Physics New Acme Measurement Lecture code PT(1)-2

of 2
Measurement Of 2,2& 3 33336
Lecture 2 of 2
1.4 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The reported result of measurement is a number that includes all digits in the number that are known
reliably plus the 1st digit that is uncertain. The reliable digits plus the 1st uncertain digit are known as significant
digits or significant figures.

The smallest magnitude of a physical quantity that an instrument can measure reliably is called the least count.
This corresponds to the smallest subdivision of scale of the instrument. E.g. mm for ruler. Suppose we want to
measure the length of a stick with ruler (scale). We find that one end of the stick lies between 3.5 cm and 3.6 cm
as shown in the figure.

As the exact length of stick lies between 3.5 and 3.6 and we are very much certain about these two digits. Now
we see that right end of stick is more close to 3.6 so we take length of stick to be 3.58. As we are not sure about
this last digit 8. This digit is the least significant, but still it is significant. So total no. of significant figure in
length of stick is 3 and not 2. So in general we need to move one more decimal place than the actual least count
of instrument. This point should be clear in mind and should be used as such.

Rules for counting the number of significant figures in a given measured quantity.
(1) All non-zero digits are significant.
Example: 45.9 has three significant figures.
263.4 has four significant figures.
29.123 has five significant figures.
(2) A zero becomes significant figure if it appears between two non-zero digits, position of the decimal
point doesn’t matter, if at all.
Example: 1.03 has three significant figures.
0.5604 has four significant figures.
4004 has four significant figures.
(3) If number is less than 1,
i) The zero(s) placed left of the number are not significant.
ii) The zero(s) placed right of the number are significant.
Example: 0.543 has three significant figures.
0.045 has two significant figures.
0.006 has one significant figure.
(4) If the number doesn’t have a decimal point, the zero(s) placed right of the number are not significant.
Example: 4330 has three significant figures.
43000 has two significant figures.

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 Physics New Acme Measurement Lecture code PT(1)-2
10 has one significant figure. of 2
(5) The zero(s) placed right of a number with a decimal point are significant.
Of 2,2& 3 33336
Example: 1.32 has three significant figures.
13.200 has five significant figures.
Note:

(i) A choice of change of different units does not change the number of significant digits or figures in a
measurement. Now suppose we change units, then

4.700m  470.0cm  4700mm  0.004700km

Since the last number has trailing zero(s) in a number with no decimal, we would conclude erroneously from
observation above that the number has two significant figures, while in fact, it has four significant figures and
a mere change of units cannot change the number of significant figures.

To remove such ambiguities in determining the number of significant figures, the best way is to report every
measurement in scientific notation (in the power of 10).
4.700 m  4.700 102 cm  4.700 103 mm  4.700 103 km

The power of 10 is irrelevant to the determination of significant figures. However, all zeros appearing in the
base number in the scientific notation are significant. Each number in this case has four significant figures.
Thus, in the scientific notation, no confusion arises about the trailing zero(s) in the base number a. They are
always significant.
(ii) The multiplying or dividing factors which are neither rounded numbers nor numbers representing
d
measured values are exact and have infinite number of significant digits. For example in r  or
2
s  2r , the factor 2 is an exact number and it can be written as 2.0, 2.00 or 2.0000 as required.
t
Similarly, in T  , n is an exact number.
n

Home Assignment - 1
Q (1) How many significant figures does each of the following contain?

1. 54 __________ 2. 45678 __________ 3. 4.03 __________ 4. 4.00__________

5. 400 __________ 6. 400.0 __________ 7. 0.041__________ 8. 65000 __________

9. 190909090 __________ 10. 0.00010 __________ 11. In L = 2πr, 2 has _________ significant figures.

1.4.1 ROUNDING OFF

While rounding off measurements, we use the following rules by convention:
(1) If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.
Example: x  7.82 is rounded off to 7.8, again x  3.94 is rounded off to 3.9.
(2) If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding digit is raised by one.
Example: x = 6.87 is rounded off to 6.9, again x = 12.78 is rounded off to 12.8.

