Industrial Instrument

Training Course (P-2)

Practical Experience Based (Part - 2)
Farooq Ali Chaudhry
(Instrument & Control)
9/7/22
 Industrial Instrument Training Course (P-2)

Table of Contents
Recommendations & Approvals ................................................................................................................ 8
Dedications .................................................................................................................................................. 9
About Author ............................................................................................................................................. 10
1. Controllers.......................................................................................................................................... 13
1.1. Measurement.............................................................................................................................. 13
1.2. Controller .................................................................................................................................... 13
1.3. Types of Controllers: ................................................................................................................... 14
1.4. Manual Controlling Systems. ...................................................................................................... 14
1.4.1. Incoming water tank level control. ..................................................................................... 15
1.4.2. Outgoing water tank level control ...................................................................................... 16
1.4.3. The manual control system of a Car Driver ........................................................................ 17
1.4.4. The drawback of Manual Control ....................................................................................... 19
1.5. Electrical Gates............................................................................................................................ 19
1.5.1. “AND” Gate ......................................................................................................................... 19
1.5.2. “OR” Gate ............................................................................................................................ 21
1.5.3. “NOR” or “NOT” Gate. ........................................................................................................ 22
1.5.4. Symbols of Gates................................................................................................................. 24
1.5.5. Actual Process Loop & interlocks used in a plant. .............................................................. 25
1.5.6. Gates used (Symbols) in a Pump Motor Protection Systems. ............................................ 26
1.6. ON - OFF Automatic Controller. .................................................................................................. 29
1.6.1. Automatic ON-OFF tank level controller using AND & OR Gates. ...................................... 29
1.6.2. Circuit Diagram ON-OFF Level control Loop ....................................................................... 30
1.6.3. Actual / As-built ON-OFF Tank Level control system. ......................................................... 32
1.6.4. Actual / As built ON-OFF Tank Level Control & Indications Circuits. .................................. 33
1.6.5. Pros & Cons (Advantages & Disadvantages) of ON-OFF tank level control system. ........... 33
1.7. Automatic Water Level Controller .............................................................................................. 33
1.7.1. Example of Automatic control of Incoming Gas to Boiler................................................... 34
1.7.2. Example of Outgoing Automatic Water Level Controller; .................................................. 35
1.7.3. Advantages of Automatic Control System .......................................................................... 36
2. Automatic PID Controller ................................................................................................................. 37
2.1. Function of P, PI, & PID Controller & its Behavior ...................................................................... 37
2.1.1. Proportional Controller “P” in (%) ...................................................................................... 37
2.1.2. Proportional band Action (PB) & Movement of Control Valve ........................................... 38

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2.1.3. PID Actions between “SP” & “PV.”...................................................................................... 39

2.1.4. Integral / Reset time “I” in Minutes .................................................................................... 40
2.1.5. Derivative / Rate / Pre-act time “D” in (Minutes) ............................................................... 41
3. Automatic PID Control Loop & Function ....................................................................................... 42
3.1. Automatic PID Control Loop ....................................................................................................... 42
3.2. The function of PID Controller .................................................................................................... 42
3.3. Types of PID Controllers.............................................................................................................. 43
3.3.1. PID Pneumatic Controller & Function ................................................................................. 44
3.3.2. PID Electronic Controller (Module based Rack Mounted) .................................................. 46
3.3.3. PID Compact Type Universal Controller (Panel Mount) ..................................................... 47
3.3.4. PC Based or Window Based PID Controller. (DCS Controller)............................................. 49
4. Multi-Function Use of PID Controller ............................................................................................. 50
4.1. PID Controller with 2 Flow Control Valves. (Parallel Function).................................................. 50
4.2. PID Controller with 2 Level Control Valves. (Opposite Function) ............................................... 53
4.3. PID Controller used with other Controllers. (Cascade Control System) ..................................... 55
4.3.1. Self-generated Set Point ..................................................................................................... 55
4.3.2. Remote Generated Set Point .............................................................................................. 55
4.3.3. Cascade Control System. ..................................................................................................... 55
4.3.4. Steam Drum Level Control System ..................................................................................... 57
5. Fail Safe System of a Plant.............................................................................................................. 58
5.1. Electrical Essential Control Power Supplies (24 VDC or 110 VDC) Fail Safe System. .................. 59
5.1.1. 3/2 Normal Closed “NC” Spool Action ................................................................................ 59
5.1.2. 3/2 Normal Opened “NO” Spool Action ............................................................................. 63
5.2. Air Fail Safe System. .................................................................................................................... 67
5.2.1. Working Principle of Lock-Up Relay .................................................................................... 69
5.2.2. Test loop Air Lock Relay or Lock-Up relay. (Single stage). .................................................. 70
5.2.3. Test loop of Lock-Up Relay (Double stage). ........................................................................ 72
5.3. Positioner Failure Safe System .................................................................................................... 73
5.3.1. Best Choices for Designer ................................................................................................... 73
5.3.2. Use of all 3 Fail Safe Systems simultaneously. .................................................................... 77
6. Difference Between BPCS & SIS..................................................................................................... 79
1.1. Basic Process Control System (BPCS) .......................................................................................... 79
1.2. Safety Instrumented System (SIS) ............................................................................................... 82
1.3. Safety stages of a Plant. .............................................................................................................. 83
1.3.1. Layers of Safety Integrity Level (SIL) ................................................................................... 83

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1.3.2. Structure of BPCS, SIS and Mechanical Safety System. ...................................................... 83

1.3.3. Mechanical Safety Devises Failure: ..................................................................................... 85
7. PLC (Programmable Logic Control) ................................................................................................ 86
8. SCADA System .................................................................................................................................. 89
9. Distributed Control System (DCS) .................................................................................................. 91
9.1. Human Machine Interface (HMI) ................................................................................................ 94
9.2. Conventional Control Desk & Panel ............................................................................................ 95
9.3. DCS Control System of a Power Plant ......................................................................................... 95
9.4. Benefits of DCS ............................................................................................................................ 97
10. Fuel Gas Pressure Controlling System in a Gas Scrubber Station. ............................................ 99
10.1. Change of Duty from 1st priority to 3rd priority..................................................................... 99
11. Burner Management System (BMS) ............................................................................................. 101
11.1. Boiler Protections.................................................................................................................. 101
11.2. Preparations to Start a Burner .............................................................................................. 102
11.3. Gas Burner Protection & Safety Features ............................................................................. 102
11.3.1. Main or Ignition Gas Leak test: ......................................................................................... 103
11.3.2. Boiler or Burner Purging: .................................................................................................. 104
11.3.3. Starting of Pilot Burner / Ignition System: ........................................................................ 104
11.3.4. Starting of Main Burner: ................................................................................................... 105
11.3.5. Control of Steam Temperature ......................................................................................... 105
12. De-Mineralized Plant (DM Plant) .................................................................................................. 106
12.1. Need for De-Mineralized Plant ............................................................................................. 106
12.2. The drawback of Salt layers in/on the tubes ........................................................................ 106
12.2.1. Solution to Reduce Salts Layers ........................................................................................ 107
12.2.2. Result ................................................................................................................................ 107
12.3. DM Plant & Working Principle .............................................................................................. 108
12.4. Regeneration Process of DM Plant ....................................................................................... 110
13. Chlorination Plant ........................................................................................................................... 112
13.1. Purpose of Chlorine Injection in Sea Water .......................................................................... 112
13.2. Injection of Chlorine in Sea Water ........................................................................................ 113
14. Piping & Instrument Drawing (P&ID) .......................................................................................... 115
14.1. Symbols of P& ID ................................................................................................................... 115
14.2. Abbreviation letters using in P & ID. ..................................................................................... 115
14.3. Letters used in Tag Nos. ........................................................................................................ 116
14.4. Tag. No. Measured properties in the P&ID. .......................................................................... 117

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14.5. Symbol used in P&ID ............................................................................................................. 118

15. Commissioning of a Plant: ............................................................................................................. 122
16. Hazards / Dangers & Personal Safeties....................................................................................... 123
16.1. Identifications of Hazards / Dangers ..................................................................................... 123
16.2. Hazards or Dangers of the Plant. .......................................................................................... 123
16.3. Common Personal Safeties ................................................................................................... 124
16.4. Precautions to reduce Hazards / Danger .............................................................................. 124
16.4.1. Electrical (Working in electrical panel) ............................................................................. 124
16.4.2. Heights (Works on height) ................................................................................................ 125
16.4.3. Stairs (While using stairs) .................................................................................................. 125
16.4.4. Heat & Steam Leakage ...................................................................................................... 125
16.4.5. Fire & Smoke ..................................................................................................................... 125
16.4.6. Welding ............................................................................................................................. 125
16.4.7. Chlorine gas leakage (Chlorination Plant) ......................................................................... 126
16.4.8. Natural Gas leakage (In Gas Scrubber stations & gas lines near boilers) ......................... 127
16.4.9. All types of Oil Leakage. .................................................................................................... 128
16.4.10. Chemicals .......................................................................................................................... 128
16.4.11. Sea / Sea Water Intake (Pumping Plant) ........................................................................... 128
16.4.12. Preparation of work: ......................................................................................................... 128
17. Risk & Risk Assessment ................................................................................................................. 130
17.1. Risk ........................................................................................................................................ 130
17.2. Risk Assessment: ................................................................................................................... 130
17.3. Probability (Possibility) / Likely Hood (A) .............................................................................. 130
17.4. The severity of Hazard (B) ..................................................................................................... 131
17.5. Risk description in matrix (Calculation of Risk) ..................................................................... 131
17.6. Risk Assessment Record sheet .............................................................................................. 132
17.7. Solved Example ..................................................................................................................... 134

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Table of Figures
Figure 1: Process Variable (PV) .................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 2: DP Cell (Process Sensor)............................................................................................................... 13
Figure 3: DP Transmitter ............................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 4: History Recorder .......................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 5: PID Automatic Controller ............................................................................................................. 13
Figure 6: Concept of Automatic Controller ................................................................................................. 14
Figure 7: Incoming Water Flow Control of a Tank Level ............................................................................. 15
Figure 8: Incoming Gas Supply to Boiler to Control the Steam Temperature ............................................ 16
Figure 9: Outgoing Water Flow control of a Tank Level ............................................................................. 17
Figure 10: Car Driver Controls the Speed & Change the Lain of Road ....................................................... 18
Figure 11 : Use of "AND Gates" in Series & Parallel Circuit ....................................................................... 20
Figure 12: Use of "OR Gates" in Series & Parallel Circuit ........................................................................... 22
Figure 13; “NOT” or “NOT” Gets Function with 1 & 3 Switches ................................................................. 23
Figure 14: Relays are Used in AND Gate & OR Gate ................................................................................... 24
Figure 15: Yamatake Japan Co. Used Symbols in Logic............................................................................... 25
Figure 16: Symbols of Gates used in Logics ............................................................................................... 25
Figure 17: Actual Flow Diagram of Level Control & P/M Protections (Interlocks) Used in a Plant ............ 25
Figure 18: Pump Motor Protection Interlocks (Logics) Diagram................................................................ 27
Figure 19: ON-OFF Automatic Water Tank Level Logic Control .................................................................. 29
Figure 20: ON-OFF Automatic Tank Level Control System. ........................................................................ 30
Figure 21: Automatic ON-OFF Level Control Circuit in Interlocks Drawing ................................................ 31
Figure 22: As Built ON-OFF Level Control System with Incications used in a Plant ................................... 32
Figure 23: Instrument Control Drawings of ON-OFF Tank Level Control System. ...................................... 33
Figure 24: Automatic Temperature Control with Inlet Gas Control Valve.................................................. 34
Figure 25: Automatic Temperature Control with Outgoing Water Level Control Valve ............................ 35
Figure 26: “P” Controller Behavior Against Different PB in %................................................................... 37
Figure 27: "P" & “PI” Action Verses PB & Control Valve Movement .......................................................... 38
Figure 28: PB Action Creates “OFF SET” Between “SP” & “PV” .................................................................. 39
Figure 29: PI Controller Action Against PV .................................................................................................. 40
Figure 30: Derivative Action in PID Controller ............................................................................................ 41
Figure 31: Automatic PID Pressure Control System .................................................................................... 42
Figure 32: Function of PID Control Loop of a Controlling Process System ................................................. 43
Figure 33: PID Pneumatic Temperature Controller .................................................................................... 44
Figure 34: Function or Working Principle of Pneumatic PID Controller ..................................................... 45
Figure 35: YEW System 1100 Controller Modules ...................................................................................... 46
Figure 36: Yamatake Co. PID Controller Modules....................................................................................... 46
Figure 37: Actual Control Loop with PID Controller Modules & S/A Control Valve.................................... 47
Figure 38: Compact Type One Unit PID Controller ..................................................................................... 48
Figure 39: Level Control Loop ..................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 40: Behavior of Level Control Valve Verses "PV" ............................................................................. 48
Figure 41: PC Based DCS PID Controller Configuration............................................................................... 49
Figure 42: PID Controller Functions Tuning with a PC ................................................................................ 49

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Figure 43: Closed Process Loop of Feed Water, Drum Level & Condenser Level in a Power Plant ............ 50
Figure 44: 2 Flow Control Valves Opening Behind Each Other With 1 PID Controller ............................... 51
Figure 45: 2 Control Valves Working Opposite to Each Other in Condenser Hot Well Level Control ........ 53
Figure 46: PID Used as Master Controller & Slave Controller is called Cascade Control System ............... 56
Figure 47: 3/2 NC, Solenoid valve is Energized "ON" ................................................................................. 61
Figure 48: 3/2 (NC) Solenoid is De-Energized "OFF" or DC Power Failed .................................................. 62
Figure 49: 3/2 (NO) Solenoid valve is Energized "ON" ............................................................................... 64
Figure 50: 3/2 (NO) Solenoid Valve is DE=Energized “OFF” / DC Power Failed .......................................... 65
Figure 51: Single stage Air Lock Relay ......................................................................................................... 67
Figure 52: Single Stage Lock-UP Relay ........................................................................................................ 67
Figure 53: Double Stage Lock-UP Relay ...................................................................................................... 67
Figure 54: Air Lock Relay (Single Stage) ...................................................................................................... 68
Figure 55: Lock-Up Relay (Single Stage) for S/A Actuators) ....................................................................... 68
Figure 56: Lock-Up Relay (Double Stage) for D/A Actuators ...................................................................... 68
Figure 57: Air Lock Relay (Single Stage) Test Loop for Single Acting Actuators ......................................... 70
Figure 58: Lock-Up Relay (Double Stage) for Double Acting Actuators ...................................................... 72
Figure 59: Open Loop of Blow Down & Closed Loop of Steam, Feet Water & Condensate Water ............ 74
Figure 60: Boiler Blow Down Control Valve Liver Broken ........................................................................... 75
Figure 61: All 3 Fail Safe Systems on Single Acting Actuators Actions (Without Air Supply) ...................... 77
Figure 62: All 3 Fail Safe Systems on Double Acting Actuators Actions (Without Air Supply) .................... 78
Figure 63: Use of BPCS & SIS ....................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 64: BPCS Controlling System With Warning Annunciation System ................................................. 80
Figure 65: Function Chart of BPCS & SIS ..................................................................................................... 81
Figure 66: Actual Hook -Up of Level Switches in Make-Up Tank ................................................................ 81
Figure 67: BPCS & SIS Using Their Own Instruments Separately. ............................................................... 82
Figure 68: Safety Layers of Different Systems in a Plant ............................................................................ 84
Figure 69: Modular Rack (Plug & Play) with Power Supply........................................................................ 86
Figure 70: Modular Rack Base with Plug & Play & Connections ................................................................. 86
Figure 71: Modular Rack with Digital & Analog I/O Cards ......................................................................... 86
Figure 72: Plug & Play CPU & Memory of PLC .......................................................................................... 86
Figure 73: Large Size Electro Mechanical Relays ........................................................................................ 87
Figure 74: Electro-Mechanical Type Programmer With Largo Size Micro Switches ................................. 87
Figure 75: Large Size Electro Mechanical Timers Relays............................................................................. 87
Figure 76: Large Size Solenoid Valves ......................................................................................................... 87
Figure 77: LADDER Language for PLC (Similar to Electrical Circuits)........................................................... 87
Figure 78: PLC Repeatable Cycle of Any Small Unit .................................................................................... 88
Figure 79: Periodically Regeneration of DM Plant. ..................................................................................... 88
Figure 80: SCADA is Gathering Real Time Data from remote locations...................................................... 89
Figure 81: Structure-of-SCADA-System-for Environmental-Monitoring..................................................... 90
Figure 82: Structural Arrangement of DCS In a Plant ................................................................................. 91
Figure 83: Real Structure of DCS in a Plant ................................................................................................ 92
Figure 84: Function Blocks is DCS Language. .............................................................................................. 93
Figure 85: Graphics in DCS Monitor will Show Plant structure, Mimic, & Analog Readings. ..................... 94
Figure 86: Human Machine Interface (HMI) ............................................................................................... 94

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Figure 87: Conventional Type Turbine Control Desk & Panel ..................................................................... 95
Figure 88: DCS Controlling System of a Power Plant .................................................................................. 96
Figure 89: Structure Of DCS System of Any Plant With SIS ......................................................................... 97
Figure 90: 3 Line Gas Pressure Control System of Gas Scrubber Station ................................................. 100
Figure 91: Main & Ignition Burner Start-Up Procedure & Tripping Functions. ....................................... 103
Figure 92: Ignitor & Ignition System Circuit Operates with Different Voltage ........................................ 104
Figure 93: Water Tube & Fire Tube Boilers ............................................................................................... 106
Figure 94: Process Variables Loop of Boiler .............................................................................................. 106
Figure 95: Use of DM Plant in Closed Process Flow Loop of Steam in a Power Plant .............................. 107
Figure 96: De-Manualized Water Plant or DM Plant ............................................................................... 108
Figure 97: De-Mineralized & Regeneration Process of DM Plant ............................................................. 110
Figure 98: Chlorine Liquid Gas Injection Into sea Water Process ............................................................. 113
Figure 99: Letters & Nos. Used in Tag Nos. in P&ID.................................................................................. 117
Figure 100: Instrument Symbols in P& ID ................................................................................................. 118
Figure 101: Most Commonly used Symbols & Tag. Nos. of Instruments in P&ID .................................... 118
Figure 102: Symbols of Signals in P&ID..................................................................................................... 119
Figure 103: Valves Symbol in P&ID ........................................................................................................... 119
Figure 104: Valves Function symbols in P&ID ........................................................................................... 120
Figure 105: Different Types of Pumps Symbols in P&ID ........................................................................... 120
Figure 106: Tag Nos. & Symbols used in P&ID .......................................................................................... 121
Figure 107:Chlorine Gas Leakage and Neutralizing System ...................................................................... 126
Figure 108: Natural Gas Pressure Control System in Gas Scrubber Station. ............................................ 127
Figure 109: Risk Assessment Form............................................................................................................ 133

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Recommendations & Approvals

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Dedications
I dedicate this book, with special thanks to my beloved Parents, Wife and Children with
their support I learned to be honest, hardworking and follow the right path in life.
The books published are:
 Industrial Instrument Training Course (Part - 1 & 2).
 Standard Calibration Procedures (SCP).
 Practical training plan & calibration execution of field instruments &
practices in the field.
 How to write Technical specifications of spare parts of a Power Plant.

