DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINERING

CD 326 : ANALOGUE AND HIGH DEFINITION

TELEVISION
(7.5 CREDITS)
Lecture 8:
Topic: TV Standards
Sub-Topic: TV Transmission
By
Dr. Johevajile K. Mazima
Remote Control
• A remote control
• is an electronic device used to operate another
device from a distance, usually wirelessly
• can be used to operate devices such as
• a television set,
• DVD player or
• other digital home media appliance
Remote Control…
• A remote control can allow operation of devices that
are out of convenient reach for direct operation of
controls
• Good from a short distance
• allows a person to operate a device that otherwise
would not be able to reach
Remote Control…
• Old television remote controls used ultrasonic
tones
• Modern ones use
• infrared and
• RF which send digitally-coded pulses of
infrared radiation or RF radiation
•
Remote Control…
• Remote Control functions such as
• power,
• volume,
• channels,
• playback,
• track change,
• energy,
• fan speed, and
• various other features
Remote Control…
• Remote controls are usually small wireless handheld
objects with an array of buttons
• Are used to adjust various settings such as
• television channel
• track number, and
• volume
• The remote control code is usually specific to a
product line
• However;
• there are universal remotes, which emulate the
remote control made for most major brand
devices
Remote Control…
• The rapid decrease in price of transistors made
possible cheaper electronic remotes that contained
• a piezoelectric crystal that was fed by an
oscillating electric current at a frequency near
or
• above the upper threshold of human
hearing, though still audible to dogs
• The receiver contained a microphone attached to a
circuit that was tuned to the same frequency
Remote Control…
• Some problems with this method were that the
receiver could be triggered accidentally by
• naturally occurring noises or deliberately by
metal against glass
• Then, an all-electronic remote control was brought
in place that uses digital signals and metal oxide
semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)
memory
Remote Control…
• This was widely adopted for color television,
replacing motor-driven tuning controls
• A more complex type of television remote control
came into place after an all electronic remote
control
• But it had a limited number of functions only three
such:
• next channel,
• previous channel, and
• volume/off
Remote Control…
• After then the remote control capable of selecting
the pages came into place
• But the continuous use of the remote control
required for Teletext quickly indicated the need for
a wireless device
• So the invention of Infrared communication into
remote control system began
• The infrared remote control invented which used
40-kHz sound to change channels
Transmission
• The main technology used in home remote controls
is infrared (IR) light
• In most of consumer and entertainment Electronic
equipment, from camcorders to stereo equipment,
an infrared remote control is usually always
included
• Video and audio apparatus, computers and also
lighting installations nowadays often operate on
infrared remote control
• The cheapest way to remotely control a device
within a visible range is via Infrared light
Transmission…
• Almost all-audio and video equipment can be
controlled this way nowadays
• Due to this wide spread use the required
components are quite cheap, thus making it ideal for
us hobbyists to use IR control for our own projects
• Infrared actually is normal light with particular
colours
• Humans can't see these colours because its
wavelength of 950nm is below the visible spectrum
• That's one of the reasons why IR is chosen for
remote control purposes, we want to use it but we're
not interested in seeing it
Transmission…
• Another reason is because IR LEDs are quite easy
to make, and therefore can be very cheap
• Although humans can't see the Infrared light emitted
from a remote control doesn't mean it can't make it
visible
• A video camera or digital photo camera can "see"
the Infrared light
• Unfortunately for us there are many more sources of
infrared light
Transmission…
• The sun is the brightest source of all, but there are
many others, like:
• light bulbs,
• candles,
• central heating system, and
• even our body radiates infrared light
Transmission…
• In fact everything that radiates heat, also radiates
infrared light. Therefore we have to take some
precautions to guarantee that our IR message gets
• across to the receiver without errors.
• The carrier frequency of such infrared signals is
typically in the order of 36k Hz
• The control codes are sent in serial format
modulated to that 36k Hz carrier frequency (usually
by turning the carrier on and off)
 Transmission…
• There are many different coding systems in use, and
generally different manufacturers use different codes and
different data rates for transmission
• The signal between a remote control handset and the
device it controls consists of pulses of infrared light
• Infrared light used is invisible to the human eye
• The transmitter in the remote control handset sends out a
stream of pulses of infrared light when the user presses a
button on the handset
Transmission…
• "IR" stands for infrared
• Infrared light is invisible since its frequency is
below that of visible red
• Otherwise, it is like any other light source,
operating under the same laws of physics
• In most cases, the IR signals are produced by an
LED source
Transmission…
• A transmitter is often a light emitting diode (LED)
which is built into the pointing end of the remote
control handset
• The infrared light pulses form a pattern unique to
that button
• The receiver in the device recognizes the pattern
and causes the device to respond accordingly
Transmission…
• Infrared remote controls use a near infrared
diode to emit a beam of light that reaches the
device
• A 940 nm wavelength LED is typical
• This infrared light is not visible to the human
eye but picked up by sensors on the receiving
device
• With a single channel (single-function, one-
button) remote control the presence of a carrier
signal is used to trigger a function
Transmission…
• The emission spectrum of a typical sound system
remote control is in the near infrared
Transmission…
• TV remotes sent commands only in one way, in a
low-speed burst for distances of up to 30 feet
• They use directed IR with LEDs that have a
moderate cone angle to improve ease-of-use
characteristics
• The IR signal sent out by those devices is generally
modulated to around 38k Hz carrier using amplitude
shift keying (carrier on or off)
• The data rate send is generally in range of 100-
2000bps
• There are some IR systems which use other
frequencies and other modulation systems
Transmission…
• IR transmit and receive systems are inexpensive
and are generally reliable
• However, interference from other IR sources can
be a minor issue
• Interference can come from
• IR remote controls,
• IR audio systems (these broadcast an IR signal
continuously) or
• other IR sources
Transmission…
• Interference can also be caused by other light
sources such as fluorescent lights (the ballast can
cause IR interference)
• Sometimes some electronic ballasts powered light
can cause interference problems
• In order to avoid any interference with this kind of
equipment, the operating frequency of all electronic
ballasts has to be chosen so that problems in the 36k
Hz frequency area are out of the question
Transmission…
• Many existing IR systems modulate the IR light at
around 36-40k Hz (this is the frequency of the IR
carrier and
• should not to be confused with the actual
frequency of the IR light itself)
• The possibility of interference is more likely
around the 40k Hz frequencies
• One way to limit interference is to use higher IR
carrier frequencies
• Some IR systems now use carrier frequencies into
the megahertz region
Transmission…
• Generally infrared remote controls are a 32-40k Hz
modulated square wave for communication
• This square wave is then send to IR transmitter (IR
LED)
• The carried frequency is amplitude modulated by
the data, usually full on/off type modulation.
• The data rate is typically in 50-1000 bit/s range
depending on the system used