(3) If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the preceding digit is raised by one.
Example: x = 16.351 is rounded off to 16.4, again x = 6.758 is rounded off to 6.8.
(4) If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then preceding digit is left unchanged, if it is even.

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 Physics New Acme Measurement Lecture code PT(1)-2
of on
Example: x = 3.250 becomes 3.2 on rounding off, again x = 12.650 becomes 12.6 2 rounding off.
(5) If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by one, if it is odd.
Of 2,2& 3 33336
Example: x = 3.750 is rounded off to 3.8, again x = 16.150 is rounded off to 16.2.

1.4.2 RULES FOR ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS WITH SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

(1) In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as many significant figures as are there in the
original number with the least significant figures.
Thus, for example if mass of a substance is = 4.237 g and its volume = 2.51 cm3 then
4.237g
Density  = 1.69 cm3
2.51cm3
Similarly, if the speed of light is given as 3.00 x 108 ms-1 (three significant figures) and one year (1y =
365.25 d) has 3.1557 x 107s (5 significant numbers), the light year is 9.47 x 1015m (3 significant figures).
(2) In addition or subtraction, the final result should retain as many decimal places as are there in the
number with the least decimal places.
For example, the sum, of the numbers 436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g by mere arithmetic addition, is
663.821 g. But the least precise measurement (227.2 g) is correct to only one decimal place. The final
result should, therefore, be rounded off to 663.8 g.
Similarly, the difference in length can be expressed as:
0.307 – 0.304 m = 0.003 m =3 x 10-3 m.
Class Assignment - 1

Q (2) Which number in each of the additions/subtractions is the limiting term, and how many decimal places
should the answer of each addition/subtraction have?

11. 55.43 + 44.333 + 5.31 + 9.2 ______________________________

12. 890.019 + 890.1234 + 890.88788 _____________________________

13. 69.99999 – 45.44444444 _____________________________

Q (3) Which number in each of the multiplication/division problems is the limiting term, how many significant
figures should the answer of each multiplication/division have?

14. 343.4 / 34.337 ______________________

15. 0.000000003 x 30.03030 _______________________

Q (4) Perform the following operations and round using the correct significant figure rule.

16. 17.12 + 30.123 __________ 17. 35.010 / 1.23 ___________ 18. 1000.00 – 62.5 ___________

19. 0.1700 x 1700 x 1700 _____________ 20. 15.05 + 0.0044 + 12.34 ________________________

Home Assignment - 2
Q (5) Which number in each of the additions/subtractions is the limiting term, and how many decimal places
should the answer of each addition/subtraction have?

i) 23.43 + 4.213 + 12.1 _________________________

ii) 11190.01 + 2290.1234 + 90.123456 _____________________________

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 Physics New Acme Measurement Lecture code PT(1)-2
iii) 999.99999 – 23.77777777 _____________________________ of 2

Q (6) Which number in each of the multiplication/division problems is the limiting term, Of
how2,2& 3 significant
many 33336
figures should the answer of each multiplication/division have?

i) 853.4 / 27.375 ______________________

ii) 0.0001 x 10.03030 _______________________

Q (7) Perform the following operations and round using the correct significant figures rule.

i) 7.1 + 50.8654 ____________ ii) 5.010 / 1.789 ____________ iii) 9000.00 – 88.5 ______________

iv) 0.100 x 17800 x 1700 ______________ v) 11.05 + 0.0044 + 10.34___________________

1.4.3 LEAST COUNT

The smallest magnitude of a physical quantity that an instrument can measure reliably is called the least count.

Least count of meter scale graduated in millimeter mark is 1mm.

Least count of watch having second hand is 1 sec.
values of 1part on main scale
Least count of vernier Callipers =
Number of parts on vernier scale

1.4.4 ACCURACY OF A MEASUREMENT

Accuracy referes to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or known value. Eg. If in a lab we
obtain a weight measurement of 3.2 kg for a given substance, but the actual or known weight is 10 kg,
then our measurement is not accurate as it is not close to the known value.