Special thanks to ENG. YAMAMOTO & ENG. HORIGOME from YAMATAKE

HONEYWELL CO. JAPAN, who helped my
theoretical and practical training of all types
of instrumentation including Control Room
Instruments, Analog Control systems,
Interlocks, Safeties & Field Instruments

Thanks to Eng. Ejaz-u-Din Shaikh (MEW

IMD Section Head 1979) gave me the liberty
to challenge myself to enhance my
knowledge & practical experience in this
field.

Thanks to Eng. Iqbal Hussain (Senior

Instrument Engineer) trained me for specialized skills in Boilers, Turbine Interlocks and
the safety protections of power Plant.

Special thanks to Eng. Ahmad Ashknani (IMD Superintendent of Doha West Power
Station Kuwait) motivated me to write in my books using my skill and experience.

Special thanks to Eng. Salah Al-Mail (IMD Superintendent of Doha East Power Station
& Shuwaikh Power Station Kuwait) whom I worked closely at Boilers, Turbines and
Auxiliaries maintenance. In office coordinator.

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 Industrial Instrument Training Course (P-2)

About Author
Farooq Ali Chaudhry
Senior Instrument Supervisor (Inst. Trainer)
DEPS & SHKPWS – Kuwait

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 Mr. Farooq Ali Chaudhry has completed his Electrical Associate Engineering in
1974 from Government Collage of Technology Lahore Pakistan.
 Experience started from Jan. 1978 to May 1979 at MEW project DEPS for 7 units
including common unit of Distillation Plants (MSF) with IHI CO. This was alongside
with Japanese engineers of sub. Contractor: YAMATAKE INSTRUMENT CO. Japan
– which is one of the well-known industrial instrumentation companies around the
globe. Each plant has a capacity of 6 Million Gallons / Day. Calibrated, Configured
and installed all field and control room instruments with auxiliaries, commissioned
and put in service for production.
 Completed 1.5 Year with Sub. contractor YAMATAKE Co. Japan in DEPS Kuwait.
 Joined MEW from May 1979 working at Doha East Power & water Station Kuwait,
with a total tenure of 38.5 years and retired January 2019.
 During this period Mr. Farooq Ali Chaudhry has worked on 7 units of Toshiba
Turbo-Generators with all auxiliaries, each generator having 150 MW capacities.
 Worked on 4 units of FCB Boilers (Each having capacity of 650 Tons/Hr.) & 7
Units of Toshiba Turbo-Generators (Each having capacity of 150 MW.) - with all
their auxiliaries,
 Worked 1 year with DESCON Engineering Co. at their Client ICI Khewra (Salt Mine
Area) Pakistan Project. Completed their Extension of Soda Ash Plant in Pakistan.
From Aug. 1990 till Sep. 1991 (Installation, Commission & startup).
 Rejoined as Senior Instrument Supervisor & Trainer (for Instrument Engineers
& Technicians) in MEW IMD Section at Shuwaikh Power & Water Station Kuwait
as manpower supply through Al- Dhow Contracting Co from January 2019 till Jan.
2022. (3 Years) Here we have 3 Boilers, 3 Distiller Units. Each unit having a
capacity of each 6 Million Gallons / Day and RO Plant (2 Chains) having a capacity
of 30 Million Gallons / Day.
 Engaged with IMD Section Superintendent and Section Engineers by providing
technical support in keeping much complex record of spare parts and streamlining
spare parts processes in MEW DEPS & SHKPWS.
 To spread the knowledge, he has gained throughout his service to MEW DEPS.
He decided to pass it on to the coming generation from January 2014 onwards.
This included theoretical and practical trainings to new MEW Kuwaiti employee
may it be Instrument Engineers or Technician.
 Total experience is 44 years in this field at Doha East Power & Water Station and
Shuwaikh Power & Water Station Kuwait.
 Mr. Farooq Ali Chaudhry has been rewarded and appreciated “Many Times” by
MEW Directors of DEPS & SHKPS for being internally motivated to training young
Instrument Engineers & Technicians making an effort to develop several training
programs (Theoretically & Practically) and refining them throughout.

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Part - 2
Advanced Industrial Instrument
Training
(Practical Experience Based)

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1. Controllers
1.1. Measurement
Measurement is the process of detecting “PV” & convert it to readings or signals.
1. Process variable (PV) is detected by sensing element,
2. Sensing Element Transfer affects movement process assembly, which
converts the physical change into electrical current output signal 4~20 mADC.
3. The transmitter transmits 4~20mADC to the control room to record the
process's value on the recorder, called measurement.
4. Measuring signal 4~20mADC (PV) is converted into 1~5 V DC & connected to
the controller to operate the final control element (Control valve).

Figure 4: History Figure 5: PID

Figure 1: Process Figure 2: DP Cell Figure 3: DP
Recorder Automatic Controller
Variable (PV) (Process Sensor) Transmitter

1.2. Controller
The controller is a device that detects 2 inputs signals and transmits 1 output
signal.
1. 1st input signal (4~20 mADC) from the Transmitter converts into 1~5VDC.
2. This transmitted process value (PV) can be recorded in the History Recorder
3. 2nd input signal is from Set Point (SP) (Internally generated(1~5VDC) from the
controller.
4. The controller will calculate the difference (error) between 1st input signal
(Measured Values from Transmitter) & 2nd the input signal from Set Point (SP).
5. According to the error, the controller must send an output signal (4~20mADC)
to move (Open or Close) the final control device.
6. A positioner is fixed on the final control device (control valve).

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7. The positioner will move (open or close) according to the Input signal and bring
back the process variable (PV) near the set point.
8. Controller's main function is to keep the Process Value (PV) near the Set
Point. So the process will be called Controlled Process Variable.

Figure 6: Concept of Automatic Controller

1.3. Types of Controllers:

1. Manual controllers
2. Automatic Controllers
There are 4 types of Automatic Controllers.
1. ON-OFF Automatic Controller
2. P - Controller (Proportional Controller)
3. PI - Controller (Proportional + Integral Controllers)
4. PID - Controller (Proportional + integral + derivative Controllers)

1.4. Manual Controlling Systems.

Let us see how an operator manually controls the water level in a tank.

There are 2 types of manual tank level control systems.

1. Incoming water tank level control.
2. Outgoing water tank level control.

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Let’s discuss both manual water level control systems.

1.4.1. Incoming water tank level control.

(a) Incoming water tank level control

The below picture shows an operator controlling the manual control valve installed on
the incoming water pipe line of a tank.
He is looking for a level gauge fixed on the water tank.
The Set Point value is in his mind.
He will control the water level and open or close the valve according to the set point in
his mind.
He will open the valve when the level decreases from the Set Point.
He will close the valve when the level increases from the Set Value.

Figure 7: Incoming Water Flow Control of a Tank Level

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(b) Incoming Natural Gas supply for Boiler.

Let’s see another example of an incoming supply of natural gas to control the fire to
maintain the steam temperature in a boiler.
He is also looking at the temperature gauge fixed on the steam line.

Figure 8: Incoming Gas Supply to Boiler to Control the Steam Temperature

He has a steam temperature set point in his mind.

He will control the steam temperature and open or close the valve according to the set
point in his mind.
He will open the valve when the temperature decreases from the Set Point Value to
maintain the steam temperature.
He will close the valve when the temperature increases from the Set Pint Value.

1.4.2. Outgoing water tank level control

Here also, an Operator controls the manual control valve installed on a tank's Outgoing
water pipe line.
This type of level control function is Opposite to the incoming water line.
He is looking for a level glass gauge fixed on the water tank.
Set Point value is in his mind.

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He will control the water level and Close or Open the valve according to the set point in
his mind.
Open & Close the Valve action will be opposite to the incoming water level control.
He will Close the valve when the level decreases from the Set Point Value to maintain
the tank level.
He will open the valve when the level increases from the Set Value.

Figure 9: Outgoing Water Flow control of a Tank Level

1.4.3. The manual control system of a Car Driver

Let us see the controlling system of a car driver using a car on the road. A car driver is
trying to control the car's speed and lane (Track) of the road.
1. Input Sensing device: A car driver's eyes are the sensing devices to detect
speed from the speed meter and road lanes looking on the road tracks and 3
mirrors.
2. Set Pints: These are 2 Set points for a car driver.
3. Set Point No.1: He is looking at the speed meter in the car & speed sign boards
fixed on one side at starting of each road.

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4. Set Point No.2: Road Lanes by looking at the road tracks and mirrors.
5. Deciding of control: A car driver keeps 2 Set Points (Speed & Road Lane) in his
mind and decides the following.
(a) A car driver can increase or decrease the car's speed according to
the road speed sign boards.
(b) He also can decide to change the lane of the road, if the road is empty
and there is no high speed traffic behind of the car.
(c) For this purpose, he has 3 back mirrors to see the back lanes and can
judge whether he can change the lane.

Figure 10: Car Driver Controls the Speed & Change the Lain of Road

6. There are 2 Final contorting devices of a car driver:

7. (1) Hands: Hands are the final controlling devices of a driver. He can shift the
gear & turn the steering of a car from one lane to another lane.
8. (2) Feet: He can push the Brake to stop / reduce the speed.
9. Also he can Push / Release the accelerator of a car to increase or decrease
the speed.

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1.4.4. The drawback of Manual Control

1. It requires an operator's full attention to control the process variable (level or

temperature) at a set point.
2. There are many controlling systems in a plant. It is impossible to keep an
operator for each controlling system.
3. More manpower is required to run the plant.
4. It will take a long time to stabilize the process variable (Level or temperature) as
required by an operator.
5. An operator can't keep full attention on the Level gauge or temperature gauge
each & every second.
6. These are the reasons to use an automatic controlling system for each
controlling loop in a plant.

1.5. Electrical Gates

Electrical Gates (Also called Electrical Doors): Gates are used to Opening or Close the
electrical circuit and operate electrical or instrument equipment in a plant. Electrical ON-
OFF switches, Level, Pressure Flow & Temperatures Switches work like a Gate.
These gates can be used for normal or critical alarms in the control room and as
interlocks for Electrical Equipment protections in any plant.
To understand ON-OFF Logics and Automatic Controller, first we should understand the
Gates. Gates are used in interlocks and ON-OFF controllers.
Many types of gates are used in the instrument logic/interlocks or On-Off controllers.
There are 3 most commonly used Electrical Gates in instrument & interlock loops.
1. “AND” Gate
2. “OR” Gate
3. “NOR / NOT” Gate.

1.5.1. “AND” Gate

Electrical 3 switches are used in 2 options in electrical circuits as shown below.
1. Option No. 1, (3 Switches in Series Circuit)
2. Option No. 2, (3 Switches in Parallel Circuit)

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Digital signal from switches are ON = 1 & OFF = 0

1. Option No. 1 (3 Switches in Series Circuit)

All 3 switches are OFF meant contacts are opened (0) & electrical circuit is uncompleted.
As Result Lamp is not Glowing. There 3 options to switch ON.
1. SW-1: Switched “ON” 1st switch. The lamp will not Glow because still circuit is
uncompleted.
2. SW-2: Switched “ON” 2nd switch, still lamp will not Glow, because still circuit
is uncompleted.
3. SW-3: Switched “ON” 3rd switch, The Lamp Will Glow because the circuit is
completed.

Result:
All 3 switches ON, (SW-1 “ON” AND SW-2 “ON” AND SW-3 “ON” then the lamp will
Glow. These are called “AND” Gates in the series circuit.

Figure 11 : Use of "AND Gates" in Series & Parallel Circuit

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Option No. 2, (3 Switches in Parallel Circuit)

In this option, all 3 switches are “ON” which means contacts are Closed “1”
1. SW-1: Switched “OFF” 1st Switch, Lamp is still Glowing, because the circuit is
completed by the other 2 switches.
2. SW-2: Switched “OFF” 2nd Switch, Lamp is still Glowing, because the circuit is
completed by other 1 switches.
3. SW-3: Switched “OFF” 3rd switch; now Lamp is not Glowing, because all
switches “OFF” & circuit is uncompleted.

Result:
All 3 switches are “OFF” (SW-1 “OFF” AND SW-2 “OFF” AND SW-3 “OFF”). The lamp
will be “OFF.” These are also called “AND” Gates but in a parallel circuit.

1.5.2. “OR” Gate

Electrical 3 switches are used in 2 options in electrical circuits shown below.
1. Option No. 1, (3 Switches in Series Circuit)
2. Option No. 2, (3 Switches in Parallel Circuit)

Digital signal from switches are ON = 1 & OFF = 0

1. Option No. 1 (3 Switches in Series Circuit)

In the series circuit “AND” gate, when 3 switches are “ON” it means contacts are Closed
(1) & electrical circuit is completed. So in Result LED Lamp is Glowing.
So in the above situation 3 switches in a series circuit are (ON), will be converted
into “OR” Gate.
If we switch “OFF” to anyone from 3 switches from the series circuit, the LED Lamp
will be OFF, because the circuit will be uncompleted.

Result:
As you can see SW-1, is “OFF.” As a result of option (1), the lamp also became “OFF”
because the circuit broke from SW-1. It is called the “OR” gate in a series circuit.

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Figure 12: Use of "OR Gates" in Series & Parallel Circuit

2- Option No. 2, (3 Switches in Parallel Circuit)

In a parallel circuit when 3 switches are “OFF” it means contacts became Opened (0) &
electrical circuit is uncompleted. So in Result LED Lamp is not Glowing.
So in the above situation 3 switches in a parallel circuit are (of) and will be converted
into “OR” Gate.
If we switch “ON” to anyone from 3 switches from the Parallel circuit, the LED Lamp
will be ON, because the circuit will be completed.

Result:
As you can see SW-1, is “ON.” As a result of Option (2), the lamp also became “ON”
because the circuit completed from SW-1 and LED Lamp Glows. It is called the “OR”
gate in a Parallel circuit.

1.5.3. “NOR” or “NOT” Gate.

Here we can see the 2 types of “NOR / NOT” Gates below.
1. Single input “NOT” Gate. (Only 1 Switch)
2. Three Input “NOT” Gate. (3 Switches)

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Figure 13; “NOT” or “NOT” Gets Function with 1 & 3 Switches

1. Single input “NOR / NOT” Gate:

In single input we can see that SW-1 is “OFF” (Input 0) & relay (R) is de-energized. Relay
Contact (R-1) is closed means “ON” Output =1). The Electrical supply flows through the
R-1 contact & LED Lamp is working means “ON.”
As soon as Switch SW-1 becomes “ON,” Relay “R” will be Energized & R-1 contests will
be opened. & LED Lamp will be “OFF.”
It means the Switch and LED lamp are working opposite each other. That is why it is
called the “NOR or NOT” Gate.
Result:
In this situation we found 2 results.
1. If switch SW-1 is “ON, " the LED lamp will be “OFF.” It means if the input is (1)
then the output will be (0)
2. If switch SW-1 is “OFF,” the LED lamp will be “ON.” If the input is (0), the output
will be (1).

2. Two, Three or more Inputs “NOR / NOT” Gate

As we understand from single input “NOR” circuit, if input” (0) output will be (1) and if
input (1) then the output will be (0). In the same way we can install many switches parallel
to each other. Here you can see 3 switches are used with 1 LED lamp

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Result:
When all 3 switches “OFF” means input (0), then the LED Lamp will be “ON.” if anyone
switch will is “ON” (1), then relay (R) will energized & relay contact (R-1) will be opened
in result LED Lamp will be “OFF.” We can see the NOR Gate function in the above
figure.

Use of Relay:
We can use a Relay instead of LED Lamp to get many output contacts, as shown below.
These relays are used to protect electrical equipment with interlocks to save from
any incident in a Plant.

Figure 14: Relays are Used in AND Gate & OR Gate

1.5.4. Symbols of Gates

There are many types of symbols of gates used in industrial instrumentations. Every
manufacturing company used different shapes of gates.
These gates are used in the ON-OFF automatic control system. Also used in logic /
interlocks drawings of any controlling and protection systems of electrical equipment in
a plant.
Here we can see symbols Some of them are used in Japanese industrial
instrumentations.

