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Surface Thermal Manifestation Mapping in Kamojang Geothermal Field, West

Java, Indonesia

Article in IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science · April 2022
DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

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ITB International Geothermal Workshop 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1014 (2022) 012003 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

Surface Thermal Manifestation Mapping in Kamojang

Geothermal Field, West Java, Indonesia

Aditya Yuda Kencana and Niniek Rina Herdianita

Department of Geological Engineering, Bandung Institute of Technology, Bandung,
Indonesia

Email : [email protected]
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7722-3304

Abstract. Kamojang Geothermal Field is located in Bandung, West Java, Indonesia. Since
1978, this field has been producing electricity with total capacity about 235 MWe. Surface
thermal manifestation monitoring is a powerful tool to monitor changes of reservoir condition.
The investigation aimed at mapping new thermal manifestations and ground temperatures in
Kamojang crater. The method employed is field mapping using drones and tracking. Ground
temperatures were acquired directly in the field by measuring at 20 cm depth. Geologically,
Kamojang Crater area is dominated by volcanic rocks such as andesite lava, pyroclastic
breccia, tuff, and lapilli. It has undergone moderate to very strong alteration into clay, silica,
iron oxide, and anhydrite minerals. The main geological structures that play a role in
Kamojang area are Kendang, Patengteung, and Citeupeus Fault systems. Surface
manifestations discharged in Kamojang area consist of mud pools/vents, hot springs/pools,
steaming ground, and steam vents that are controlled by Citeupeus and Pateungteung Faults
with a NE-SW orientation. The area was later referred to as Kamojang Crater, which consists
of Manuk, Berecek, Sakarat, Kamojang, Kereta Api, Cikahuripan, Hujan, Loutak, Baru, Saar,
and Inactive Craters. Several new hot spots have not been mapped in detail by previous
research, including Timur Crater, Mud Pool Complex, and Tengah Crater. Meanwhile, an
Inactive Crater to the north of study area indicates activity shown by boiling and bubbling hot
pool. The thermal manifestation has a high temperature of 50.4 to 94.7oC. Manifestations in the
form of liquids (mud and water) have an acidic fluid, with a pH ranging between 1.30 and 5.50.
Ground temperatures in Kamojang Crater area range from 17 to 95oC. High temperature areas
of 80 - 95oC are associated to thermal manifestations.

1. Introduction
Kamojang Geothermal Field is located in Bandung, West Java, Indonesia (Figure 1). The field has
been producing electricity since 1978. Currently, the total installed capacity of this field is about 235
MWe. The objectives of this study are to map new hot spots or thermal manifestations and ground
temperatures in Kamojang Crater area. The method employed in this study is field mapping using
drones and tracking. Ground temperatures are measured directly in the field at 20 cm depth.

Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
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Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
ITB International Geothermal Workshop 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1014 (2022) 012003 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

Figure 1. Location map of Kamojang field.

2. Geology of the Kamojang Area

Volcanism products in the Kamojang field consist of Quaternary volcanic succession which produces
lava with andesitic and basaltic composition [1]. Kamojang geothermal field is located on a series of
volcanoes that stretch from Mount Rakutak in the west to Mount Guntur in the east. Volcanoes in this
chain have erupted sequentially, with Mount Rakutak being the oldest volcano, and Mount Guntur
being the youngest volcano [2].
Geological map of Kamojang geothermal field is shown in Figure 2. In general, this field is
composed of andesite-basaltic and andesite-pyroxene with stratigraphic sequences from old to young,
i.e., Mt. Sanggar Andesite Basaltic, Mt. Ciharus Andesite Basaltic, Mt. Jawa Andesite Pyroxene, Mt.
Pasir Jawa Andesite Pyroxene, Mt. Gandapura Andesite Pyroxene, Mt. Cakra Andesite Pyroxene, and
Pangkalan Lake. More specifically, Kamojang crater area is dominated by volcanic rocks such as
andesite (lava), pyroclastic breccia, tuff, and lapilli. Present rocks have undergone moderate to very
strong alteration into clay, silica, iron oxide, and anhydrite minerals.
Main structures that play a role in volcanic series in Kamojang are Kendang Fault and Citepus
systems which have NE-SW orientation. Geothermal manifestations in Kamojang crater area are
controlled by Citeupeus and Pateungteung Faults system [1]. Circular structure or feature presents in
the southwest (associated with debris of Pangkalan and Ciharus Lakes) and northeast (associated with
debris of Mt. Cakra). In addition, there is a fault system trending NW-SE comprising Cibaliung,
Ciharus, Cinangsi, and Ciwalirang faults.