1.4.5 PRECISION OF A MEASUREMENT

Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each other. Using the example above, if
we weigh a given substance 5 times and get 3.2 kg each time, then our measurement is very precise.
Precision is independent of accuracy. We can be very precise but inaccurate, as described above or we
can be accurate but imprecise.
Eg. If on average, our measurements for a given substance are close to the known value, but the
measurements are far from each other, then we have acuuracy without precision.
A good analogy for understanding accuracy and precision is to imagine a basketball player shooting
baskets. If the player shoots with accuracy, his aim will always take the ball close to or into the basket. If
the player shoots with precision, his aim will always take the ball to the same location which may or may
not be close to the basket.

1.4.6 ORDER OF MAGNITUDE

Order of magnitude of a physical quantity is defined as the value of its magnitude rounded off to the
nearest integral of 10. The magnitude of any physical quantity can be expressed as A× 10 n where ‘A’ is a
number such that 0.5 ≤ A≤ 5 and ‘n’ is an integer, called order of magnitude.
E.g (1) radius of earth = 6400 km = 0.64×107 m
 order of magnitude of radius of earth is 107.
(2) magnitude of the charge of electron = 1.6 ×10-19 C
 order of magnitude of charge of electron =10-19

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 Physics New Acme Measurement Lecture code PT(1)-2
Solved Examples of 2
Example.1 What are significant figures?
Of 2,2& 3 33336
Solution. The reported result of measurement is a number that includes all digits in the number that are
known reliably plus the 1st digit that is uncertain. The reliable digits plus the 1st uncertain digit
are known as significant digits or significant figures.
Class Assignment - 2
Q (8)* State the order of magnitude of the following:
(a)Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m/s2 _______________________________
(b)The gravitation constant G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2_______________________________
(c)The period of rotation of the earth about its own axis in S.I units _______________________________
Q (9)* Determine the number of significant figures and order of magnitude in the following measurement:
(i) 0.05718_________________ (ii) 93.26_____________
-19
(iii) 2.35 x 10 _______________ (iv) 1.3725 x 109__________
Q (10)*. Explain with example the term ‘order of magnitude of a physical quantity’
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

Home Assignment - 3
Q (11)** The radius of a nucleus of mass number ‘A’ is given by R = 1.3 x 10-16 x A1/3. Find the order of
magnitude of radius for a nucleus with A= 216

Q (12)* State rules for determining significant figures and explain them with one relevant example each.
Rules for counting the number of significant figures in a given measured quantity are as follows:
Rule (1) __________________________________________________________
Example:____________________________________________________
Rule (2) __________________________________________________________
Example:____________________________________________________
Rule (3) __________________________________________________________
Example:____________________________________________________
Rule (4) __________________________________________________________
Example:____________________________________________________
Rule (5) __________________________________________________________
Example:____________________________________________________

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 Physics New Acme Measurement Lecture code PT(1)-2
Q (13) Define precision and accuracy of a measurement? of 2
______________________________________________________________________________
Of 2,2& 3 33336
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q (14) How many significant figures are there in the following numbers?
(i) 0.0003200________ (ii) 23.23002_________ (iii) 6500________ (iv) 3.400 x 103__________
Q (15) If the length of a room is 12.34 meter and its breadth is 8.51 meters. Find its area to correct number of
significant figures.