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Figure 15: Yamatake Japan Co. Used Symbols in Logic Figure 16: Symbols of Gates used in Logics

1.5.5. Actual Process Loop & interlocks used in a plant.

Here is a flow diagram with Interlocks used for a pump motor safety protection to
start and stop & emergency trips the Pump Motor including Limit switches for valves
and process variable (Level & Flow) control in the actual process loop in a plant.

Figure 17: Actual Flow Diagram of Level Control & P/M Protections (Interlocks) Used in a Plant

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1.5.6. Gates used (Symbols) in a Pump Motor Protection Systems.

(1) Warning Alarms (Announciation System):

BRC P/M is vertically Mounted in a (MSF) Distillation Plant.

Before Tripping Action of any Pump Motor, we will receive the following alarms on
windows in the control room for the operator to take action to save a plant. These
windowns are called “Normal Alalrms” having YELLOW colour windows.
1. Winding Temperature (HIGH) Alarm (SP= 105C).
2. Bearing Temperature (HIGH) Alarm (SP= 70C).
3. Cooling Water Flow (LOW) Alarm at Low Flow.
4. Last Stage Brine Level (LOW) Alarm at Low Level.
5. Thrust bearing Oil Level (Low) Alarm at Low Level in Oil Tank.

(2) Brine Recirculation Pump Motor (BRC Pump/Motor) Interlocks:

BRC Pump Motor is Virtical mounted in the Distilation Plant (MSF), having 4100KW
electrical power. It is the biggest pump motor in the Plant.
We have 3 types of interlocks used in any pump motor protection system as shown in
figure 18 in Logic Drawing.

(a) Tripping interlocks used with “OR” Gates.

(b) Starting interlocks used with “AND” Gates.
(c) Both gates are used as Permissive to Start a P/M with “NOR / NOT” Gate.

(a) Tripping interlocks used with “OR” Gates.

Any one of these switches is active. It will Trip the P/M. These window are called “First
Out” alarm windows. These window are in RED colours.
Alarm will receice 5~10 Second (As setTimer) before tripping Pump Motor.
Output of “OR” gates should be OFF digit (0) when all reading will be less than the
setpoint values.
1. Winding Temperature (3 Nos) Very High / High High (HH) Trip at 110 oC.
2. Thrust Bearing Temperatures (1/2 Nos) Very High/High High (HH) Trip at 75 oC.
3. Motor bearing Temperatures (2 Nos) Very High/High High (HH) Trip at 75 oC.

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4. Cooling Water for bearing temperatures (3 / 4 Nos) Flow Very Low / Low Low
(LL). Trip at speific set point of flow switch.
5. Last staag Brine Level Vey Low / Low Low (LL) Trip at speific Set Point of Level
Switch.

Figure 18: Pump Motor Protection Interlocks (Logics) Diagram.

(b) Starting Interlocks used with “AND” Gates.

BRC Pump / Motor have 4 starting interlocks as shown in figure 18. Output of gates
are used with digit (1) when active (ON).

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1. Pump Discharge Valves (2 Nos) Fully Closed (1).

2. Minimum Flow Valve Full Open (1).
3. All Tripping interlocks not active (0). Ued with “NOR / NOT” gate. (1)

(c) Both gates “OR & AND”are used as permissive to start a Pump Motor..

In Permissive to Start Interlocks, we are using both gates (OR gates & AND gates).
“OR” gate is used through an other gate is called “NOR / NOT Gate”. This gate will
convert “OR” gate in to “AND” gate.
1. When there will be no “OR” gate active, then output of all “OR” gates will be (0)
2. So “NOR / NOT” gate will convert in to “AND” Gate to give output (1) when all
“AND” gates will be ON (1) then we can start a pump motor.
3. In case of any one of “OR” gate will be active (1), then “NOR / NOT” gate input
will be (1) and output of “NOR / NOT” Gate will be (0)
4. Then from 4 “AND“ gates, only 3 “AND” gates will be ON (1) but 1 “AND” gate
will be OFF (0)
5. So we can not start a Pump Motor until that one RED alarm will not be cleard
or normalized from the tripping interlocks.

Horizontal Mounted Pump / Motor

In case of a Horizontal installed Pump Motor or any other Pump Motor, we can add 2
more permissive to start /Trip interlocks.
1. The Inlet valve should be open.
2. Inlet Pressure should not be Very Low.
3. Sometimes No Minimum Flow Valve is designed in the process control. In this
situation, a Motorized Discharge valve is provided. The motorized discharge
valve will open as soon as we start the Pump Motor. It is a safety of pump.
4. Motorized discharge valve must be open, minimum 20% to 30% in 1st 10~15
Sec to keep the pump motor running. If it fails to open with in 10~15 Sec, then
Pump Motor should trip for its safety of Pump.

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1.6. ON - OFF Automatic Controller.

In bellow figure:, we can see a water tank with 2 level switches. One is the low level switch
(LLS), and the other is the high level switch (HLS). Both level switches are working with Shut-
Off Valve. We can see the below picture; 2 level switches are shown.

When the water level drops and reaches a low level switch (LLS). This Low level
switch (LLS) will send signal to the Shut-Off valve to open and keep it open until the water
level is raised & touched the High-Level switch (HLS).

This high level switch (HLS) gives a signal to close the Shut-Off valve and keep it closed
until the water level again drops to Low level switch (LLS).
This automatic valve opening and closing process will continuously work. Every
time valve will open and close whenever water is lowered and raised till the level
switches react for ON-OFF Control to Shut-Off valves.

Figure 19: ON-OFF Automatic Water Tank Level Logic Control

1.6.1. Automatic ON-OFF tank level controller using AND & OR

Gates.
In Figure:20, 2 level switches are used in a water tank. One is a low level switch (LLS)
and the other is a high-level switch (HLS). Both level switches close (ON) contacts are
used when the empty water tank.

Both switches are used in series with each other & used close (ON) contacts. One relay
and one solenoid valve are used in the loop. (Solenoid valve operates with essential DC
power supply) The solenoid valve is fixed with a shut-off valve to open and close the air
supply for the Actuator.

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Whenever the solenoid valve is energized air supply will move from the solenoid valve
to open the shut-off valve and when de-energized air supply will stop and the shut-off
valve should be closed.

Figure 20: ON-OFF Automatic Tank Level Control System.

1.6.2. Circuit Diagram ON-OFF Level control Loop

Two Level Switches {High-Level Switch (HLS) & Low-Level Switch (LLS)} used for ON-
OFF Control. Both switches use a normally closed position (ON) & contacts are used in
series with each other.
Relay (R1) has 2 contacts.
1st contact of relay (R1-1) is used as holding contact. Holding contacts parallel to the
Low-level switch.
2nd contact of relay (R1-2) is used in series of solenoid valves and parallel to both level
switches.

The function of the Control Circuit

1. The Contact of HLS (ON). When the water level is below the level, switch.
2. In Figure 20, there is a water level in the tank, so contacts of Low Level Switch
(LLS) are opened (OFF).
3. When the level decreases to a Low-level switch (LLS), the low level switch
contact will close (ON).
4. Then relay R1 will be Energized & both contacts (R1-1 & R1-2) will be closed
“ON.”

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5. 1st contact is the holding contact (R1-1) will be closed (ON).

6. 2nd contact (R1-2) will also be closed (ON) to complete the circuit of the Solenoid
valve.
7. When both contacts are “ON,” the solenoid valve will be Energized and open-air
supply to the Shut-Off Valve.
8. As soon as Solenoid Valve is Energized, the Shut-Off Valve will open and water
will start to fill the tank.
9. When the water level starts to increase, water will leave the low level switch (LLS),
which means the contact of low level switch will be “OFF”, but the Solenoid valve
is still energized because the holding contact (R1-1) is still ON.
10. Now water is countinous filling the tank until the level reaches a high-level switch
(HLS).
11. As soon as the level touches the high-level switch (HLS) & the contact will be
“OFF.”
12. As soon as the high-level switch (HLS) is in action it will cut off the power
supply of the relay.
13. The relay will be De-energized; simultaneously, both relay contacts will be
“OFF.”
14. The solenoid will be de-energized and the air supply to the shut-off valve will be
cut-off.
15. As soon as the air supply is cut-off, the shut-off valve will be closed and the
water flow will stop filling.
16. Next time after water from the tank is consumed again, the water level will
decrease and touch to Low-Level Switch (LLS).
17. As soon as the water reaches a low-level switch, the same ON-OFF cycle will
be in action and this process will be continuous work.
18. With this cycle ON-OFF automatic level control system will be in service.

Figure 21: Automatic ON-OFF Level Control Circuit in Interlocks Drawing

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1.6.3. Actual / As-built ON-OFF Tank Level control system.

Automatic water tank Level Control System with indications in the control room.

2 Float type Level switches for Hugh & Low level (DPDT contacts) & 2 relays are
used in this circuit.

Two different types of power supplies are used separately from each other.

1. 24VDC power supply for indications in the control room.

2. 110 VDC power supply for interlocks to Energize Solenoid Valve & to operate
Shut-OFF valve.

Figure 22: As Built ON-OFF Level Control System with Incications used in a Plant

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1.6.4. Actual / As built ON-OFF Tank Level Control & Indications

Circuits.

Figure 23: Instrument Control Drawings of ON-OFF Tank Level Control System.

1.6.5. Pros & Cons (Advantages & Disadvantages) of ON-OFF tank

level control system.
1. ON-OFF tank level control is very good for maintaining large sizes of tanks.
2. This type of level control has large variations / wide bands in level measurement.
3. The level variation can be from 1 meter to 20 meters or more.
4. So it cannot control water level at a constant position in a very narrow band.

1.7. Automatic Water Level Controller

As we know in Pros & Cons, the ON-OFF automatic lavel control system has large
variations and a wide band level control system.
It cannot control the level at a constant position in a narrow band.
We need another type of level control system to control the level at constant level
measurement.

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1.7.1. Example of Automatic control of Incoming Gas to Boiler.

The temperature transmitter measures the steam temperature output of boiler.

An automatic temperature controller controls the temperature near the Set Point with
the help of a control valve.

A Set pint is adjusted according to the steam temperature requirement

The control valve is installed on the incoming gas line of a boiler.

The automatic controller will sense a difference between process variable (PV) and
Set point (SP).

According to the difference, it will send an output signal to the control valve.

1. It will open the valve when the temperature decreases.

2. It will Close the valve when temperature increases.

Figure 24: Automatic Temperature Control with Inlet Gas Control Valve

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1.7.2. Example of Outgoing Automatic Water Level Controller;

A level transmitter is a device which is measuring the tank level.

An automatic level controller controls the level in a tank near the Set Point with the
help of a control valve.

A Set pint is adjusted according to the tank level requirement.

The control valve is installed on the outgoing water line.

The automatic controller will sense the difference between process variable (PV) and
Set point (SP).

According to the difference, it will send an output signal to the control valve.

1. It will open the valve when the level is increased

2. It will Close the valve when level is decreased.

Figure 25: Automatic Temperature Control with Outgoing Water Level Control Valve

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1.7.3. Advantages of Automatic Control System

1. It eliminates an operator. (Means operator is not required on any control loop).

2. The automatic Controller itself decides by calculating the error between the
process variable (PV) & Set Point and operates the control valve to correct the
process.
3. It is accurate and safe.
4. It keeps the process near the set point, which means the process is controlled in
a narrow band.
5. It required a very short time to stabilize PV along with SP.
6. It can be used in one control loop or multiple controlling loops like the cascade
control system used in boilers.
7. It eliminates the OFF SET between PV & SP.

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2. Automatic PID Controller

2.1. Function of P, PI, & PID Controller & its
Behavior
There are 3 types of controllers.
1. Proportional Controller (“P” Controller).
2. Proportional + Integral Controller (“PI” Controller).
3. Proportional + Integral + Derivative Controller (“PID” Controller).

2.1.1. Proportional Controller “P” in (%)

Proportional “P” is denoted as Proportional Band (PB). PB controls the Sensitivity of
the control valve that how much and how fast the control valve will operate.
“PB” is always inversely proportional to the Gain Output of a controller.

PB 1 / Gain Output, (Gain = 100% / PB in %)

1. We can see the behavior of “P Controller” and “PB” action verse “PV & SP.”
2. Process variable “PV” always moves around the set point (SP) according to the
“PB” Action.
3. Figure 26: Showing behavior of 3 types of PB action versus sensitivity.

Figure 26: “P” Controller Behavior Against Different PB in %

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4. If “PB” is narrow, gain output will be high & control valve movement will be faster.
5. If “PB” is wider, the gain output will be less & control valve movement will be
slower.
6. As a result, “PV” will follow the control valve action around the set point (SP).

2.1.2. Proportional band Action (PB) & Movement of Control Valve

1. PB” is dealing with the sensitivity of control valve movement. It is called
Damping.
2. If “PB” is “0%, " controller output will be max. This means 100% output will be
20 mADC from the “P” controller will reach the positioner to operate the control
valve. (This means there will be no damping in control valve movement). As
we can see below picture.

3. If “PB” will be “100%,” then the output of the controller will be minimum (“0%”)
means (4 mADC). So there will be a 0% output signal that will reach the positioner
to operate the control valve because the valve must be closed at (4 mADC). (This
means a Maximum of 100% damping in the control valve will not move).

4. If “PB” will be “50%” then “50% signal” 12mADC will reach the positioner to
operate the control valve and damping will be in the middle.

Figure 27: "P" & “PI” Action Verses PB & Control Valve Movement

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2.1.3. PID Actions between “SP” & “PV.”

1. Proportional Action will reduce the movement of the control valve in the
limited band.
2. Stabilizing the Process Variable in the limited band will take a long time.
3. It will create an “OFF SET” difference between Set Point “SP” and Process
variable “PV.”
4. Tune the PB% (Means Increase / Decrease the Sensitivity / Damping) so that
in trend / history, we can see the very small variation in the process variable. This
will be the best PB setting.

Figure 28: PB Action Creates “OFF SET” Between “SP” & “PV”

Result:
Proportional (P) works like Dampener.
If we increase (PB), Damping will be increased & if we decrease “PB,” Damping will be
decreased.
So it will control the sensitivity of a Control Valve.

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2.1.4. Integral / Reset time “I” in Minutes

Integral action (I) is the time of repeating cycles to open and close the control valve
in the limited band.

1. To increase the cycle time, we add integral time (I) in Minutes in the automatic
controller.
2. The unit of integral is (Repeat /Minute or Minute/ Repeat).
3. Time is involved in opening and closing the control valve. This means the time
duration to open & close the control valve to complete a cycle.

Figure 29: PI Controller Action Against PV

Result:
1. It increases the cycle time to open and close the control valve.
2. It eliminates “OFF-SET” Between “PV” & “SP.”
3. It will take a large stabilizing time for PV
4. So it will make an “Alignment” between of Process Variable (PV) and Set Point
(SP)

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2.1.5. Derivative / Rate / Pre-act time “D” in (Minutes)

Figure 30: Derivative Action in PID Controller

Adding Derivative Time (Minutes) in automatic PID controller.

1. Derivative action is an automatic control overcorrection.
2. It corrects the controller output based on the rate of change of the input.
3. It reacts before PB action.

Result:

1. It works like the “Fine Tuning” of an Automatic PID Controller.

2. Also, it works to reduce stabilizing time of the process.
3. It reacts very fast to correct the PV.

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3. Automatic PID Control Loop &

Function
3.1. Automatic PID Control Loop
As we studied in 1st chapter (Figure 6) of this book, the theme of the automatic control
systems. This is the schematic loop of the PID controller is exectly same.

Figure 31: Automatic PID Pressure Control System

3.2. The function of PID Controller

1. It is the procedure to measure the process variable (PV) by detecting process

values and transmitting them from the field to the control room to record and control
by the control valve through an automatic controller with a Set Point.
2. This Set Point (SP) can be adjustable from 0~100% according to the process
variable value.
3. This automatic controller has the power to calculate the difference between
Process Variable (PV) & Set Point (SP), then send the output signal to the final
controlling devices.
4. This difference can be less than the set point or more than the set point

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5. In contrast, the automatic controller will send a signal (4~20mADC) to I/P

Converter, which will be converted into air pressure (0.2~1.0 Bar) and then this
air pressure will be sent to Pneumatic Positioner to operate the control valve.
or
6. The automatic Controller will send a signal (4~20mADC) direct to SMART
Positioner to open or close the control valve.
7. When the control valve moves it will change the process variable value.
8. This changed process value will be detected by the process sensor and
transmitted to the control room.
9. The automatic control cycle will always be in operation and the Process variable
always will be in a controlled position.
10. The automatic controller which aligns the process variable with the set point
is called the PID controller, as shown in Figures 30 & 31.

Figure 32: Function of PID Control Loop of a Controlling Process System

3.3. Types of PID Controllers

There are 2 types & 4 Generations of PID Controllers.