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ITB International Geothermal Workshop 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1014 (2022) 012003 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

Figure 2. Regional geological map of Kamojang [1].

3. Result

3.1. Surface Thermal Manifestation

Thermal manifestation map from this work is shown in Figure 3. The area of thermal manifestation
was later referred to as Kamojang Crater, which consists of Manuk, Berecek, Sakarat, Kamojang,
Kereta Api, Cikahuripan, Hujan, Loutak, Baru, Saar, and Inactive Craters [2]. New manifestation areas
are resulted from this research, i.e., Timur Crater, Mud Pool Complex, and Tengah Crater. There was
no thermal activity reported in Inactive Crater [2]. However, field observation indicates that Inactive
Crater shows active thermal activity; boiling and bubbling hot pool.
Thermal manifestation in Kamojang crater area has temperature about 58 to 95oC; hot pool 64.3 to
95 C, hot spring 89.0 to 91.4oC, steam vent or fumarole 93.0 to 94.7oC, steaming ground 64.3 to
o

94.0oC, and mud pool or mud vent 58.8 to 95.0oC. Manifestations in the form of liquids (mud and
water) have an acidic fluid, with a pH ranging between 1.30 and 5.50. Ground temperature in
Kamojang Crater area is about 17 - 95oC. High temperature area, with a temperature of 80 - 95oC, is
associated with thermal manifestation. Area with temperature less than 30oC is absence of thermal
manifestation and is correlated with high vegetation area. Manifestation area in Kamojang crater is
referred to as the "crater". The term "crater" refers to a location with thermal features such as steam
vents, steaming ground, mud pools, mud vents, hot pools, or hot springs. Figure 3 shows some craters
that were found in Kamojang crater area.

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ITB International Geothermal Workshop 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1014 (2022) 012003 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

Figure 3. New mapped and existing thermal manifestations in Kamojang area.

a. Manuk Crater
Manuk Crater is one of geothermal manifestations in Kamojang Nature Park, consists of mud pool,
mud vent, and mud cracks. Manuk Crater is an area of ± 80 x 40 m2, extends from west to east.
Maximum temperature of fluid in Manuk Crater is 93 to 95oC, with an acidic pH of 3.5 - 4.0. In some
areas, yellowish-white sulfur deposits are found on crater edge.

b. Berecek Crater
Berecek Crater is located about 50 m in the southeast of Manuk Crater. Berecek Crater is a mud pool
area of approximately 80 x 20 m2. Maximum temperature of Berecek Crater is around 93 and 94oC
with very acidic fluid (pH 2.87). H2S gas content in Berecek Crater is 15 ppm [2].

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ITB International Geothermal Workshop 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1014 (2022) 012003 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

c. Sekarat Crater
Sekarat Crater is located about 30 m to the southeast of Berecek Crater. Sekarat Crater is a mud pool
and mud vent area of approximately 70 x 40 m2. The crater is dominated by brown and some areas are
gray. Maximum temperature of Sekarat Crater is around 90 and 92oC with very acidic fluid (pH 2.98).

d. Kamojang Crater
Kamojang Crater is a manifestation complex consisting of a mud pool, mud vent, steam vent, and hot
spring. Figure 4 shows an aerial photo of Kamojang Crater. Mud pools and mud vents dominate
Kamojang Crater area with surface deposits of mud and sulfur. The diameter of the mud pool and vent
varies from 0.3 to 1.5 meters with measured temperature about 82.0 to 94.0oC, and acidic pH (2.19 -
2.70). Overall, mud pools and mud vent show bubbling.
In addition, there is a steam vent in the southwest of mud pool complex, with a temperature of
94.7oC. The steam vent output is adjacent to hot spring which has a temperature of 92.4 oC and pH of
2.38. Apart from these locations, hot springs also appear in an area relatively east of mud pool area.
Hot spring has a temperature of 90.6oC, a pH of 2.05, boiling and bubbling. Hot springs coincides with
presence of several mud vents. Surface deposits that are present around hot springs are mud, sulfur,
silica, and anhydrite. Besides, several locations are difficult to reach (non-accessible), which in Figure
4 are marked with red outlines (labeled: hot spot). These hotspots are recorded by aerial photographs,
possibly in the form of mud vent or hot spring.