1.4 ERROR
The difference between measured and the true value of a quantity is called error of measurement.
1.4.1 TYPES OF ERRORS
(i) Instrumental (or constant) Error: These errors are caused due to faulty construction of instruments.
Such errors can be minimized by taking the same measurement with different accurate instruments
(ii) Systematic Error: This is an error due to defective setting of an instrument. Such errors can be
minimized by subtracting or adding the amount of error from the measured value.
(iii) Personal Error: These errors are caused due to the fault of an observer taking the readings. These
are also called human errors. These errors can be minimized by performing the experiment very carefully
and with all precautions.
(iv) Random Error (Accidental) : Even though if one takes all precautions as stated above, some errors
can occur due to different factors like change in temperature, pressure, fluctuation in voltage etc. while
the experiment is being performed. Such errors can only be minimized but not eliminated.
In general, we can do the following to minimize the effect of errors
(a) Taking large number of readings and calculating their mean value
(b) Taking a large magnitude of the quantity to be measured.
(c) Using an instrument with a very small least count.
(d) Performing the experiment with concentration and taking all precautions

1.4.2 REPRESETATION OF ERRORS

(1) Absolute Error:
It is the magnitude of the difference between the true value and the measured value of the quantity.
Let a physical quantity be measured n times. Let the measured value be a 1, a2, a3, …..an. The arithmetic
a1  a2  ....an
mean of these values is am 
n
am is taken as the true value of the quantity, if the same is unknown otherwise.
Absolute errors in the measured values of the quantity are

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 Physics New Acme Measurement Lecture code PT(1)-2
a1  am  a1 of 2
a2  am  a2 Of 2,2& 3 33336
………….
an  am  an
The absolute errors may be positive in certain cases and negative in certain other cases.
(2) Mean Absolute Error: It is the arithmetic mean of the magnitudes of absolute errors in all the
measurements of the quantity. It is represented by a. Thus
| a1 |  | a2 | ..... | an |
a 
n
Hence the final result of measurement may be written as a  am  a

This implies that any measurement of the quantity is likely to lie between (am  a) and (am  a).
(3) Relative Error or Fractional Error: The relative error or fractional error of measurement is defined
as the ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity measured. Thus
mean absolute error a
Relative error or Fractional error  
mean value am
(4) Percentage Error: When the relative/fractional error is expressed in percentage, we call it percentage
error. Thus
a
Percentage error   100%
am
1. 4.3 COMBINATION OF ERRORS
(a) If x = a + b, then the maximum possible absolute error in measurements of x will be x = a + b
(b) If x = a – b, then the maximum possible absolute error in measurement of x will be x = a + b
(c) If x = a.b or x = a/b then the maximum possible fractional error will be
x a b
= +
x a b
x a
(d) If x = an then the maximum possible fractional error will be = n
x a
(e) If x =anbmcp then the maximum possible fractional error will be
a b
x = n + m + p c
x a b c
Solved Examples
Example. 1 Define mean value and most probable value?
Solution. When large number of readings of a measured physical quantity are taken and we find the mean
of all such readings then the value obtained is called the Mean value.
In most cases when the errors are small the mean value is also the most probable value. The most
probable value is the one which is observed the maximum number of times when large number
of measurement of a particular values are done.

Example. 2 The radius of curvature of a concave mirror measured by spherometer is given by R =

l2 h
 . The values of l and h are 4 cm ad 0.065 cm respectively. Compute the error in
6h 2
measurement of radius of curvature.

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 Physics New Acme Measurement Lecture code PT(1)-2
Solution. We are given: of 2
L = 4 cm, l = 0.1 cm (least count of the meter scale)
Of 2,2& 3 33336
Here l is the distance between the legs of the spherometer.
h = 0.065 cm, h = 0.001 cm = (least count of the spherometer)
l2 h
As R= 
6h 2
R l h h
2  
R l h h
 l h 
= 2  
 l h 
0.1 2  0.001
=2 
4 0.065
= 0.05 + 0.03 = 0.08
Hence solution is 8%.
Example. 3 The measured value of length, breadth and height of a block of wood along with maximum
permissible errors are expressed as follows:
l = 12.08 ± 0.01 cm, b = 10.12 ± 0.01 cm, h = 5.62 ± 0.01 cm. Calculate the percentage error
in the volume of the block.
Solution. Given:l ± l = 12.08 ± 0.01 cm
b ± b = 10.12 ± 0.01 cm
h ± h = 5.62 ± 0.01 cm
Volume of the block = V = l b  h
Percentage error in the volume is given by
V  l b h 
=      100%
V  l b h 