1. Pneumatic type PID Controller. (1st Generation)
2. Electronic type PID Controller. (2nd, 3rd & 4th Generation)

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3.3.1. PID Pneumatic Controller & Function

(1st Generation)

Figure 33: PID Pneumatic Temperature Controller

1. In this PID Temperature controller, we can see all PID pneumatic devices.
2. Temperature sensor in the shape of 2 helical spirals. One sensor is used to
measure the actual temperature in the process value & other is ambient
temperature compensation.
3. These sensors will move a pointer on the temperature scale.
4. There is a Set Point knob. An operator can manually adjust it manually and set
the set point needle on the scale.
5. Auto Manual unit (A/M) can change control from Manual to Auto or Auto to
Manual.
6. There is an air pressure regulator to regulate the air supply to the PID Controller.
7. Pneumatic Relay converts temperature signal into Air pressure output signal
(0.2~1.0 Bar or 3~15 PSI) through Nozzle & Flapper, which will operate the
pneumatic positioner and this positioner will operate control valve to control the
process value.
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8. There is a Proportional Band Dial (PB). During operation, we can increase or

decrees the PB according to the Process behavior.
9. This PB will increase or decrease the damping to operate the valve.
10. There is an Integral Bellow (I). We can increase or decrease the time of cycle
repeats/minute, which is working to eliminate OFF SET between PV & SP.
11. A Derivative Bellow (D) works like a fine-tuning device. We can increase or
decrease the time. This derivate acts before the proportional band, reducing
the process stabilizing time, and aligning the process value with the set point.

Figure 34: Function or Working Principle of Pneumatic PID Controller

12. We can see all functions in figure 34 as shown in figure 33.

13. There are 4 bellows. PV bellow, Setpoint Bellow, Proportional Band bellow,
Integral bellow & Derivative adjuster before PB.
14. Also Nozzle & Flapper, Auto / Manual change over switch, balance ball or
indicator.
15. Process variable signal is 0.2 ~1.0 bar from process sensor Pneumatic
converter.

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3.3.2. PID Electronic Controller (Module based Rack Mounted)

(2nd Generation)
We can see her 2 different companies Module type rack mounting Electronic PID
Controllers.

Figure 35: YEW System 1100 Controller Modules

Figure 36: Yamatake Co. PID Controller Modules

1. There are many modules used in a control loop. In the steam flow loop are square
root, multiplier & divider modules. The output of these modules is the input of PID
controller modules as shown below.
2. The module-type rack-mounted PID controller module function is the same as the
pneumatic PID controller.
3. In the electronic module system, Input / Output signals are (1~5V or 4~20
mADC) only instead of Pneumatic input output signals (3~15PSI or 0.2~1.0
Bar).
4. Input signal (4~20mADC) transfer from the field to the control room and it converts
into DC Volts 1~5VDC because the controller accepts only DCV Signal
5. The SP signal is (1~5VDC), also the input of the PID Controller.
6. The Output signal generated by the PID controller is 1~5VDC.
7. The output signal is converted by V/I Converter (From 1~5V into 4~20mADC) &
transmit to I/P Converter. The output of I/P (0.2~1.0 Bar) will operate a pneumatic
positioner to move the control valve.
Or
8. The output signal is converted by V/I Converter (From 1~5V into 4~20mADC) &
transmitted to SMART Positioner to operate the control valve.

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Figure 37: Actual Control Loop with PID Controller Modules & S/A Control Valve

3.3.3. PID Compact Type Universal Controller (Panel Mount)

(3rd Generation)
All functions are the same as the PID Electronic module base controller or Pneumatic
PID controller.
1. The function of PID, Process variable Indicator & control valve Position indicator is
built in a compact type electronic Controller unit. As shown below.
2. The transmitter output will be the input of the PID compact-type controller. This
controller will send the output signal (4~20mADC) directly to a SMART Positioner
to operate the control valve.
3. This compact type controller can be installed in the panel easily.

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4. Avery manufacturing company make their own designs with all same functions we
discussed above.

Figure 38: Compact Type One Unit PID Controller

PID Controller & Behavior of Control Valve verse “PV”

Figure 39: Level Control Loop Figure 40: Behavior of Level Control Valve Verses "PV"

To maintain the tank level along with SP, PID Controller will move the control valve very
slowly and in narrow bandwidth as shown in the above Figure of behavior.

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3.3.4. PC Based or Window Based PID Controller. (DCS Controller)

(4th Generation).
1. This type of PID controller works with DCS software.
2. These controllers are made with function blocks in the software of DCS.
3. Software engineers can configure the PID controller functions.
4. Software Engineers can give Login rights to Instrument Maintenance Engineers to
tune the PID functions during plant operation.
5. Below are pictures of the DCS PID controller configuration & PID tuning
process.

Figure 41: PC Based DCS PID Controller Configuration

Figure 42: PID Controller Functions Tuning with a PC

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4. Multi-Function Use of PID Controller

There are many plants where more accuracy of the process variable is required to
control the flow or level. There we need 2 control valves to be used with 1 controller.
Sometimes these valves are used in parallel with each other and sometimes opposite.
Let us study the working principle of 2 control valves with 1 PID controller.
1. PID controller with 2 Flow control valves.
2. PID Controller with 2 Level control valves.

4.1. PID Controller with 2 Flow Control Valves.

(Parallel Function)
2 control valves can be used simultaneously in a single loop with 1 PID controller. Both
valves will be used parallel but behind each other.
For example, many process control loops are available in a power plant. I have pointed
out only 3 of them in the closed process loop, as shown in below Picture. (1) Feed water
control system. (2) Drum level control system & (3) Condenser level control system.

Figure 43: Closed Process Loop of Feed Water, Drum Level & Condenser Level in a Power Plant

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These 2 valves are used with 1 PID controller in a thermal power station. 2 Feed water
flow control valves maintain the feed water tank level. Also 2 gas flow control valves
are used in boiler burners to maintain the steam temperature.

1. Here we will study the (1) Feed Water flow control system, where 2 feed water
flow control valves are used. I have shown only 1 control valve in figure 42.
2. In figure 44, we can see that 2 flow control valves are used to vary the accurate
flow.
3. 1st valve is called the Low Range control valve, which will be opened at Low
flow from 0~25% flow from the total flow of any process.
4. 2nd valve is called the High Range control valve, which will start to open when
the Low range flow control valve is opened at nearly 90%. At this position both
valves will be in service up to maximum load.
5. High range flow control valve will have closed when flow reduces back to less
than 25% as shown in the below picture.

Figure 44: 2 Flow Control Valves Opening Behind Each Other With 1 PID Controller

6. As we know the flow is non-linear. In the same way, when we open a control
valve up to 25%, water flow moves up to 50% of the total flow.

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7. So it is very difficult to control the accurate flow between 0~25% opening of

the control valve. Very small control valve movement a high-value flow moves from
the valve.
8. To control accurate flow up to 25% opening valve, we use 2 control valves (High
Range) & (Low Range).
9. The above picture shows that a flow transmitter is attached with 1 PID controller
having an output of 4~20 mADC.
10. The output of the PID control loop is wired in a series of both control valves
and SMART positioners.
11. Low range control valve, SMART positioner is configured at 4~8mADC to open
0~100% (From full Close to 100% open)
12. High Range control valve, SMART positioner is configured at 8~20mADC to
open from 0~100%. (From full Close to 100% open)
13. Low range flow control valve will open from 4 mADC ~ 8 mADC from 0~100%.
14. High Range flow control valve will start to open from 8 mADC ~ 20 mADC from
0~100%.
15. For smooth operation of both valves High Range valve should be set to take off
at 7.5 ~ 7.8 mADC.
16. The graph chart shows that the low range flow valve is fully opened while the high
range valve is little opened according to the load.
17. So High range valve is opened according to the load demand.

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4.2. PID Controller with 2 Level Control Valves.

(Opposite Function)

There are many plants where we can use 2 level control valves with 1 PID controller to
maintain the level of liquid.
1. In a thermal power plant, many control loops work in a closed loop process.
2. The condenser Hot Well level control system is the best example in every thermal
power plant to maintain the level. As shown (No. 3) in figure No. 42.
3. Two Control valves in a single control loop with one PID controller but working
in the opposite direction.
4. When one valve opened, then 2nd valve should be closed and vise versa.
5. One level control valve is a hot condenser well make-up level control valve.
6. 2nd level control valve is called Spill Over level control valve as shown in figure
45.
7. This is a Condenser Hot-Well level control loop (under the turbine) where we
have to control the level by 2 control valves.
8. We have Make-up Control Valve taking water from the make-up tank to fill the
Condenser Hot-Well and maintain the level.

Figure 45: 2 Control Valves Working Opposite to Each Other in Condenser Hot Well Level Control

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9. The condensate pump always transfers condensate water from the condenser Hot-
Well to the boiler feed water tank and the feed water tank has its own level
controlling system.
10. In this situation, the feed water level controller sometimes does not allow the water
to be received from the hot well to the feed water tank.
11. To access water in the hot well should be removed to maintain the hot well level.
12. For this reason, we need another control valve to remove the access water and
send it back to the make-up tank.
13. This control valve is called Spill Over Level Control Valve.
14. So the Make-up control valve & Spillover control valve is working opposite
each other.
15. Here we can see in figure 44 that a level transmitter is attached with 1 PID
controller having an output 4~20 mADC.
16. The Output of the PID control loop is wired in a series of control valves and
SMART positioners.
17. At 12.00mADC both control valves are configured fully closed.
18. One control valve is configured to operate 0~100% from 12~4mADC.
19. Another valve is configured to operate 0~100% from 12~20mADC.
20. Spillover control valve, SMART positioner is configured at 12~4mADC to open
0~100% (At 12.00 mADC full Closed & at 4.00 mADC full open). So less than
12.00mADC, it will start to open the control valve.
21. Make-up control valve, SMART positioner is configured at 12~20mADC to open
from 0~100%. ((At 12.00 mADC full Closed & at 20.00 mADC full open). So
more than 12.00mADC it will start to open.
22. The graph chart shows that both valves are fully closed when PID output is
12.00mADC.
23. When the Hot-Well level is 50%, the Controller output should be 50% (12mADC)
so both valves should have configured a fully closed position. (100% Closed).
24. When the hot-well level is 50%, the Controller output should be 50% (12mADC.
25. More than 12mADC, the Make-up valve should start to open to maintain the level
in the Hot-Well.
26. Less than 12mADC, Spill Over valve should be open to sending back the water
to the make-up tank to maintain the hot-well level.

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4.3. PID Controller used with other Controllers.

(Cascade Control System)
We know that a PID controller can work with 1 control valve in a single control loop
and 1 PID controller can work with 2 control valves in a single control loop.
It can also control many other controllers in different control loops. In this situation
1st controller will be called the Master Controller.
PID controller has 2 options of Set Points.
1. Self-Generated Set Point.
2. Remote-Generated Set Point.

4.3.1. Self-generated Set Point

The Set Point is internally generated from the same PID controller controlling the
process variable. It can control the process variable in a single control loop or duel
control loop according to the Self-Generated Set Point

4.3.2. Remote Generated Set Point

Master PID controller output is used as Set Point for other PID controllers.
Another controllers will be called as slave controller.
So Self-Generated Set Points are not used in other controllers. This system is used in
boilers to produce a heavy quantity of steam with a specific pressure to run the turbo
generators. This system is called Cascade Control System.

4.3.3. Cascade Control System.

In this system, 1 PID controller can control many other PID control systems. So it
will work as a Master Controller. Whenever other controllers work under this master
controller they will be called Slave Controllers.
1. Whenever electrical load changes on Electrical Generator, steam pressure will
be automatically reduced through slave controllers.
2. The slave controllers control the air supply & Fuel supply to the boiler.
3. So this steam pressure transmitter will work as master steam pressure and the
PID controller of this steam pressure will be called a Master controller.
4. The output of this master controller will be the SET Point for other controlling
systems.

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5. Whenever there is any change in steam pressure, the main steam pressure
controller sends an output signal as a Master Set Point (MSP) to Air Flow
Controller and Fuel Gas Flow Controller
6. It will increase or decrease the Air flow and Fuel gas flow simultaneously to comply
with the demand of the master controller,. as shown in figure 46.
7. In figure 46, (1), we can see that the main steam pressure is used as Master
Controller.
8. The output of the master controller, controls the Air flow & Fuel Gas flow
controllers related to the boiler to produce steam when demand is required.
9. So Air Flow & Gas Flow controllers will work as Slave Controllers.

Figure 46: PID Used as Master Controller & Slave Controller is called Cascade Control System

10. If Electrical Load demand increases in the Electrical Ring System, then
automatically all cascade controllers will increase their demand to maintain
steam pressure.
11. It will increase steam pressure & flow to run the Turbine Generator at a constant
speed (3000RPM) as required by the central command of electricity.

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4.3.4. Steam Drum Level Control System

To maintain the drum level, we have two types of control systems.
1. Single Element control system.
2. 3 Element control system.

(1) Single Element Drum Level control system

As soon as the drum level decreases or increases, the level controller will send a
signal to feed the water flow control valve to increase or decrease the flow to
maintain the Drum Level as shwn in figure 46 (2) change over switch.

(3) Three Element Drum Level Control system:

3 Element means the drum level will be controlled by 3 different types of process
variables.
1. Total Steam Flow.
2. Total FW P/P Discharge Flow.
3. Feed Water Flow after the control valve.
4. A Selector switch is provided between 1 element & 3 elements control
system as Shown in figure 46 (2).
5. Whenever the boiler runs smoothly, the operator can transfer Drum level control
on 3 element control system.
6. As soon as the drum level changes, quick action will be taken by 3 process
variables to maintain the drum.
7. An operator can change it to the single element control system in any emergency.

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5. Fail Safe System of a Plant

There are many protections used in any industrial plant. Fail safe system is one used to
run the plant safely if any failure happens.
Main Aim of Failsafe Systems:

1. Continuous Production
2. The plant should run safely.
3. No Tripping, No Shut-Down
4. No incident & accident.

There are 3 types of failure-safe systems that are used in any plant
1. Electrical Essential Control power supplies (24 VDC or 110 VDC) Fail Safe
Systems.
(a) All Relays installed in a relay cubical, working on 24 or 110 VDC, used for
interlocks of pump motors & Other Equipment protections.
(b) All Solenoid valves working on 24VDC or 110 VDC are installed in the field to
operate the Shut-Off Valves & Control valves.

2. Air Suply Fail Safe System.

Air supply with specific pressure is used to operate all types of pneumatic shut-
off valves & control valves.

3. Positioner Fail Safe System.

Pneumatic Positioners or SMART positioners are installed on the control valves
only.
This instrument can control the control valve at any position between 0~100% travel
of the actuator stem.

All the above failure safe systems are used in the plants and are very important for
safety of the plant from any tripping, trouble, incident, accident or shut down.
All above power supplies, Solenoid valves & Positioners are used only on Shut-Off
valves & Control Valves to operate or hold in the same position.
To achieve the above Aims / Targets, some instruments are used in the plant to protect
any failure or stop production.
Let’s discuss every instrument on by one used for a failure-safe system.

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5.1. Electrical Essential Control Power Supplies (24

VDC or 110 VDC) Fail Safe System.
Any essential control power supply failure means all Solenoid valves will be De-
Energized.
As we know that all Control valves and Shut-Off valves are working on air supply
pressure.
So solenoid valves are installed to pass air supply through it to operate the control or
shut-off valves.
Whenever the solenoid valve is Energized or De-Energized. It will allow or block the air
supply to open or close these shut-off valves or control valves
As we studied before, there are 2 parts of solenoid valves (Solenoid Coil & Body or
Spool).
As we know, there are 2 positions of a spool of the solenoid valve body. Normal Closed
“NC” Position & Normal Opened “NO” Position.
We will discuss spool positions with the conditions of ON / OFF or DC power supply.
Solenoid valves will be Energized or De-energized.

5.1.1. 3/2 Normal Closed “NC” Spool Action

3/2 type of Solenoid valve has 3 ports (IN / OUT / EXHAUST) and 2 positions of the
spool (NC & NO) are called 3/2 (NC) Solenoid Valve.
This solenoid valve type is used on single acting actuators working as shut-off or control
valves.

Let’s discuss the actions of “Energized” (ON) and “De-Energized” (OFF) solenoid
valves.
Here we can see in figure 47. Manufacturing of “NC” solenoid valve plunger and
spring function.
Spring is fixed on top of the Plunger.
1. When De-energized solenoid valve, the spring will push the Plunger downward
to close/block the “IN” Port.
2. That is why it is called “NC” Normally a closed Solenoid valve, as shown in
figure 48.

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3. When Energized solenoid valve, a magnetic field plunger will be pulled up the
ward and open the air path from the” IN” port to the “OUT” port as shown in
figure 47.

We will see actions of Shut-Off & Control Valves when the Solenoid valve is
“Energized or De-Energized.

a) When the Power supply is “ON” (Solenoid is Energized).

Mostly 3/2 (NC) Solenoid valves are used on the single-acting Shut-Off valves & control
valves.
“NC” Solenoid valve will not allow the air supply to pass through it. This means the air
supply is blocked at the “IN” port & “OUT to EXH” ports are already opened to release
the air supply from the actuator to the vent into air.
So “NC” solenoid valve will not allow passing the air supply to operate the Shut-Off &
control valve without a DC power supply.
When the “NC” Solenoid is Energized, the spool will change the position from “NC” to
“NO.”
It means “IN” to “OUT” ports will be opened, and it will block the “EXHAUST” and
control valve working with the air supply. As shown in below figure 46.

The function of the Solenoid valve when control power is available (Energized).
When the essential control power supply is available & switch is “ON,” the Solenoid is
Energized.
The plunger moved from bottom to upward due to the magnetic force (Plunger will be
pulled up) and the air path will be opened from the “IN” to “OUT” port.
So the Exhaust port will be blocked.

When the “IN” & “OUT” port is opened the air supply pressure moves towards the
Control valve or Shut-Off valve to open or close.

When the solenoid is Energized, the spool will have changed its position from 1st
position to 2nd Position (From NC to NO), as shown in figure 48.