Transmission…
• Usually the transmitter part is constructed so that
the transmitter oscillator, which is driving
• the infrared transmitter LED, can be turned
on/off by applying a TTL voltage on the
modulation control input
• (the signal that goes here is usually serial
data from remote control keyboard
decoding IC)
Transmission…
• The transmitter usually is a battery-powered handset
• It should consume as little power as possible, and
the IR signal should also be as strong as possible to
achieve an acceptable control distance
• Preferably it should be shock proof as well
• Many chips are designed to be used as IR
transmitters
• The older chips were dedicated to only one of the
many protocols that were invented
• Then, very low power microcontrollers were used in
IR transmitters for the simple reason that they were
more flexible in their use
Transmission…
• When no button was pressed they were in a very
low power sleep mode, in which hardly any current
was consumed
• The processor woke up to transmit the appropriate
IR command only when a key was pressed
• The current through the LED (or LEDs) was able to
vary from 100mA to well over 1A
• In order to get an acceptable control distance the
LED currents had to be as high as possible
• A trade-off was to be made between LED
parameters, battery lifetime and maximum control
distance
Transmission…
• LED currents can be that high because the pulses
driving the LEDs are very short
• Average power dissipation of the LED should not
exceed the maximum value though
• So the maximum peak current for the LED should
not exceeded
• All these parameters for IR remote control should
be considered
Transmission…
• For multi-channel (normal multi-function)
remote controls more sophisticated procedures
are necessary:
• one consists of modulating the carrier with
signals of different frequencies
• After the receiver demodulates the received
signal, it applies the appropriate frequency
filters to separate the respective signals
• One can often hear the signals being
modulated on the infrared carrier by
operating a remote control in very close
proximity to an AM radio not tuned to a
station
•
Transmission…
• IR remote controls use a pulse width
• modulated code,
• encoded and
• decoded by a digital computer:
• a command from a remote control consists
of a short train of pulses of carrier-present
and carrier-not-present of varying widths
Transmission…
• Since infrared (IR) remote controls use light, they
require line of sight to operate the destination device
• The signal can, however, be reflected by mirrors,
just like any other light source
• If operation is required where no line of sight is
possible, for instance when controlling equipment in
• another room or installed in a cabinet, IR
extenders are used
Transmission…
• Most of IR Extenders have
• an IR receiver,
• picking up the IR signal and
• relaying it via radio waves to the remote part,
which has an IR transmitter mimicking the
original IR control
• Infrared receivers also tend to have a more or less
limited operating angle,
• which mainly depends on the optical
characteristics of the phototransistor
• However, it is easy to increase the operating angle
using a matte transparent object in front of the
receiver
Reception
• On the receiver side a photodiode takes up the
signal
• The integrated circuit inside a typical receiving chip
is sensitive only around a specific frequency in the
32-40k Hz range
• The output is the demodulated digital input, just
what was used to drive the transmitter
• Usually this kind of receivers work so that when IR
the carrier is present, this output is high
Reception…
• When no carrier is detected, the output is low
• This type of circuits can usually transmit a 1-3k Hz
digital signal through infra light
• When trying to receive IR signals, leave
demodulation to one of the special IC's/modules
meant for this and deal with the data only
 Reception…
• The free air IR data transmission, IR remote control as
well as the most optoelectronic sensors and light barrier
systems work with a wavelength between 870nm and
950nm.
• The system described in lecture is not the only one IR
remote system in use, it is just the most commonly used
one
• A system that use unmodulated signals of a 1k Hz or
100k Hz (and several other frequencies) exist as well
Radio remote control systems
• Radio remote control (RF remote control)
• is used to control distant objects using a variety
of radio signals transmitted by the remote control
device
• As a complementary method to infrared remote
controls, the radio remote control is used with
• electric garage door or gate openers, automatic
barrier systems, burglar alarms and industrial
automation systems
Radio remote control systems…
• Standards used for RF remotes are:
• Bluetooth AVRCP,
• Zigbee (RF4CE),
• Z-Wave
• Most remote controls use their own coding,
transmitting from 8 to 100 or
• more pulses, fixed or Rolling code, using
OOK or FSK modulation
•
Radio remote control systems…
• Also, transmitters or receivers can be universal,
meaning they are able to work with many different
codings
• In this case, the transmitter is normally called a
universal remote control duplicator because
• it is able to copy existing remote controls,
while the receiver is called a universal receiver
because
• it works with almost any remote control
 Radio remote control systems…
• A radio remote control system commonly has two
parts:
• transmit and receive
• The transmitter part is divided into two parts
• the RF remote control and the transmitter module
• This allows the transmitter module to be used as a
component in a larger application
• The transmitter module is small, but users must have
detailed knowledge to use it;
• combined with the RF remote control it is much
simpler to use.
Radio remote control systems…
• The receiver is generally one of two types:
• a super-regenerative receiver or
• a superheterodyne
• The super-regenerative receiver works like that of
an intermittent oscillation detection circuit
• The superheterodyne works like the one in a radio
receiver
• The superheterodyne receiver is used because of its
stability, high sensitivity and it has relatively good
anti-interference ability, a small package and lower
price
Remote Control Programming Options
• For a remote to operate different brands and device
models, it needs to be programmed to recognize the
device it will control
• Remotes incorporate one or more of the following
programming features:
• Pre-programmed (also called multi-brand): These
remotes can be used with a limited number of
devices from select product brands without further
programming.
• Learning: The remote learns the remote control
commands of other remotes by pointing a universal
remote and a dedicated device remote at each other
and programming each command one-at-a-time.
Remote Control Programming Options…
• Programmable with a code
• Program the remote control by entering a
special code designated for specific brands
and devices or
• by connecting the remote to a PC
via USB and inputting the code from a
special website.
• Programmable without a code
• Most programmable remotes include a
feature that scans for a code via a series of
steps
 Transmitting Antenna
• Transmitting antenna receives the AM picture signal
and FM sound signal from combining network for
radiation as electromagnetic waves
• Purpose of the transmitting antenna
First, the antenna directs RF energy into desired
directions and suppresses energy in other,
undesirable directions
Second, the antenna is an impedance-matching
device that matches the impedance of the
transmission line to that of free space
• These are known as the directional and
impedance properties of an antenna
Transmitting Antenna…
• The degree to which the antenna efficiently
performs these functions determines, in
• large measure, the effectiveness of a digital
television system
Transmitting Antenna…
• The following antenna types are used:
• Usage:
• communication antennas, television antenna, radar
antenna
• Working frequency band:
• short wave antenna, ultra-short wave antenna,
microwave antenna
• Direction:
• omnidirectional antenna, directional antenna
• Appearance:
• wire antenna, mesh antenna
Antenna s by Direction