 0.01 0.01 0.01 

=     100%
 12 .08 10 .12 5.62 

= (0.000827 + 0.000988 + 0.00178)  100%

= 0.003585  100% = 0.3585%
Example. 4 A laser light beamed towards the moon takes 2.56 s is to return to the earth after reflection
on the moon’s surface. What is the distance of the moon from the earth?
Solution. Time taken by the laser light to reach the surface of the moon
2.56
= = 1.28 s.
2
Velocity of light = 3  108ms1
required distance of the moon from the earth = velocity  time
= 3  108 1.28 = 3.84  108 m = 384000 km. (Significant digits are 3)
Example. 6 The radius of a sphere is measured with an error of 3%. Find the % error in the measure
of its (i) area (ii) volume.
Solution. Radius is measured with an error of 3%. Area depends on the square of radius and volume
depends on the cube of radius.
A 2r V 3r
  and  .
A r V r

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 Physics New Acme Measurement Lecture code PT(1)-2
% error in area = 2  3 = 6% of 2
% error in volume = 3  3 = 9% Of 2,2& 3 33336
Class Assignment - 3
Q (16)* Explain in brief, accuracy and errors in measurements with remedies.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Q (17) Explain different types of errors in measurements with remedies.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

Q (18)*. Define
i) Most Probable value________________________________________________________________________

ii)Absolute error _____________________________________________________________________________

iii) Relative error ____________________________________________________________________________

iv) Percentage error __________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Home Assignment - 4
Q(19) Fill in the blanks

1. Instrumental error is also called as _______ error.

2. Random errors cannot be __________but can be __________
3. The difference between the true value and measured value of a physical quantity is called _________.
4. When we take sufficiently large number of readings and find their mean, the mean is referred to as the
_____________.
5. amean=____________________
6. am= ______________________
7. The magnitude of the difference between mean value & each individual value is called ______________
8. The arithmetic mean of all the absolute error is called ____________________in the measurements of
the physical quantity.
9. │Δam│= ____________________
10. The ratio of mean absolute error in the measurement of aphysical quantity to its most probable value is
called _______________..
11. The relative error multiplied by 100 is called _______________..

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 Physics New Acme Measurement Lecture code PT(1)-2
12. Percentage error = ________________ of 2
13. If the error in a is Δa then percentage error in an is n ________________
14. If the errors are Δa and Δb in the measurement of ‘a’ and ‘b’ then
Of 2,2& 3 33336
Percentage error in ‘ab’ is = ______________________and
The percentage error in a/b is = _____________________
15. The uncertainty in result of a measurement is called ______________.
16. Systematic error is also called ____________________..
17. Personal error is also referred to as _________________.
18. Random errors are also called ________________________.
Q (20) How instrumental error is caused?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Q (21) How instrumental error can be minimized?___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Q (22) How systematic error is caused? _____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Q (23) How systematic error can be minimized? _________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Q (24) How personal errors are caused? _______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Q (25) How random error occurs? ___________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Q (26) How random error can be minimized? ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Q (27) The random error in the arithmetic mean of 100 observations is x; then random error in the arithmetic
mean of 400 observations would be ___________
Q (28) Error in the measurement of radius of a sphere is 1%. The error in the calculated value of its volume is

Q (29) The percentage errors in the measurement of mass and speed are 2% and 3% respectively. How much
will be the maximum error in the estimation of the kinetic energy obtained by measuring mass and speed

Q (30) The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum in the experiment is recorded as 2.63 s, 2.56 s, 2.42 s,
2.71 s and 2.80 s respectively. The average absolute error is

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 Physics New Acme Measurement Lecture code PT(1)-2
of 2
a 2b 3
Q (31) A physical quantity A is related to four observable a, b, c and d as follows, A  , the percentage
c d
Of 2,2& 3 33336
errors of measurement in a, b, c and d are 1%, 3%, 2% and 2% respectively. What is the percentage error
in the quantity A.

