, and DNS (Domain Name System).
3. Key Differences:
o Reliability: TCP ensures reliable delivery through acknowledgments and
retransmissions, while UDP provides best-effort delivery without
acknowledgments.
 o Overhead: TCP has more overhead due to its reliability mechanisms,
whereas UDP is lightweight with lower overhead.
o Ordering: TCP guarantees the order of data delivery, while UDP does
not, allowing packets to arrive out of order.

Ports and Sockets: In computer networking, ports and sockets are fundamental
concepts that facilitate communication between applications over a network. Here’s a
brief explanation:

1. Port:
o Definition: Ports are virtual endpoints within a host that applications use
to identify specific processes or services.
o Range: Ports are numbered from 0 to 65535.
o Usage: Well-known ports (0-1023) are reserved for commonly used
services (e.g., HTTP on port 80, FTP on port 21). Registered ports (1024-
49151) are assigned by IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) for
specific purposes. Dynamic or ephemeral ports (49152-65535) are used
temporarily by client applications.
2. Socket:
o Definition: A socket is a combination of IP address and port number that
uniquely identifies a communication endpoint in a network.
o Usage: When a server application listens for incoming connections, it
binds to a specific socket (IP address + port). Client applications use
sockets to establish connections to servers.
3. Relationship:
o Server-side: A server binds to a specific port and listens for incoming
connections on that port.
o Client-side: A client application connects to a server using the server's IP
address and port number.
4. Example:
o Web servers typically listen for incoming HTTP requests on port 80
(HTTP) or port 443 (HTTPS).
o Email servers use ports like 25 (SMTP), 110 (POP3), and 143 (IMAP) for
sending and receiving email.

Connection Establishment: Connection establishment in computer networks refers to

the process by which two devices, typically identified by their IP addresses and port
numbers, establish communication for data exchange. Here's a concise explanation:

1. Initiation:
o One device (client) initiates a connection request to another device
(server) using its IP address and a specific port number associated with
the service or application.
2. Handshake:
o Client Request: The client sends a connection request to the server,
typically using a SYN (synchronize) packet.
 o Server Response: Upon receiving the request, the server responds with a
SYN-ACK (synchronize-acknowledge) packet, acknowledging the request
and indicating readiness to proceed.
o Client Confirmation: Finally, the client sends an ACK (acknowledge)
packet back to the server, confirming receipt of the server's
acknowledgment.
3. Establishment:
o Once the handshake process is complete, the connection is established,
and both devices can start transmitting data.
4. Protocol Examples:
o This process is fundamental to connection-oriented protocols like TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol), ensuring reliable and ordered data
delivery.
5. Use Cases:
o Connection establishment is crucial for applications such as web
browsing, email, file transfer, and any service that requires continuous and
reliable communication between devices over a network.

Flow and Congestion Control: Flow control and congestion control are two key
mechanisms used in computer networks to manage the transmission of data and
ensure efficient use of network resources. Here’s a concise overview:

1. Flow Control:
o Purpose: Prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slower receiver
with data.
o Mechanism: Achieved through techniques like sliding window protocol in
TCP, where the receiver signals the sender to slow down transmission if
its buffer is full.
o Benefits: Ensures data integrity and prevents loss by regulating the flow
of data according to the receiver's ability to process it.
2. Congestion Control:
o Purpose: Prevents network congestion, which occurs when routers and
links become overwhelmed with data packets.
o Mechanism: Uses algorithms and protocols (e.g., TCP's congestion
control algorithms like AIMD - Additive Increase Multiplicative Decrease)
to detect and alleviate congestion.
o Benefits: Improves network performance, reduces packet loss, and
ensures fair allocation of network resources among competing users.
3. Differences:
o Scope: Flow control operates between sender and receiver, while
congestion control operates at a broader network level involving routers
and multiple hosts.
o Goals: Flow control ensures efficient data transfer between specific
sender-receiver pairs, while congestion control aims to prevent and
manage network-wide congestion.
4. Implementation:
 o Both flow control and congestion control are integral parts of protocols like
TCP, which dynamically adjust data transmission rates based on network
conditions to optimize performance and reliability.

Application Layer Protocol: An application layer protocol in computer networking

refers to a set of rules and conventions that define communication between applications
or services running on different devices. Here’s a concise overview:

1. Purpose: Application layer protocols facilitate communication and data exchange

between software applications over a network.
2. Examples:
o HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for transmitting web pages
and other web content over the Internet.
o FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Enables file transfer between a client and a
server on a network.
o SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending email
messages between servers.
o POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) and IMAP (Internet Message
Access Protocol): Protocols for retrieving email from a mail server.
o DNS (Domain Name System): Resolves domain names to IP addresses,
facilitating web browsing and other network services.
3. Characteristics:
o Each protocol has specific rules for how data is formatted, transmitted,
and acknowledged.
o They often rely on underlying transport layer protocols (like TCP or UDP)
for reliable data delivery.
4. Interaction:
o Applications use these protocols to request services from remote systems
and to exchange data in a standardized manner.
o They provide abstraction layers that shield applications from the
complexities of lower-level networking details.