•s
Antenna by Direction…
•b
•d
Types of Antennas
Dipole Antenna
• Omnidirectional antennas behave like isotropic
antennas in one plane antennas have nulls in the
orthogonal plane
• A common example of an omnidirectional antenna
is the dipole antenna
• A dipole antenna commonly consists of two
identical conductive elements such as metal wires or
rods
• The driving current from the transmitter is applied,
or for receiving antennas the output signal to the
receiver is taken, between the two halves of the
antenna
•d
Dipole Antenna…
Dipole Antenna…
Dipole antennas advantages
• Simple structural design helps control costs.
• Wide range of applicable devices, including Wi-Fi
routers, and mobile devices
• Multiple frequencies can be supported.
• Directivity: The dipole antenna has strong
directivity, which helps to control the direction of
signal transmission and reception
Dipole antenna types
• Half Wave Dipole Antenna
• A half-wave dipole antenna is a basic dipole antenna
with a length of about half the wavelength of the
frequency of operation
Dipole antenna types…
• Multiple Half Wave Dipole Antenna
• A multiple half-wave dipole antenna is a
configuration in which multiple half-wave dipole
antennas are combined
Dipole antenna types…
• Folded Dipole Antenna
• Dipole conductors are folded into specific forms
• Folded dipole antennas are easier to design and use
than traditional half-wave dipole antennas for
specific applications
Parabolic Antenna
Parabolic Antenna…
Parabolic Antenna…
•s
Antenna Properties
• One of the best-known cardinal doctrines of
antenna theory is the concept of reciprocity
• Antenna whether is the transmit antenna or
receive antenna are
• The gain,
• directivity,
• radiation pattern, and
• electrical impedance of an antenna
Gain
• Antenna's gain is a key performance
parameter which combines the antenna's
directivity D and radiation efficiency ɲ