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Figure 47: 3/2 NC, Solenoid valve is Energized "ON"

1. The action of the Solenoid valve:

Energized means Opening the air path from IN port to OUT port. It will change
his position from “NC” to “NO.”

2. The action of the Shut-Off Valve or Control valve:

Shut-Off Valve or Control valve will be in action / operate with air supply. The
actuator will open or close with Air Pressure.

b) When Power Supply “OFF”/ Failed, (Solenoid is De-Energized)

We have seen on the last page (3/2 “NC” solenoid valve) when the power supply is
available and the solenoid valve is Energized. It opens the path of air & Shut-Off Valve or
Control valve operates with air pressure.
As soon as the Essential DC power supply fails or Switch OFF, the solenoid valve will
be De-Energized.
The spool position will change & come back to its original position, “NC.”
The air supply from the “IN” port will be blocked and opened “OUT to EXHAUST”
port to vent the air from the actuator.
The control valve will be working with spring action. As shown in figure 48.

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The function of the Solenoid valve when control power fails (De-Energized).
When essential control DC power supply “Failed” or switch is “OFF “the DC power
supply, Solenoid will be De-Energized.
So spool will change his position from “NO” to “NC.”
So Plunger will be downward by spring force and the air path will be blocked from
the “IN” to “OUT” port.
While the “OUT & EXHAUST” port is already opened the trapped air will flow from the
Control valve or Shut-Off valve to vent in the air.
So there will be No air pressure available on the control or shut-off valve's actuator.
Then movement in the control valve & Shut-Off valve will take place with Spring Force,
So control valve or shut-off valve will work with Spring Action.

Figure 48: 3/2 (NC) Solenoid is De-Energized "OFF" or DC Power Failed

When the solenoid is de-energized, Spool will return from 2nd position (NO) to 1st
position (NC) as shown in figure 48.

1. The action of the Solenoid Valve:

When the De-Energized solenoid valve, spring will push the plunger & it will block
the air supply from the “IN” Port. So solenoid valve will work on spring force.

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2. The action of the Shut-Off Valve or Control valve:

When there is No air supply pressure from the solenoid valve, the Shut-Off Valve
or Control valve will be in action with Spring Action.
So actuator will open or close with Actuator Spring Force.

5.1.2. 3/2 Normal Opened “NO” Spool Action

This type of valve also has 3 ports (IN / OUT / EXHAUST) and 2 positions, called a 3/2
(NO) solenoid valve.
It can be used on single acting actuators working as shut-off valves or control valves.
3/2 Normal Opened “NO” Solenoid valve action is opposite to the 3/2 Normally
closed "NC" solenoid valve.

a) When the Power Supply is “ON” (Solenoid is Energized).

This solenoid valve is Normally Opened (NO), which means it will operate the shut-off &
Control valve with air pressure without a DC power supply.
When the solenoid is Energized, the spool changes the position from “NO” to “NC,”
which means it will block the air supply from “IN port” to “OUT port.”
It will open the “EXHAUST” control valve working with Spring Force. As shown in figure
49.
Here we can see in figure 49. Manufacturing of “NC” solenoid valve plunger and
spring function.
Spring is fixed at the bottom of the plunger.
1. When De-energized solenoid valve, the spring will push the Plunger upward to
open the “IN” Port to the “OUT” port. That is why it is called “NO” Normally
opened Solenoid valve as shown in figure 50.
2. When Energized solenoid valve, the magnetic field plunger will be pushed
downward and block/close the air path from the” IN” port as shown in figure
49.

We will see actions of Shut-Off & Control Valves when the Solenoid valve is
“Energized or De-Energized.

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The function of the Solenoid valve when control power is available

(Energized).
When essential control power supply is available & switch is “ON,” Solenoid is
Energized.
The plunger will move downward, and the air path will be blocked from “IN” to the
“OUT” port.
The EXHAUST port will be opened to release the air from the actuator.
When the “IN” & “OUT” port is blocked, there will be “No” air supply pressure to
operate the Control valve or Shut-Off valve to open or close.
When the solenoid is Energized, the spool should change its position from 1st position
to 2nd Position (From NO to NC).

Figure 49: 3/2 (NO) Solenoid valve is Energized "ON"

1. The action of the Solenoid valve:

Energized means Blocking the air supply path from the “IN” port and opening
the EXHAUST port.

2. The action of the Shut-Off Valve or Control valve:

The shut-Off Valve or Control valve will be in Action with Spring Action.
An actuator will open or close with Actuator Spring Force.

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b) When the Power supply is “OFF,” the Solenoid is De-Energized.

Essential control power supply “Failed” or switched “OFF. “

The solenoid will be De-Energized. So spool position will be upward by spring force
and the air path will be opened from the “IN” to “OUT” port. It will be in 1st position
(NO).

The function of the Solenoid valve when control power fails. (De-Energized).
When the solenoid is De-Energized “EXHAUST” port will be closed.
Air will be passed from “IN” to “OUT” ports of the solenoid valve, and it will operate the
Shut-Off valve or Control Valve as shown in figure 50.
This is the 1st position of the 3/2 Normally Opened “NO” solenoid valve.
So air supply pressure will be in action to operate the Shut-Off Valve or Control Valve.

Figure 50: 3/2 (NO) Solenoid Valve is DE=Energized “OFF” / DC Power Failed

1. Action of the Solenoid Valve:

When De-Energized, Solenoid valve Spring will be in action and open the air
supply from “IN” to OUT” Port.

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2. Action of the Shut-Off Valve or Control valve:

Shut-Off Valve or Control valve will be in action with the air supply.
The actuator will open or close with Air Pressure.

Results:
1. The use of the solenoid valves depends upon the system and plant requirements.

2. It depends upon the manufacturer & designer, and how he designed the
Electrical DC Essencial power fail-safe system in the plant that production should
not be stopped.

3. Designer ensured how to operate the control & Shut-off valves to run the plant
process safely without an electrical power supply.

4. In case of Electrical DC Essential Power Supply Failure, Designer should

design the control loop so that production should be continuous & plant should not
be tripped / stopped.

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5.2. Air Fail Safe System.

We have 2 instruments to use on air fail safe systems. Whenever air supply fails. This
instrument will react and it will save the plant process or production.
1. Air lock Relay (Single Stage)
2. Lock-up Relay (Single Stage & Double Stage)

Figure 51: Single stage Air Lock Relay Figure 52: Single Stage Lock-UP Relay Figure 53: Double Stage Lock-UP Relay

Single Stage Lock-up Relay or Air Lock Relay:

1. This type of Lock-up Relay or Air Lock Relay is a single stage relay used with
Single Acting Actuators.
2. Having 3 Ports. (IN, OUT & Signal Pressure).
1. It has Set Point adjustment screw. Always set at decreasing air pressure.
3. Set Point Value” is adjusted on Loss of air supply or decreasing air pressure

Double Stage Lock-Up Relay:

1. This type of Lock-Up Relay has 2 stages. Used with Double Acting Actuators.
2. Having 5 Ports. (2 IN / 2 Out & 1 Signal Pressure).
3. It has Set Point adjustment screw, set at decreasing air pressure.
4. Both stages work simultaneously to decrease air pressure at Set Point.
5. Set Point Value” is adjusted on Loss of air supply or decreasing air pressure

Lock-Up Relay or Air Lock Relay is a pneumatic switch, working as (ON-OFF Switch),
Having Set Point value and Reset values.

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All types of Lock-Up relays or airlock relays work on decreasing air pressure.
It will block the air supply to the control valve or shut-off valves, when there is a loss of
air supply or air supply pressure reduces than Set Value.

“Reset” or Resumed air pressure or increasing air pressure from Regulator.

It will be “Reset” when air supply pressure is available and more than Set Point
pressure.
Increasing Pressure is the “Reset” Pressure, Works with More than Set Air Pressure.
It will Open the air supply (ON) to control valve or shut off valves, when the air supply is
available and the signal pressure is more than the Set Value.

Result:
Pneumatic Lockup Relay, switch “OFF” when loss of air supply or air pressure is less
than Set Point value.
It means Block the air Supply to control valves.
Air pressure More than Set Point Value Means Reset (ON) the Lock-up relay.
It means Opening the Air supply to control valves.
Here we can see the different parts and working principles of single stage and double
stage Lock-Up relays.

Figure 54: Air Lock Relay (Single Figure 55: Lock-Up Relay (Single Stage) for Figure 56: Lock-Up Relay (Double Stage)
Stage) S/A Actuators) for D/A Actuators

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5.2.1. Working Principle of Lock-Up Relay

1. There is a Set Pint Adjustment Screw and spring for forcing downwards to the
upper diaphragm.
2. Increasing or decrees the set point means increases or decreases the pressure
downwards on the upper diaphragm.
3. There are 2 diaphragms used in it, Upper diaphragm & Lower diaphragm.
4. The Signal port always in between both diaphragms.
5. Any pressure entering the signal port pressurizes upward to the upper diaphragm
and downward to the lower diaphragm.
6. Lower diaphragm pushes the bottom plunger, which is Normally Closed (NC).
Air supply from “IN” ports to “OUT” ports will be blocked
7. As pressure increases in signal port, it pushes upward the upper diaphragm and
opens the “IN” to “OUT” ports to allow the air pressure to move towards control
valves or shutoff valves.
8. This function is for both Lock-Up relays. (single stage or double stage)
9. As soon as there is a loss of air supply or reduces air pressure (Air Supply Failed)
in the signal port.
10. Signal pressure force on the upper diaphragm & lower diaphragm will be
reduced. It will be less than Set point spring force.
11. As result of reducing signal pressure on the diaphragms, “IN” port and “OUT”
port will be blocked/closed.
12. It will block the air supply from the Lock-up relay to the shut-off or control valve.
13. Also, it will not allow the trapped air to be released from the control or shutoff valve.
14. So, any control valve or shut-off valve is either open or closed or working in any
middle position. It will be blocked in the same position when air Failed.
15. There will be no movement of valve until air supply pressure is resumed /
available and should be more than the set point pressure.

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5.2.2. Test loop Air Lock Relay or Lock-Up relay. (Single stage).
Used for single acting shut-off valve or control valves.

Figure 57: Air Lock Relay (Single Stage) Test Loop for Single Acting Actuators

Here you can see the test loop of Air Lock Relay in Figure 57.
1. An air lock relay or Lock-up relay is a Normally Closed (NC) pneumatic relay,
Without air supply pressure.
2. Most manufacturers adjust the Setpoint pressure on consumer request. It will be
less than the designed pressure of Actuator.
For example;
1. An actuator's designed operating pressure is 4.00 Bar. Air lock or Lock-up relay
can be set at 3 bar or 3.5 bar.
2. It is a critical air pressure to operate the control valve with full load. Less than
this pressure control valve cannot operate with a full load.
3. Less than 3 Bar or 3.5 Bar, an air lock relay or lock-up relay will react & block
the air supply, and the control valve will be held on the same position.
4. The main air supply isolating valve and air pressure regulator is installed. OUT
out of the regulator is attached to a “T” joint.
5. A pressure gauge is fixed on one point of “T” joints. 2nd point of “T” joint is
attached with a flexible tube to the Signal Port and 3rd point of the “T” is
attached to the “IN” port of Air Lock Relay or Lock-Up relay.
6. A flexible tube is attached to the “OUT” port of Air Lock Relay or Lock-up relay to
an actuator (Air to Closed / Spring to Open) as shown in Figure 57.

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7. Open the main air isolating valve. Start to increase pressure from the regulator and
view the pressure gauge. Pressure on the gauge will start to increase.
8. As soon as it reaches the designer's set point value (3 Bar or 3.5 Bar), the
pneumatic relay will suddenly open its ports (IN to OUT) and the air supply will
move to the actuator.
9. The actuator spindle will start to move downward to close the valve.
10. Increase the air supply from the regulator up to max. Designed pressure at 4.0
bar. Actuator will be fully closed.
11. Now reduce the air pressure slowly from the regulator. Actuator will start to
open slowly.
12. As soon as air pressure reached less than the set point pressure.
13. Air lock relay or lock-up relay will be in action and block the output pressure
to actuator.
14. This pressure will be trapped in between the lock-up relay & actuator.
15. So actuator will be blocked or stopped at the same position.
16. The actuator position can be 50% or 75%. or any position. It will be ON hold.
Even main air pressure reduced up to “0” Bar.
17. Ensure that there should be no air leakage from the actuator
18. The control valve will hold the same position until the air supply should be
resumed and more than the set point pressure.
19. It is called Reset of Air Lock Relay or Lock-Up relay.

Calibration Procedure of Lock-up Relays:

1. In case of calibration or re-adjustment of the set point we need to remove the
actuator and fix the pressure gauge to view the output pressure to confirm the set
and reset values as shown in Figure: 58.
2. Increase or Decrease the air pressure from the regulator and move the set point
adjustment screw clock vise or anti clock vise and view the output pressure.
3. Repeat step (2) many times and change set and reset values according to the
designer values.
4. Finally confirm the set and rest pressure value is correct and according to the
designed value.
5. Complete the test and calibration certificate for approval.

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5.2.3. Test loop of Lock-Up Relay (Double stage).

Lock-Up Relay (Double stage) is used with Double acting shut-off or control valve
Actuators.

All test function steps are the same as in Air Lock Relay or Lock-Up relay in the
figure: 57.
There are 2 input ports, 2 output ports & a Signal pressure port with a set point
adjustment screw.
All double acting shut-off and control valves will be held in the same position. When air
pressure will be less than the set point value or loss of air supply (Air supply Failed).
It will be Reset when air supply pressure is resumed or air pressure exceeds the set point
pressure.
Calibration procedures are also the same as we discussed in 5.2.2 (Calibration
Procedure)

Figure 58: Lock-Up Relay (Double Stage) for Double Acting Actuators

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5.3. Positioner Failure Safe System

We have different positioners that control the control valves to control the process
variable.

1- Pneumatic Positioner. (Single Acting, Direct / Reverse).

2- Pneumatic Positioner. (Double Acting)
3- SMART Positioner. (Single Acting, Direct & Reverse).
4- SMART Positioner. (Double Acting).

1. All positioners have Feedback Lever to control the control valve's travel position
(0%~100%).
2. SMART positioner receives signal 4~20mADC directly from PID controller to
operate control valve.
Or
3. Pneumatic Positioner receives pneumatic signal 0.2 ~1.0 Bar from I/P
converter.
4. I/P converter receives signal 4~20mADC from PID Controller.
5. We can configure the SMART positioner functions according to the requirement
of the plant.
6. We can also select the pneumatic positioners, actuators, and other
accessories according to the designed process loop and configure them
according to the plant's requirements.
7. In case of Positioner failure or Feedback Lever Broken or attachment of lever
disconnect from the stem, Positioner Itself will take Action.
8. The positioner will try to control the process according to the plant requirement and
designer configuration to save production.
9. This type of configuration will not trip the plant and not stop the production

5.3.1. Best Choices for Designer

1. Manufacturers or Designers have many options to save the plant for continuous
production.
2. Configure the control valve action through I/P converter (Direct / Reverse),
Positioner (Direct / Reverse) Actuators (Direct action / Reverse action) and
Cams (Direct or Reverse, linear or non-linear) of positioners.
3. All these options should save the plant that production should not stop or nothing
have to waste from the process variables.

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4. Keep in mind that any Instrument Technician or Instrument Engineer is always

unavailable in the plant. (For example, there is nobody available to attend to the
problem).
5. According to the situation, the Positioner has to decide what action to take. (full
Close or fully open the control valve or block in the same position).
6. The designer always keeps in his mind all the above reasons, then he selects the
best Control Valves & Best Positioners and configures the best choices of control
valve actions, which are suitable for the plant. (Either Control Valve should be open
or closed in positioner failure situation).
7. If the Feedback liver is broken or the positioner fails, then Positioner can decide
according to the configuration.
8. Feedback Liver can fall down or rise up. (It depends on the cam and spring
used in the pneumatic positioner to change the output of the pneumatic relay).
9. There are two types of cams. Linear / Non-Linear. Mostly linear cam is used.

Examples of open loop and closed loop flow process with fail-safe system.

Example 1: Open Loop (Boiler Blow Down Control Valve)

1. A pneumatic positioner (Single Acting) used with a single acting control valve in an
open process loop as a Boiler Blow Down control valve as shown in figure 59.

Figure 59: Open Loop of Blow Down & Closed Loop of Steam, Feet Water & Condensate Water

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2. This valve is installed at an open loop to drain water from the boiler when
conductivity is higher than the designed value.
3. Most requests from the chemical section to blow down the water from the boiler.
4. They are responsible for maintaining the conductivity level in the condensate water
and feed water in the boiler.
5. Boiler condensate water is very costly and taken from the Demineralized
plant.

6. DM Plant removes all minerals and salts from this water to save boiler tubes,
pipes and turbine blades from rust. So cannot waste too much water.

7. This positioner reacts when the Feedback liver comes out from the connector
and is raised. It will keep the valve full closed so that condensate water should
not waist as shown in figure 60.

Figure 60: Boiler Blow Down Control Valve Liver Broken

Example 2: Closed Loop (Steam, condensate & Feed water flow) Figure 58.
1. We can see a Process Closed Loop of Steam Flow, Condensate Water Flow
and Feed Water Flow to run the Turbo-Generator to produce Electricity as
shown in figure 59.

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2. The Pneumatic positioners are used on 2 control valves installed on Condensate

Flow Control Valve & Feed Water Flow Control Valves in a closed process
loop.

3. In this closed process loop, if any positioner fails or malfunctions or the

feedback lever is broken, then there are 3 action that can be taken by
positioners.

4. 1st action: Full close the control valve. In this situation the flow of the system
will be stopped. So turbine can be tripped and production will be stopped. This
action cannot have approved by the designer for fail-safe system.