Q (32) The radius of a sphere is (5.3  0.1) cm. The percentage error in its volume is

Q (33) The length of a cylinder is measured with a meter rod having least count 0.1 cm. Its diameter is measured
with vernier callipers having least count 0.01 cm. Given that length is 5.0 cm. and radius is 2.0 cm. The
percentage error in the calculated value of the volume will be:

Q (34) According to Joule's law of heating, heat produced H  I 2 Rt, where I is current, R is resistance and t is
time. If the errors in the measurement of I, R and t are 3%, 4% and 6% respectively then error in the
measurement of H is

Q (35)** The length of a metal plate was measured using a vernier callipers of least count 0.01 cm. The
measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13 cm, 3.14 cm and 3.14 cm. Find the mean length, the mean
absolute error and percentage error in the measurement of length.

Q (36)** Find the percentage error in kinetic energy of a body of mass m = 60.0 ± 0.3g and moving with a
velocity of v = 25.0 ± 0.1 cm/s

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 Physics New Acme Measurement Lecture code PT(1)-2
of 2 5.04 g; 5.06g; 4.97
Q (37)* An object was weighed by a physical balance and following readings were obtained:
g; 5.00 g; 4.93 g. Find (i) Mean value (ii) Mean absolute error (iii) Percentage error
Of 2,2& 3 33336

Answer Sheet
Home Assignment - 1
Ans(1) - (1) 2 (2) 5 (3) 3 (4) 3 (5) 1 (6) 4 (7) 2 (8) 2 (9) 8 (10) 2 (11) Infinite

Class Assignment - 1

Ans(2) - 11. 9.2 is the limiting term 1 decimal place 12. 890.019 is the limiting term 3 decimal places

13. 69.99999 is the limiting term 5 decimal places Ans(3) - 14. 343.4 is the limiting term 4 significant
figures 15. 0.000000003 is the limiting term 1 sig. fig. Ans(4) - 16. 47.24 17. 28.463 finally converts to
28.5 18. 937.5 19. 491300 finally converts to 490000 20. 27.3944 finally converts to 27.39

Home Assignment - 2
Ans (5) (i) 12.1, 1 (ii) 11190.01, 2 (iii) 999.99999, 5 Ans (6) (i) 853.4, 4 (ii) 0.0001, 1 Ans (7) (i) 58.0

(ii) 2.800 (iii) 8911.5 (iv) 3.0 x 106 but not 3000000 as significant digits have to be 2 (v) 21.39

Class Assignment - 2

Ans (8) (a) 1 (b) -10 (c) 5 Ans (9) (i) 4, -1 (ii) 4, 2 (iii) 3, -19 (iv) 5, 9
Home Assignment – 3
Ans (11) -15 Ans (14) (i) 4 (ii) 7 (iii) 2 (iv) 4 Ans (15) 105
Home Assignment - 4
Ans (19) - (1) Constant (2) eliminated, minimized (3) error (4) mean value (5) (a1 + a2 +…..an) / n (6) =
1 𝑛
∑ ai (7)
𝑛 𝑖=1
absolute error (8) mean absolute error (9) {│Δam│ + │Δam│ + …….│Δam│} / n (10)
relative error (11) percentage error (12) │Δam│/am × 100s (13) (Δa/a) × 100 %. (14) [(Δa/a) + (Δb/b)] ×
100, [(Δa/a) - (Δb/b)] × 100. (15) error (16) persistent error (17) human error (18) accidental error

1
(27) x (28) 3% (29) 8% (30) 0.11 s (31) 16%
4

0 .1
(32) 3  100 = 5.66% (33) 3%, as (2 x Δr/r + Δh/h) = 2 x 0.01/2 + 0.1/5 = 3%
5 .3

(34)  16% (35) 3.13 cm, 0.01 cm, 0.319% (36) 1.3% (37) 5.00 g, 0.04 g, 0.8%

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