• Radiation efficiency of an antenna is "The ratio

of the total power radiated by an antenna to the
net power accepted by the antenna from the
connected transmitter
Directivity
• Directivity of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation
intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the
radiation intensity averaged over all directions
• The average radiation intensity is equal to the total
power radiated by the antenna divided by 4π
• If the direction is not strictly specified, the
direction of maximum radiation intensity is implied
• The directivity D of a non-isotropic source is equal
to the ratio of its radiation intensity in a given
direction over that of an isotropic source:
• If the direction is not specified,
• it implies the direction of maximum radiation
intensity (maximum directivity) determined as

• where 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum directivity, 𝑈0 is

radiation intensity of isotropic source and 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 is
the maximum radiation intensity
• Ahigh directivity is not always better, for example,
many applications like mobile devices require omni-
directional antennas and thus require antennas with
a low/no directivity
• High-directivity antennas are used in permanent
installations such as satellite television, wireless
backhaul etc. as they need to transmit and receive
information over longer distances, in a particular
direction
Transmit Antenna
• While a transmitting antenna can function as a
receiving antenna with the same pattern and gain if
on the same frequency range, transmitting antenna
and receiving antennas goals and requirements are
often quite different.

• It is thus incorrect to say they are the same unless we

add qualifiers. This has nothing to do with
conservation of energy, either
Transmit Antenna…
• Here are the two primary differences between
transmitting antennas and receiving antennas:

• Transmitting antennas are generally designed to provide

maximum field strength and signal reliability into a
target area for an applied transmitter power, although
they also may be designed to remove signal from
undesired areas to protect those areas
• Transmitting antenna’s having maximum possible
absolute signal level to a target is not the same as a
receiving antenna’s usual goal, because transmitting
demands good gain and efficiency to minimize required
transmitter power.
Transmit Antenna…
• Receiving antennas are designed to provide maximum
signal-to-noise ratio when integrated into the receiving
system
• This is not the same as simply having maximum signal
level or gain since maximum signal pickup to noise
rejection is the goal
• When receiving, so long as the background noise picked
up by the antenna determines system noise floor, antenna
system gain is meaningless. Only directional pattern
matters
• A very good transmitting antenna can be (and often is) a
poor receiving antenna, even if they are reciprocal in gain
and pattern
Transmit Antenna…

• This is because the goals are different

• Transmitting requires gain to a target area,
receiving requires only a minimum gain
(sensitivity) but rejection of unwanted noise and
signals compared to desired signal levels

• Because goals are different and because the

operating wavelength determines antenna
physical size requirements to meet a goal,
antennas are very different in different
applications Even on the same wavelength they
can be different depending on exact application
•d
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•s
•f