5. 2nd action: Full open the control valve. In this situation, there will be maximum
flow in the system. This situation can disturb all process loops (Levels and
flow), but an operator can quickly transfer control from Auto to Manual and
control the entire process manually. He can save the tripping of Turbo-
Generator. So Electrical production will not stop.

6. 3rd Action in case of Air Fail or DC Power Supply Failed. (Control valve will
Hold in same position). In this situation there will be very less disturbance.

7. An operator can quickly handle this and the situation can be normalized with the
help of Instrument or Electrical Sections to Restore Air Supply or DC Electrical
Power Supply.

8. So in the above situations 1st action can’t be approved in closed loop system.

9. Only 2nd and 3rd action of failsafe systems can be approved for continuous
production.

To understand the strategy of the manufacturer or designer, he can choose the best
choice of positioner’s action to save the production.

We have to understand the close and open loops of the power station. As shown in
the figure: 59.
Mostly manufacturers & designer have only 4 options.
1. Full open the control valve.
2. Full close the control valve.
3. Hold the control valve in the Same position.
4. Use SMART Positioner, which can configure the all functions & options.

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5.3.2. Use of all 3 Fail Safe Systems simultaneously.

As we understand the all 3 Fail Safe Systems are used on Shut-Off Valves and Control
Valves for continuous production & No tripping of plant.

In the case of any one from 3 failure systems. (Solenoid Valves, Air Lock relays or
Lock-Up relays and Positioners) are installed in the field on Shut-Off valves and
Control Valves. as mentioned below.
1. Control Power 110 VDC Fail Safe System. (Means Solenoid Valves will be De-
energized)
2. Air Fail Safe system (Means there is No Air supply on Control valves & Shut-off
valves).
3. Air Lock Relays or Lock-up Relays are used at single-acting or Double Acting
actuators to open/close or hold in same position.
4. Positioner Fail Safe System. (Means Feedback Lever broken or Positioner
malfunction).

Single stage Lock-Up relay for Single Acting Actuators.

Figure 61: All 3 Fail Safe Systems on Single Acting Actuators Actions (Without Air Supply)

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Double stage Lock-Up Relay for Double Acing Actuators

Figure 62: All 3 Fail Safe Systems on Double Acting Actuators Actions (Without Air Supply)

The above 2 pictures show all three instruments used with single acting and double
acting actuators at control valves. (Positioner, Solenoid Valve and Lock-up Relay)

Result:
1. Fail Actions in Control valves: Air Supply Failed, Electrical Power Supply Failed
or Positioner Failed in single acting & Double acting control valve actuators; valves
should be held in the same position
2. Fail Actions in Shut-off valves: Shut-Off valves don’t use positioners on single
acting or double-acting actuators. So only possible to fully open or full closed
the Shut-Off Valve.
3. Positioner Failed: Positioner configuration will decide to operate the control
valve.
4. Fail Safe System is a Stand-Alone System. It works with all shut-off valves
and all control valves.
5. So there is No link with Basic Process Control System (BPCS) & Safety
Instrumented System (SIS).

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6. Difference Between BPCS & SIS

These systems are working to protect the process variables that should run within safe
limits.
If the Basic Process Control System (BPCS) of the process variable crosses the
limitations. Warning alarm system will react and give warning to operator.
Warning system will give alarms to operators with buzzer, horn, annunciation windows
or DCS computer alarms list on Monitor in the control room,
If the process variable is still uncontrolled, then Safety Instrumented System (SIS) will
react and stop/trip the plant to save it from any incident or accident.

Figure 63: Use of BPCS & SIS

1.1. Basic Process Control System (BPCS)

It is an Analog Control System, which controls all types of process variables like
Pressure, Level, Temperature, flow or any other process variables.

The pictures show that every system works separately and has its own instruments.
1. Basic Process Control System (BPCS) has its own power supply unit, CPU, Digital
I/O cards & Analog I/O.
2. Annunciation system (Warning system) using his own power supply unit, CPU,
Digital I/O cards.

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3. Both above systems don’t have any link with each other
4. Even field instruments also used separately as shown in figure: 64 & 67.
5. BPCS system is a Flexible Analog Process Control System
6. This system allows changing the process conditions frequently. It controls the
basic parameters of process.

Figure 64: BPCS Controlling System With Warning Annunciation System

7. It will control all types of analog processes (Like: Pressure, Temperature, flow &
Level) in safe limitation areas.
8. It can give best performance from minimum to maximum limitations in safe
conditions.
9. This system deals with P, PI & PID controllers.
10. This controlling system can be easy to change the conditions control system.
11. From AUTO to MANUAL to control the process manually or MANUAL to AUTO
to control the process on AUTO.
12. It can change the SET POINT (SP) or BYPASS the PID control system.

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13. Most chances of failure of the BPCS is malfunctioning any controller or control
valve.
14. Also possible human mistakes or errors.
15. This system runs all the time to control the process and has no fault diagnostic
provision.
16. BPCS works normally and controlling plants under normal flexible limitations all
the time.
17. It has the flexibility to control the process variables.
18. Figure 64 shows the real idea of BPCS, warning and Critical alarms systems(SIS).
19. In figure 65 a real as built picture of make-up tanks in the power plant have safe
area of level PID controlling system (BPCS), then Low & High Level swathes for
warning, and critical alarms (Very Low & Very high) for reaction of safety
instrumented system (SIS)

BPCS & SIS Example

Boiler Make-Up Tank Level Control (BPCS) &
(SIS) Level Switches for Alarms and
Interlocks (Actual Hook-up of level switches)
in Shuwaikh Power Station Kuwait

Figure 65: Function Chart of BPCS & SIS Figure 66: Actual Hook -Up of Level Switches in Make-Up Tank

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1.2. Safety Instrumented System (SIS)

The Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS) continuously monitors the plant’s safety
devices status and diagnoses the health of the entire safety loops–dramatically reducing
the risk.

Figure 67: BPCS & SIS Using Their Own Instruments Separately.

1. Safety Instrumented System (SIS) is working opposite to Basic Process Control

System (BPCS)
2. Both systems have their own Instruments in the local & In control room
3. SIS deals with critical conditions of process variables in the plant.
4. SIS has “NO Flexibility.” It will react suddenly after receiving any critical alarm
5. It is always there but not doing anything to the plant.
6. Waiting for any critical situation.
7. If BPCS not controlling the plant within safe limits and going to critical conditions.
Even there is no action by operator when receiving warning alarms by
annunciation system.

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8. Then SIS will be in action to save the plant or human life.

9. SIS can Trip individual unit or Trip the complete plant in critical conditions.
10. It can stop the production of the plant by SIS related shut-off valves by fully
closed.
11. It can save the pant from any incident or accident.
12. It can save human lives.

1.3. Safety stages of a Plant.

There are some stages of Safety Layers.
1. Basic Plant Infrastructure (Process Piping, Pump Motors, Control Valves & Shut-
Off Valves and Instrument hook-up in field and control room)
2. Analog Control System of a Plant, Called Basic Process Control System (BPCS).
3. Annunciation System or Warning system.
4. Safety Instrumented System (SIS)
5. Safety Integrity Levels (SIL) This system has 4 levels.
6. Mechanical Safety system, (Mechanical Relief Valves).
7. Fire fitting System (Fire Sensors and Sprinkling &Deluge System).

1.3.1. Layers of Safety Integrity Level (SIL)

1. SIL-1 ---------- (Safety Instrumented Level - 1)
2. SIL-2 ---------- (Safety Instrumented Level - 2)
3. SIL-3 ---------- (Safety Instrumented Level - 3)
4. SIL-4 ---------- (Safety Instrumented Level - 4)

1.3.2. Structure of BPCS, SIS and Mechanical Safety System.

1. Boiler Drum Level.

It is controlled by BPCS under safe limitations all the time. However, as soon as
the level reaches high or low limits it will give alarms in the control room. SIS will
trip the boiler to save the plant if it is still out of control and reaches very high / very
low limits.

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2. Boiler Steam Temperature: The steam temperature will be controlled by BPCS

under safe limitations. But as soon as the temperature reaches high limits, it will
give a high-temperature alarm in the Control room. SIS will trip some burners or
boilers to save the plant if the steam temperature is still out of control and reaches
very high limits.

3. Boiler Steam Pressure: The pressure will be controlled by BPCS within safe
limitations. But as soon as pressure reaches high limits, it will give a high pressure
alarm in the Control room. If steam pressure is still out of control and reaches very
high limits, SIS will trip some burners or boiler; also it will trip the feed water
pump to save the plant.

4. All types of safety layers shown in figure 68 with their own instruments.

Figure 68: Safety Layers of Different Systems in a Plant

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1.3.3. Mechanical Safety Devises Failure:

1. Many failures can be happening in the plant and may not be self-diagnostic.

2. Mechanical safety device: If SIS does not act and all SIL level fails & still steam
pressure is out of control and reaches the mechanical safety set point value.

3. A mechanical safety device will activate and open the Safety Relief valve to
vent the steam pressure in the air to save the plant from overpressure or blasting
any pipe.

4. It can happen when mechanical relief valve is stuck-up and does not function.

5. That safety / Relief valves never be tested for a long time.

6. If the Mechanical Relief valve never checks its operation, then incident /
accident can be happened and haram full for human life.

7. If all safety features fail and all mechanical devices fail to operate, then there
will be an accident.

8. In case of accident many collateral damages will be accrued.

9. There can be any type of fire in the plant. (There are many types of fire in any
plant). Like: Electrical fire, Oil Fire, Wood fire …. etc.

10. All types of firefighting systems should be in service to remove fire from the plant.

11. Firefighting Equipment and fighting systems also should be tested periodically.

12. Any plant needs to work in safe conditions to save the plant & human lives.

13. Always use Safety Instrumented System (SIS) in the plant.

14. Every year all safety instruments, mechanical devices and firefighting
systems should be overhauled and tested & keep record.

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7. PLC (Programmable Logic Control)

Programmable logic controller (PLC) is a small, modular plug & play type rack mounted
based Solid State Computer with customized instructions for performing a particular
task.

PLCs were first developed in automobile manufacturing to provide flexible, rugged and
easily programmable controllers to replace hard-wired relay logic systems. Since then,
they have been widely adopted as high-reliability automation controllers suitable for
harsh environments.
PLC can range from small modular devices with inputs and outputs (I/O) cards in a
housing integral with the power supplies, Network, CPU with Memory and Digital &
Analog I/O Cards, in to large rack-mounted modular devices with thousands of I/O
signals. It has been programing to control machine operation are typically stored in
the memory.

Figure 69: Modular Rack (Plug & Play) with Power Supply. Figure 70: Modular Rack Base with Plug & Play & Connections

Figure 71: Modular Rack with Digital & Analog I/O Cards Figure 72: Plug & Play CPU & Memory of PLC

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PLC have largely replaced electro mechanical type instruments Like large size of
relays, drum sequencers, the large size of solenoid valves, big size of micro switches,
electro mechanical timers and large size of step programmers (cam switch type) etc. of
any small unit. As shown below.
This all hardware can be replaced with PLC system.

Figure 74: Electro-Mechanical Type Programmer With

Figure 73: Large Size Electro Mechanical Relays
Largo Size Micro Switches

Figure 75: Large Size Electro Mechanical Timers Relays Figure 76: Large Size Solenoid Valves

PLC has no mechanical parts.

They can gather information through the I/O cards.
The most common language used in PLC is LADDER.
It is very simple like the electrical diagram. As shown here.

Figure 77: LADDER Language for PLC (Similar to Electrical Circuits)

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PLC is a useful tool for repeatable processes of small units Like:

DM plant for regeneration.
The chlorination plant for shock chlorine injection is sea water.
HMI is a user friendly tool for operating a small unit.

Figure 78: PLC Repeatable Cycle of Any Small Unit Figure 79: Periodically Regeneration of DM Plant.

PLC will only process one Program over and over by the interval of time.
Like: Regenerations in Demineralized Water plant, when conductivity cross more than
1Micro Moh.

Chlorination plant for shock chlorine injection in sea water intake 3 to 4 times every
day.

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8. SCADA System
SCADA System means Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition System.
SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) is a category of software applications for
controlling industrial processes, gathering data in real-time from remote locations to control
equipment and conditions.

SCADA systems are used by industrial organizations and companies in the public and
private sectors to control and maintain efficiency.
It is used to distribute data for smarter decisions, and communicate system issues to
help operators and other employees to analyze the data and make important decisions.
SCADA system has 4 stages.

1st stage: Contains the field measuring devices such as flow, level, pressure and
temperature, sensors, and controlling the all processes through the final control
elements, such as control valves or Shut-Off Valves.

2nd stage: Contains the input/output (I/O) modules, and their associated distributed
electronic processors and controllers.

3rd stage: Contains the supervisory computers, which collect information from the
processor, controllers through the network station, and provide all the information to
HMI for operator.

4th stage: is the production control stage, which does not directly control the process,
but it is related with data logging, monitoring production and targets.

Figure 80: SCADA is Gathering Real Time Data from remote locations

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Basically SCADA system begins with programmable logic controllers (PLCs) or

remote terminal units (RTUs).
PLCs and RTUs are Micro-computers that communicate with a trail of objects such as
factory machine process sensors, control devices, I/O sensors with HMIs.
SCADA routes the information from those objects to computers using SCADA software.
The SCADA software processes, distributes, and displays the data, to help operators
and other employees to analyze the data and make important decisions.

Structure of SCADA

Figure 81: Structure-of-SCADA-System-for Environmental-Monitoring.

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9. Distributed Control System (DCS)

1. Distributed Control System (DCS) is the 4th generation of industrial technology,
designed with software & computer based technology.
2. This technology can eliminate all types of conventional control systems and
control rooms, wires, switches, control room panel mount instruments, and
analog and relay cubical as shown below.
3. It is a specially designed automated control system comprising geographically
distributed control elements over the plant or control area.

Figure 82: Structural Arrangement of DCS In a Plant

4. It differs from the centralized control system wherein a single controller at central
location handles the control function,
5. DCS each process, element, machine or group of machines is controlled by a
dedicated controller.

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6. DCS consists of many local controllers in various sections of plant control area and
are connected via a high speed communication network. As shown here.

Figure 83: Real Structure of DCS in a Plant

7. DCS creates new world of technology. DCS control systems use different
languages through the PC. The most commonly used language in DCS is
Function Block. As shown in the below pictures.

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Figure 84: Function Blocks is DCS Language.

8. Operating Stations (OS) is the PC through which an operator can operate a big
Power Plant or all types of Plants.
9. DCS takes less space, performs more complex tasks, and is more
customizable than the electro-mechanical technologies they have replaced.
10. Analog Input / Output cards receive analog input signals (All types of analog
signals like: 4~20mADC, from transmitters, T/C, RTD and all types of Transducers)
from the field and transfer all information through the network controllers and fiber
optical cables to the OS & DCS Server, which saves & transfers the data to OS
(Operator) or HMI. These analog readings can be viewed on the LED monitor. The
process variable (PV) can be controlled through the analog output cards from the
Plant Operating Station (POS) or HMI to the field controlling instruments.
11. Digital Input / Output cards: Same way digital input/output signal also transfers
through the digital input/output cards. So the digital output signal transfers through
the network controllers to the DCS Server & OS (Operator) So We Can Open /
Close any shut-off valve and safety protection systems from the HMI through the
DCS Server, also we can Start / Stop any pump motor through the same way.
12. So all graphics and readings can be viewed on the LED Monitor and also can
be control “PV” from the “OS” (from Operator) or HMI.
13. DCS Server has all the technical software that belonged to the plant. It is used
to store all types of data of the all DCS system of a plant.

14. Engineering Station (ES) is used to create a graphic, change in any system's
configuration, diagnostic troubles and any modification in the DCS system.
15. Operating Station (OS), Operator used to control and operate a big plant like a
Power Plant / or any heavy industry, having multiple controlling systems with many
I/O cards. (Analog input / Output cards & Digital input / Output cards).

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16. So all graphics and readings can be viewed on the LED Monitor and also can
be controlled “PV” from the “OS” (from Operator) or HMI.

Figure 85: Graphics in DCS Monitor will Show Plant structure, Mimic, & Analog Readings.

17. Each I/O card has 8 channels up to 64 Channels. (Depend upon the design &
use of the system requirements)

9.1. Human Machine Interface (HMI)

1. HMI (Human Machine Interface): It is a small computer based monitor. It works like
an operating station (OS)

Figure 86: Human Machine Interface (HMI)

2. This is the user interface in a manufacturing or process control system. It provides

a graphics-based visualization of industrial control and monitoring system.

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3. HMI typically resides in an office-based Windows computer that communicates

with a specialized computer in the plant such as a programmable automation
controller (PAC), programmable logic controller (PLC) or part of (DCS).

4. HMI (Human Machine Interface) controls small plants like chlorination plants or
DM plants.

The difference between Conventional Control Room and a DCS control Room of a Power
Plant is shown in the pictures below.

9.2. Conventional Control Desk & Panel

Here we can see a conventional control system of Turbine operation in a power plant. It
has all type of analog recorders, indicators, annunciation windows, TPL Switches, lighting
indicating units and PID controllers.

Figure 87: Conventional Type Turbine Control Desk & Panel

9.3. DCS Control System of a Power Plant

DCS is a Personal Computer (PC) based Software Programs. Manufacturer designs
window base DCS Program. There is no hardware in the control room Like
Conventional Desk & Panel as shown in figure 86. Everything will show on the monitor.

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An operator cans start the plant from 1 computer. Large size of monitor is provided to
help operators.

Figure 88: DCS Controlling System of a Power Plant

DCS is a De-Centralized system, which means there are many controlling

systems in different areas but not from one centralized computer control system.

DCS Controls different types of systems / Loops / sections of a Plant Including PLC &
SCADA systems with Wireless facilities.

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We can see here the structural plan of any DCS System.

Figure 89: Structure Of DCS System of Any Plant With SIS

9.4. Benefits of DCS

1. All manufacturing companies design their own software for DCS.
2. We can configure all loops of analog, interlocks, alarms & trips in the DCS.
3. It can control complete production unit of power station or any industry from 1 PC
only.
4. We can install a big monitor screen and see all parameters and graphics on it,
including Process loops, process values & mimics.
5. We can create graphic in the system through Engineering Station (ES).
6. It is easy to trace the fault in the circuit. The self-diagnostic system is built in DCS
.
7. This is the cheapest and long life control system with low cost maintenance.
8. Only field instruments required calibration and maintenance periodically.

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5. DCS eliminates the following from the conventional Relay Room & Control room.
6. Conventional Desk / Panels and all types of switches installed on the desk and
panel.
7. All analog cubical (Module based analog cubical).
8. Different types and size of Indicators.
9. Lighting Indicating units.
10. Different types and size of Recorders.
11. All types of Flow Counters.
12. TPL Switches (Start/ Stop motors)
13. Big size of annunciation panels.
14. Big sizes of analog Controllers & set point stations.
15. Electromechanical Relays & timers.
16. Different types of alarm cards.
17. Mimics and many more instruments installed on desk and panel.
18. So all above instruments are configured in DCS software program,
19. No more hardware is required in DCS.

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10. Fuel Gas Pressure Controlling System

in a Gas Scrubber Station.
2. Fuel Gas is very important for any boiler burner.
3. No & Never disturbance should supply fuel gas to the boilers.
4. The priority of gas depends upon the Set Point of each pressure controller.
5. Higher Set Point will the 1st priority to control the gas pressure.
6. Lower will be the 2nd priority to control the gas pressure.
7. Lowest will be the 3rd priority to control the gas pressure and so on.
8. If 1st priority controlling system, fail to control on a given higher set point or
there is trouble in controlling system or control valve then control will be shifted
to 2nd controlling system.
9. Then 2nd priority controller will pick up the all load automatically.
10. In case of 2nd priority controlling system also fail to control on the given 2nd lower
set point or there is trouble in controlling system or control valve then control will
be shifted automatically to the 3rd priority controlling system and so on.
11. Below is the picture showing a Gas controlling station with 3 Line controlling
system.

10.1. Change of Duty from 1st priority to 3rd priority

1. If we want to change the duty of lines from (Line A) to (Line C) then slowly
increase the Set Point of (Line C) controller and match or a little higher than (Line
A) controller.
2. Now start to reduce the set point slowly of the (Line A) controller same as (Line
C) controller.
3. Keep close eye on (Line C).
4. The control valve of (line C) should start to open slowly and maintain the gas
pressure equal to Re-adjusted SP as 1st priority.
5. Then (line A) the control valve should start to close slowly and be fully closed.

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6. Automatically both lines should shift the gas pressure load smoothly without
any trouble.
7. Then (line A) will go to 3rd priority and stay in standby mode.
8. Automatically (Line C) will become in service and pick all the load.
9. After changing duty, Now Line “C” will be the 1st priority & Line A will be the
3rd priority.

Figure 90: 3 Line Gas Pressure Control System of Gas Scrubber Station

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11. Burner Management System (BMS)

Every boiler has burners to boil the water and convert it to steam at a specific temperature
and pressure. This steam is used to move the Turbo-Generator at constant speed.
These burners work with gas or oil or coal firing. Many burners work simultaneously to
maintain the temperature and pressure of steam.
To start the boiler, all burners should be in service and start one by one. To start and put
in to service all burners, there is system to start and maintain each called Burner
Management System (BMS)
1. BMS is a flame safeguard system.
2. Based on events in sequence.
3. There are many steps in systematic way to start burner.
4. Any step mustn't be missed or by-passed. It will be harmful.
5. Burner safety instruments will ensure that gas should be available with the required
pressure to establish a good flame.

11.1. Boiler Protections

1. There are many protections for boilers. All protections should be completed.
2. It is very important to purge the boiler properly before starting 1st burner.
3. If any shut-off valve is passing and during leak test & gas pressure will not be
held at a certain pressure. Then the gas will be accumulating in the furnace which
is very dangerous for plant
4. If any un-burnt fuel accumulated in the gas line or in the boiler, it can suddenly
converts in to blast.
5. Then any incident or accident can happen when burner will start.
6. To save the gas lines or boiler, Purging Step is very important to complete
7. (Never bypass this step).

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11.2. Preparations to Start a Burner

1. After Start of FD fans, complete all steps till reach to start 1st burner.
2. BFW P/P should be in service at minimum flow.
3. Drum Level should be normal.
4. Boiler / Furnace Purge should be completed before start 1st burner.
5. Step no. 5 is most important for safety of boiler. If any fuel gas is accumulated
in boiler, serious accidents can happen.
6. Boiler protections & Safety system should be completed.
7. Main Fuel Gas Lines and Main Fuel Oil protection & safeties should be
completed.

11.3. Gas Burner Protection & Safety Features

1. Main Inlet Gas Pressure before control valve from gas scrubber = 5 ~ 10 Bar.

2. Main Gas pressure can be controlled between (0.5 ~ 1.5 Bar or more) according
to the No. of Burners for Wind Box Pressure and Air Flow.

3. Pressure Regulating valve / Self Regulating valve regulates 0.5 ~ 0.6 Bar before
starting 1st burner.

4. It is best to pressure for good flame of 1st Burner.

5. Best ratio of Gas flow and Air flow is required for best Flame.

6. If Pressure Regulating valve or Self-regulating valve fails to control the pressure

at 0.5 ~ 0.6 Bar and pressure increased up to 1.2 Bar, it will Trip the gas burner.

7. If pressure still increases, the safety vent valve will open at 1.7 Bar and vent the
gas into the air.

8. Low gas pressure switch installed at main gas line and set point, set at 0.2 Bar
Decreasing.

9. High Gas Pressure switches installed at main gas line and set point, set at 1.2 bar
increasing.

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10. If pressures decreased up to 0.2 Bar or increasing 1.2 Bar, these switches will
not allow starting any burner as shown in figure 91.

Figure 91: Main & Ignition Burner Start-Up Procedure & Tripping Functions.

11. There is Low / High Gas pressure switch in the ignition line. In case of low or
high gas pressure, Ignition will not start.

12. If there is no ignition, then the main burner can’t start.

13. There is Low Air pressure switch in the air line. If the air pressure is Low, then
also burner will not start

11.3.1. Main or Ignition Gas Leak test:

1. Ensure there is no leakage between the 2 main gas shut-off valves and ignition
gas shut-off valves.
2. No gas should pass from the ignition and main gas shut-off valves.
3. When leak test is completed indication received on HMI then ------ Go to next
step.

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11.3.2. Boiler or Burner Purging:

It is very important to purge ignition and main gas lines (Boiler) to remove all un-burnt
gases. When Purging completed indication is received then ------- Go to the next
step.
1. If any un-burnt fuel accumulates in the burner line, a suddenly blast can
happen when the burner will start. To save the burner line this step is very
important to complete. (Never bypass this step).

2. After purge completion, shut-off valves will open for 5 to 10 seconds to fill the main
and ignition gas lines.

11.3.3. Starting of Pilot Burner / Ignition System:

Push the ignition stating push button. Ignition transformer will be ON for 10~15
Seconds, Ignition Gas shut-off valve will open and ignition burner will be ON, & will
establish ignition flame. As shown in figure 92.

1. Confirm the ignition flame is established and indication received on indicator or

HMI.
2. If ignition flame not established with in time, it will trip the burner. It is the safety
of burner.
3. If ignitor will not “ON” then ignition gas valve will not open & burner will trip.
4. Ignition system will automatically “OFF” when main flame established.

Figure 92: Ignitor & Ignition System Circuit Operates with Different Voltage

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11.3.4. Starting of Main Burner:

Push the main burner stating push button. The main gas shut-off valve will open & same
time main air supply will increase and the main flame will be “ON.”
After the main flame established, the Main flame scanner will show the main flame on the indicator
or HMI.

1. Confirm that Main Flame is established and indication received on indicator or

HMI
2. If main flame is not established within time, it will trip the burner. It is the safety
of the burner & Boiler.
3. In any emergency an operator can stop ignition system or main burner system by
Pushing Stop Push Button.

11.3.5. Control of Steam Temperature

1. To Increase or decrease the Temperature in the boiler, increase or decrease the
Air flow and Fuel gas flow manually (With proper ratio) for very good flame in
the boiler to produce steam at specific Temperature and pressure
2. To maintain the Temperature & Pressure of steam put Master PID controller &
other controllers on AUTO.
3. It will automatically increase or decrease air flow and gas flow according the
master controller set points.
4. All Salve controllers will automatically increase or decrease the feed water
flow and maintain the drum level to produce steam flow according to the electrical
load.

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12. De-Mineralized Plant (DM Plant)

To run the Turbo Generator and Distiller Plant, we need to produce steam from boiler.
We have 2 types of Boilers
1. A water Tube boiler means water will be inside the tubes. & fire will be outside of
the tubes.
2. Fire Tube Boiler means Fire will be inside the tubes & water will be outside the
tubes. As shown in figure 93.

Figure 93: Water Tube & Fire Tube Boilers Figure 94: Process Variables Loop of Boiler

12.1. Need for De-Mineralized Plant

The main task of Boiler, Turbine and MSF is exchanging HEAT from one section to
another through metallic tubes.
Some factors reduces the heat transfer process from one area to other area. That
factor name is called SALTS or Minerals in the normal water.

12.2. The drawback of Salt layers in/on the tubes

1. These salts or minerals make a layer in/on the metallic tubes.
2. Due to this layer there is a big loss of heat energy.
3. To comply this loss, more fuel is required.
4. Concerning time thickness of salts layers will increase and fuel requirement also
will increase.
5. These salt layers will increase heat losses in plants where heat exchange is
required.

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6. Fuel cost will also be increased.

7. More maintenance is required to remove these salts layers from the tubes.
8. So the cost of repair will also be very high.

12.2.1. Solution to Reduce Salts Layers

1. To overcome heat loss, we must remove all types of salts or Minerals from the
water, producing layers in / on the tubes.
2. Free of salt water should be used in the boiler to produce steam.
3. Steam is the main media to transfer heat from one section to other section
of plants.

12.2.2. Result
This is the main reason we need a plant that can remove all salts from the water. The
name of that plant is De-Mineralized plant or DM Plant.

Figure 95: Use of DM Plant in Closed Process Flow Loop of Steam in a Power Plant

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12.3. DM Plant & Working Principle

The water used for DM plant is the product of MSF plant or RO plant. This is already
cleaned water and conductivity are very low nearly 1~5 mS/cm. If using drinking water,
it has more conductivity.
So DM plant is polishing this water until conductivity reaches 0.05 ~1.0 mS/cm.
Normal drinking water has nearly 300mS/cm, so DM plant removes all salts and minerals
from it.
A demineralized / DM plant is a system, which works an ion exchange chemical
process to remove dissolved ionic compounds (different types of salts) from water.
It is also known as a De-Ionized Water System, Demineralizer or DM Plant.
DM Plant consists of Minimum 2 vessels (Tanks) Sometime 3 / 4 vessels or more.
Depend on water conditions as shown in figure 96.

Figure 96: De-Manualized Water Plant or DM Plant

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Mostly in every DM Plant has 2 Chains. Both chains work alternately.

1. 1st chain will be in service while “2nd” chain will be on Regeneration mode.
After regeneration 2nd chain will be standby.
2. When 1st chain has exhausted it will go to Regeneration and after regeneration it
will be on standby Mode.
3. 2nd chain will be in Service until it has exhausted.
4. These cycles will automatically change until the output conductivity is
maintained at 0.05~1 Micro Mohs / mS/cm.
5. Before every chain, there are more vessels to filter & remove the hard particles
and de-mineralize the water. As shown in figure 96.

Every chain has minimum of 3 stages to de-mineralize water.

1st stage: Cat-Ion Tank. The feed water or raw water (Water from MSF or RO plant) is
passed through the first vessel which contains strong base cation resin in the form of
Hydrogen Ions (H +), where upon all the positively charged ions (sodium, calcium,
iron and copper etc.) are exchanged for Hydrogen ions.
So (H +) Ions are removed in 1st stage (From Cat-Ion Tank)

2nd Stage: An-Ion Tank: The outgoing water from Cat-ion tank (after 1st stage) passed
through another vessel containing strong base anion resin in the form of Hydroxyl
like: (OH -), where upon all the negatively charged ions (chloride, sulfates, nitrates,
etc) are exchanged for hydroxide Ions which then combine with the hydrogen ions to
form water
So (OH -) Ions are removed in 2nd stage (From AN-Ion Tank)

3rd Stage: Mixed Bed: Mixed Bed is a single vessel unit, which combines Cat-ion
resin and An-ion resin/exchangers in a single column.

Mixed bed demineralizer is considered more efficient in many ways when it comes to
requiring high-purity Demineralized Water.

It is used as a polishing unit to purify water to higher levels, treated through 2 Beds
of ions (Cat-ion & An-ion).
So both Ions (H + Ions & OH - Ions) are removed in 3rd Stage

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Result:
Finally, “0%” Salt water comes out from DM Plant having conductivity 0.05~1
mS/cm (Micro Moh.)

12.4. Regeneration Process of DM Plant

Regeneration is a process of restoring the power of Cat-Ion resin & An-Ion resin or
enhancing active ion concentration level.

Depending upon the frequency of use and DM Water (De-Mineralized water) output
condition.

Figure 97: De-Mineralized & Regeneration Process of DM Plant

In this situation, the DM plant can’t maintain water conductivity of less than 1mS/cm.

The resin becomes exhausted and cannot de-ionize the raw water, in other words,
their power of removing ionic materials reduces and active ion concentration reaches a
low level.

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So Restoring their process power (Cat-ion, An-ion and Mixed Bed) or enhancing
active ion concentration level is called Regeneration.

In this process exhausted ions (Cat-ion and An-Ion) are recharged with Hydrogen Ions
(H + Ions) means Hydrochloric Acid (HCL) & Hydroxyl Ions (OH - Ions) means Alkali -
Caustic Soda (Na-OH).
Never use Pure Acid and Pure Alkali in regeneration process.
During regenerations Diluted Acid and Diluted Alkaline should be used to maintain PH
& Conductivity so that Cat-Ion Resin and An-Ion Raisin should not be damaged as
shown in figure 97.

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13. Chlorination Plant

Mostly Thermal Power plants located near the sea shore, required massive amounts of
water for cooling purposes. There are many fishes, debris, marine organisms, and
other sea lives.

To control them and keep them away from the pumping plant, having a huge seawater
suction for power plant cooling. We are using toxic gas is called Chlorine gas.

This gas is yellow color, Havier than Air and very high toxic for any life. It should be
handle very carefully.

13.1. Purpose of Chlorine Injection in Sea Water

Many slow moving marine organisms, such as barnacles, Shells, oysters & bryozoan
…etc. expands and is stuck on the inner wall of cooling water intake pipelines.

The growth of these marine organisms can reduce the thermal exchange rate, restrict
water movement, clog the pipeline, or erode and perforate the pipeline's wall.
Under extreme circumstances, power plant may have to shut down to clean and
repair the pipeline system.

In such case, many marine organisms had to be removed from the pipeline during a
single cleaning process.

Many techniques have been developed in the world. One of them is adding chlorine to
sea water is a widely accepted method to simply and efficiently prohibit fouling.

The use of chlorine to avoid fouling occurrence has the supposed benefit of rapid
decay of chlorine toxicity.

One major drawback of chlorine is that interactions between chlorine and seawater
can induce complex chemical reactions that produce compounds with higher
toxicity.
So chlorine is used as an anti-fouling reagent in sea water in power plants.

The outgoing sea water from Power Plant has residual chlorine 0.2mg/l, which is
acceptable.

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13.2. Injection of Chlorine in Sea Water

Process of injection chlorine. In Sea Water.

1. Liquid chlorine drums are attached with 2 headers.

2. So liquid chlorine is transferred from drums to evaporators.
3. A bursting disc is provided before evaporating with an empty tank.
4. High Pressure switch (HPS) is installed on the empty tank.
5. If pressure increased in any header, then bursting disc will burst and High Gas
pressure alarm will appear in the control room.

Figure 98: Chlorine Liquid Gas Injection Into sea Water Process

6. By heating the water in evaporator liquid chlorine will convert into gas form.
7. This chlorine gas will be transferred through the Pressure and Vacuum regulator
to the chlorinator.

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8. Manual or automatic flow controller will transfer this chlorine gas to the sea water
pipeline through the injector creating a vacuum to suck the Chlorine gas from
chlorinator.
9. Then this chlorine solution injects to the sea water, where Sea Water Supply Pump
are located in sea bay.
10. In case of chlorine Gas leakage, an automatic sensing system is installed.
11. A vacuum pump will suck all the yellow toxic Chlorine gas and send it to a
neutralization tank to neutralize.
12. In reaction to the naturalization process, gases will be produced, which are
removed by a fan and vent into the air.

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14. Piping & Instrument Drawing (P&ID)

It is graphically presentation of the Process system of a plant. It is a complex drawing
using different types of signs & symbols to show the following.
1. All type of equipments are used in process lines.
2. All type of instruments used in control rooms and fields, including control, shut-
off, and motorized valves.
3. All types & sizes of piping, Vessels and other components.

14.1. Symbols of P& ID

There are many symbols used in P&ID to identify every equipment and instrument used
in piping process lines.
1. These symbols further labeled with Words, Letters and Numbers.
2. Each word and letter identifies the process, measurement and controlling
equipment and instrument.
3. These letters and Nos. also using in Tag Nos. to identify each and every
instrument & equipment in P&ID.

14.2. Abbreviation letters using in P & ID.

Most commonly used Letters are used in P & ID drawing are as follows
First Initiating or Controllers Read Out Devices
Letter Measured Recording Indicating Blind Self-Actuated Recording Indicating
Variable Control
VALVE
A Analysis ARC AIC AC AR AI
B Burner/ BRC BIC BC BR BI
Combustion
C User's Choice
D User's Choice
E Voltage ERC EIC EC ER EI
F Flow Rate FRC FIC FC FCV / FICV FR FI
FQ Flow Quantity FQRC FQIC FQR FQI
K Time KRC KIC KC KR KI
L Level LRC LIC LC LCV LR LI
M User's Choice
N User's Choice
O User's Choice
P Pressure/ PRC PIC PC PCV PR PI
Vacuum

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PD Pressure, PDRC PDIC PDC PDCV PDR PDI

Differential
Q Quantity QRC QIC QR QI
R Radiation RRC RIC RIC RC
S Speed/ SRC SIC RC RR RI
Frequency
T Temperature TRC TIC TC TCV TR TI
TD Temp. TDRC TDIC TDC TDCVT TDR TDI
Differential
U Multivariable
V Vibration/
Machinery
Analysis
W Weight/ WRC WIC WC WR WI
Force
WD Weight/ WDRC WDIC WDC WDCV WDR WDI
Force,
Differential
X Unclassified CELL CELL CELL CELL CELL
Y Event/State/ YIC YC
Presence
Z Position/ ZRC ZIC ZC ZCV ZR ZI
Dimension
ZD Gauging/ ZDRC ZDIC ZDC ZDCV ZDR ZDI
Deviation

14.3. Letters used in Tag Nos.

There are many letters used in the P&ID drawings. Most commonly 3 to 5 latter or more
are used in it. We have 2 types of Tag Nos. (In Control Room & in Field.)
For example:
Control Room Tag No. FRCQ - 101. In this tag No. Every letter is the abbreviation of the
following.
“F” is for Flow, “R” is for Recorder, “C” is for Controller “Q” is for Quantity / Counter &
No. 101 Is Serial No. in the process loop.
In the Field: we have 2 types of Tag No. like: FTRCQ – 101 or FCV-101
In 1st Tag No. FTRCQ is called “Flow Transmitter Recorder, Controller & Quantity /
Counter”. Only added the name of sensing element like: “T” Transmitter, Seral No, will
be same – 101.
In 2nd Tag No. FCV is called “Flow Control Valve.” Added the controlling device: “C”
is for Control “V” is for Valve, Serial No. Will be same 101.

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So all above tag Nos. Showing the properties being measured in the plant.

14.4. Tag. No. Measured properties in the P&ID.

1st letter is the Process variables (PV) of any process used in Tag No.
Like:” P” Pressure, “T” Temperature, “L” Level, “F” Flow & If used Chemical (use
the Name of Chemical)
Like; Conductivity or Silica or PH.
2nd letter of Tag No. is a modifier instrument,
Like: “I” Indicator, “C” Controller / Control, “S” Switch, “E” Element, “T”
Transmitter, “G” Gauge & “A” Analyzer
3rd letter of Tag No. is used for passive and read out function in control room.
Like: “A” Alarm, “I” Indicator, “R” Recorder, “Q” Quantity / Counter.
4th Letter of tag No. is Active / Output Function
In the field “G” Gauge, “C” Controller, “T” Transmitter, “S” Switch & “V” valve.
5th Letter of tag No. is Function modifier
Like: “H” High, “L” Low, “O” Open, “C” Closed.
We can see the following chart of Tag No. with measured properties in figure 99.

Figure 99: Letters & Nos. Used in Tag Nos. in P&ID

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14.5. Symbol used in P&ID

There are many types of symbol are used in the P&ID drawing. Some of them are
shown in the following pictures.
Instruments Symbols

Figure 100: Instrument Symbols in P& ID

Most Commonly used Symbols with Tag Nos. of Instruments in P&ID

Figure 101: Most Commonly used Symbols & Tag. Nos. of Instruments in P&ID

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Signals symbols:

Figure 102: Symbols of Signals in P&ID.

Valves symbols

Figure 103: Valves Symbol in P&ID

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Valves Function Symbols.

Figure 104: Valves Function symbols in P&ID

Pumps Symbols in P&ID

Figure 105: Different Types of Pumps Symbols in P&ID

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Examples of P&ID;
We can see the Tag Nos. and symbols are used in these P&ID.

Figure 106: Tag Nos. & Symbols used in P&ID

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15. Commissioning of a Plant:

Commissioning is the Procedure to line up all the pant systems like Pump Motors.
Each & every piece of equipment used in the plant related to the mechanical Section
Every piece of equipment used in the plant related to Electrical Section.
Each and every Instrument related to Instrument Section, including all shut-off valves
and control valves, used to run the all systems installed in the plant, safely without any
trouble and production should start is called Commissioning.

It means to check, line-up & test all systems including Safeties of a plant through
some procedures, before start-up is called Commissioning.

As we know, any newly installed plant or after annual maintenance of any plant, every
section (IMD, EMD, MMD and OPERATION) prepares and tests their work.

Operation Section prepares the process loop and line up the all isolating valves including
sequence test of logic control circuits & analog control loops with the help of all sections
through some written procedure.

Electrical Section test and prepare their breakers, complete all connections of motors
and field equipment and all other electrical equipment after repair and cancel the annual
maintenance work permit.

Mechanical Section test and prepare their equipment Like: After repair, assembling of
all pump motors, installing of all mechanical devices, removed during annual maintenance
and cancels the annual maintenance work permit.

Instrument Section Also checks and line up the field instrument after repair and
calibration. Power supplies of supervisory & logic instruments should be “ON”. All
instrument loops should be healthy. All instruments should be ready to put in service
without any trouble.

Controlling Loops, critical alarms, Interlock and Sequence test of all instruments
in the plant. like: pump motors and other systems to be tested with co-ordination
of all sections.

All type of annunciation window should be normalized and the annual maintenance
work permit should be canceled.
Above mentioned process is called the commissioning of any plant.

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16. Hazards / Dangers & Personal Safeties.

There are many types of Hazards / Dangers are in any industry. Any incident or accident
can happen due to the dangers and can damage the plant or human life.
We can save the planet and lives with the following precautions.
1. Identify types of Hazards/dangers in any plant.
2. After identification, raise some precautionary steps to reduce these dangers.

16.1. Identifications of Hazards / Dangers

For Human Lives, there are many hazards / dangers in any plant. The most common
hazards /dangers are as follows.
1. Electrical (High voltage in Electrical panels).
2. Heights.
3. Stairs.
4. Heat and Steam.
5. Fire & Smoke.
6. Chlorine gas (Chlorination Plant).
7. Natural Gas (Gas scrubber and gas lines near boilers).
8. Oil (Oil Tank area) (Gas oil /Crude Oil, Heavy fuel Oil, Oil pump house, Oil pipelines
near boilers).
9. Welding.
10. Sea area (Pumping plant).
11. And any more dangers.

16.2. Hazards or Dangers of the Plant.

1. No theoretical and practical training in Industrial instrumentation.
2. Less knowledge about the plant.
3. Un-trained persons.
4. Less practical experience.
5. Not understand logic & interlock drawings of the plant.
6. Not understand plant safeties.
7. Don’t have knowledge and experience in fire safeties.

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16.3. Common Personal Safeties

There are many safety measures to avoid any incident or accident in the plant.
1. Take personal safety training and get knowledge about dangers in the plant.
2. Use personal protective clothes (PPE) before starting work. (Such as: (Uniform,
Helmet & Nonslippery / shockproof safety shoes).
3. Identify the workplace & Location.
4. Identify the nature of the trouble.
5. Complete focus on work.
6. Issue a work permit with isolation (if required).
7. Practical knowledge of actual work to solve the trouble
8. Identify the danger.
9. Take safety clearance certificate from the safety department. (if required).
10. Proper tool kit.
11. Neat and clean tidy place of work.
12. Cordon Off the work area if necessary.

16.4. Precautions to reduce Hazards / Danger

Whenever working in danger area where danger can be harmful to the persons.
1. Calculate the risk and fill the risk assessment form to reduce the danger.
2. Take approval from the safety department.
3. Always use PPE (Personal Protection Equipment)

Let us understand the safety measures and precautions in dangerous areas and take
safety clearance from safety department if required.

16.4.1. Electrical (Working in electrical panel)

1. Identification of workplace (Nature of work and location).

2. High voltage resistance tools.
3. Check proper grounding of the panel.
4. Use high-voltage protection gloves.
5. Use proper test equipment.

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16.4.2. Heights (Works on height)

1. Full attention when working on heights.
2. Use safety belts in dangerous workplaces.
3. Don’t move on loos plate form.

16.4.3. Stairs (While using stairs)

1. Full Attention and see to the stairs.

2. Catch realigns besides stairs.
3. Don’t use your mobile when using stairs.

16.4.4. Heat & Steam Leakage

1. Face protector.
2. Heat Resistance Gloves.
3. Away from steam if there is leakage,

16.4.5. Fire & Smoke

1. Keep your distance from the fire.
2. Use a mask in the smoke area.
3. Keep away all other burning material.
4. Try to vanish /eliminate the fire according to the proper safety procedures.

16.4.6. Welding
1. Use safety goggles or a screen during welding.
2. Never see directly to Arc during welding. (Arclight is dangerous for the eyes).
3. Never use welding near gas lines, or oil lines.

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16.4.7. Chlorine gas leakage (Chlorination Plant)

Chlorine gas is very toxic, yellow in color and heavier than air. We can see it near the
ground level because of its color. It suddenly affects the throat.

1. Always keep all the doors open.

2. Wear PPE (Personal Protecting Equipment)
3. The vacuum pump should be run automatically by leak detectors. (If not, run
manually from the control room or locally).
4. Always use a proper Gas Mask and never stay long time in leakage area.
5. Always use eyes-protecting goggles in chlorine gas plants.

Figure 107:Chlorine Gas Leakage and Neutralizing System

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16.4.8. Natural Gas leakage (In Gas Scrubber stations & gas lines
near boilers)
Natural Gas is lighter than air, Not visible, Mixes in the air very soon; only we can smell.

Figure 108: Natural Gas Pressure Control System in Gas Scrubber Station.

1. Use a gas leak tester.

2. Keep your mobile off & away from gas stations and gas lines.
3. Use a proper gas mask and never stay in the leakage area long.
4. Isolate the instrument properly from where gas is leaking.
5. Use non-sparking tools in the gas scrubber and gas lines near the boiler.
6. If gas enters the rooms then Never “ON” or “OFF” any Electrical Switch in the
room.
7. Keep electrical appliances in the same condition.
8. Open windows very carefully.
9. Never use the cigarette lighter in the gas area.
10. Never use an iron chipping hammer to remove the rust.

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16.4.9. All types of Oil Leakage.

Many types of oil are used in boilers: Gas oil / Crude Oil, Oil tank area, Oil pump house,
Heavy fuel Oil station (HFO), and Oil pipelines near boilers.

1. Isolate the instrument properly.

2. Drain oil into the oil drain system before work.
3. Keep always sand near work area.
4. Keep extra containers in case of oil drain system is not installed.
5. Use non-slippery tools in oily and greasy areas.
6. Never use a cigarette lighter in oil area.
7. Use waist cotton during work.
8. Sand can also to be used to clean the oil.

16.4.10. Chemicals

1. Use PPE
2. Use a face protector shield
3. Use proper Gloves (Anti- Chemical)
4. Always away from drained /spilled/splashed chemicals on the ground.
5. Use the suction pump to collect splashed chemicals.
6. Spray water facility should be provided to wash affected body from chemicals.

16.4.11. Sea / Sea Water Intake (Pumping Plant)

1. Don’t go near the sea. (Sea bay is very deep and has a very huge suction).
2. Don’t move around the trash rack.
3. Don’t catch the reeling near the sea. (May be too much rusty)
4. Care full from the traveling screen.
5. Don’t wear slippery shoes.

16.4.12. Preparation of work:

1. At the initiation stage, take approval from the operation engineer and request WP
to work on the desired instrument.
2. If any instrument is working on PID controller, then request to transfer control from
Auto to Manual in case of running unit.

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3. If any widow of alarm is not received in the control room, then check the
annunciation lamps working in the window.
4. Check the complete loop of switch is healthy.
5. If any switch is working with the interlock, then take approval to bypass interlock if
possible.
6. Check the isolating valve near the process line and before the instrument is
opened and working properly.
7. Check the impulse lines or capillary lines are clean.

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17. Risk & Risk Assessment

17.1. Risk

Risk is the probability/possibility of an event accruing in some circumstances.

1. Risk is exposure to hazard.
2. Risk is Probability of an event and its severity

17.2. Risk Assessment:

An assessment of risk is a careful examination of your work area concerning what

could cause harm to people and what precautions to be applied. The aim is to eliminate
or reduce the risk of hazards.

17.3. Probability (Possibility) / Likely Hood (A)

Description of
Likely Hood Examples
(A)
Not Likely Very little risk is present; only under exceptional
(1) conditions would an accident or incident occur.

Possible Several factors probably need to be present for an

(2) accident or incident.

Quite Possible Under normal conditions an accident or incident will

(3) not occur. Some fault or abnormality is necessary to
cause it.
Likely Under prevailing conditions an accident or incident
(4) will either occur or be difficult to avoid.

Very likely If an abnormal condition continues, an accident or

(5) incident is almost occurring.

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17.4. The severity of Hazard (B)

Severity Example of
of Hazard Injury
Very Low Scratch, minor cut, Injury allows normal work after First
(1) Aid treatment, Typical there is no lost time.
Low More severe, sprain, strain, minor burns, and normal work
(2) may not be immediately possible following treatment.
There may be some loss of time.
Medium Burns severe fractures, minor amputations, and
(3) temporarily disabling back injuries. The accident almost
definitely reportable loss of time or Serious injury.
High Permanent disability, serious loss of body part.
(4)
Very High One or more fatalities (Dead Body)
(5)

17.5. Risk description in matrix (Calculation of Risk)

Risk = Probability or Likely Hood (A) X Severity(B)

(Risk = A X B)
Probability / Likely Hood
Severity (A)
(B) Not Likely Possible Quiet Possible Likely Very Likely
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Very Low Very Low Very Low Low Medium Medium
(1) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Low Very Low Very Low Medium Medium High
(2) (2) (4) (6) (8) (10)
Medium Low Medium Medium High High
(3) (3) (6) (9) (12) (15)
High Medium Medium High Very High Very High
(4) (4) (8) (12) (16) (20)
Very High Medium High High Very High Very High
(5) (5) (10) (15) (20) (25)

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17.6. Risk Assessment Record sheet

Name of the Plant: ………………………….
Process/activity: ………………………………………………………………….….
Location / Area: …………………………………………………………………….….
Department: ……………………………………………………………………………
Employ Affected: ……………………………………………………………………...
Assessment No: ……………………………………………………………………….
Assessment date: …………………………………………………………………….

Risk = Probability (A) X Severity (B)

Initial Control Calculated
Hazard Risk (1) Measures Risk (2) Final
Description Prob. Sev. Risk to Minimize Prob. Sev. Risk Risk /
(A1) (B1) (A1xB1) Risk (A2) (B2) (A2xB2) Remarks

Risk Assessment by: ……………………………………………………………….

Checked by (Section Head): ……………………………………………………….

Reviewed by Safety Engineer: …………………………………………………….

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Figure 109: Risk Assessment Form

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17.7. Solved Example

Risk Assessment Record sheet
Name of Plant: DEPS / SWPS Kuwait
Process / activity: …... Chlorine Gas Leakage & Natural Gas Leakage
Location / Area: ….…. Chlorination Plant & Gas Scrubber Plant
Department: ……….... Instrument & Control (I & C)
Employ Affected: ….... 2 Trained Persons (1No. MEW & 1No. Contractor Staff)
Assessment No……... CL2 - 01 & NG - 01
Assessment date: ……15 / 5 / 2017
Risk = Probability (A) X Severity (B)
Initial Control Calculated
Hazard Risk (1) Measures Risk (2) Final
Description Prob. Sev. Risk to Minimize Prob. Sev. Risk Risk /
(A1) (B1) (A1xB1) Risk (A2) (B2) (A2xB2) Remarks

Chlorine Gas 1. Use PPE Very

Leakage 2. Use Cl2 Mask Low Risk
in Chlorine 3. Spend short
storage Room
4 4 16 time in
2 2 4 Much
/ Evaporator Leakage Area Safer
Room
1. Use PPE Very
2. Spend short Low Risk
time
Natural Gas
4 5 20 3. Keep Mob.
2 2 4 Much
leakage Away Safer
in Gas 4. Don’t use
Scrubber Area Cig. Lighter
or 5. Use N. Gas
Boiler Main detector
Gas Line 6. Use Non-
Burner Area Sparking tools.
7. Never Switch
ON or OFF
Lights.
8. All Switches
Keep in same
position.

Risk Assessment by: ……………………………………………………………….

Checked by (Section Head): ……………………………………………………….

Reviewed by Safety Engineer: …………………………………………………….

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The End

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