Figure 4. Kamojang Crater.

e. Cikahuripan Crater
Cikahuripan Crater is an area of about 50 meters to the southwest of Kereta Api Crater (KMJ-3 well).
This area consists of a mud pool, mud vent, hot pool, hot spring, steam vent, and steaming ground
(Figure 5). Vegetation in Cikahuripan Crater is generally composed of shrubs with a height of about

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ITB International Geothermal Workshop 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1014 (2022) 012003 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

1.5 – 2.0 meters. In some places, no vegetation was found due to soil temperature (at a depth of about
20 cm) which reached 94oC.
Mud pool and mud vent in Cikahuripan Crater was either still wet or dry with a texture of mud
crack, and yellow sulfur deposits. Temperatures of mud pool and mud vent vary from 50.4 to 93.0oC,
with an acidic pH (2.06 - 2.84). All mud pools showed bubbles, some had a mud surface depth of
more than 2 meters from the surface.
Fluid in hot pool and hot spring in Cikahuripan Crater area is whitish gray with a temperature range
of 62.5 - 92.8oC and a pH of 2.00 to 2.85. All show conditions of bubbling and some are boiling. In the
vicinity of outlet hole, mud and sulfur deposits are also found.
In addition, steam vents appear in several areas with surface lithology of fractured andesites, which
are partly filled with silica veins. The steam vent has a temperature of 85.5 to 94.5 oC. Steaming
ground with a temperature of 93.8oC is also present in Cikahuripan Crater. Several hot spots are
observed both from aerial photographs and in the field, but they are difficult to reach due to high
vegetation.

Figure 5. Cikahuripan Crater.

f. Timur Crater
A new crater, named as Timur Crater, has been found at about 50 meters east of Cikahuripan Crater. It
has never been mentioned by previous studies, e.g., [2], but its presence is visible from aerial
photographs as an area with slight dry to non-vegetated cover (Figure 6). Timur Crater is an area of
steaming ground (soil temperature at 20 cm depth is 80 - 95oC) with several manifestations such as a
steam vent, mud pool, mud vent/volcano, and hot pool spread over an area of approximately 80 x 60
m2.

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ITB International Geothermal Workshop 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1014 (2022) 012003 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

There are nine steam vents in Timur Crater area with temperatures 81.9 to 94.5 oC. Around the
steam vents, there are sulfur and anhydrite deposits. The steam vents are associated with andesite
autobreccia lithology.
Mud pools and mud vents/volcanoes coexist together with clay and sulfur deposits. Measured
temperatures are 80 to 94oC, with a pH of 2.16 - 2.55 (acid). At one outlet of mud volcanoes, H2S gas
level was measured using Gastec Gas Detector Tubes, with a result of 30 ppm. The whole mud pool
shows bubbles. Manifestations appear on lapilli lithology. Meanwhile, there is one hot pool outlet
which has diameter of about 10 x 5 m2 and a depth of more than 1.5 m. Measured temperature at the
edge of hot pool is 54.3oC, with a very acidic pH of 1.96. Pool water is whitish gray with clay and
sulfur deposits on the pool edge.
One visible manifestation is observed from the aerial photographs (Figure 6: red line, labeled Hot
Spot), but it is difficult to reach due to relatively high vegetation and unstable soil. Timur Crater area
is a sinkhole-prone area, especially in the east. Soil thickness is 20 cm. Below the soil, there is a layer
of very soft clay as a result of hydrothermal alteration.

Figure 6. Timur Crater.

g. Mud Pool Complex

Similar to Timur Crater, Mud Pool Complex is also a new manifestation area that has never been
mentioned in previous research, such as [2]. Presence of this area is indicated by thumping sound in
the field and as anomalous vegetation and gray color in aerial photographs (Figure 7). It is located
about 20 meters to the north from Timur Crater, or to the right of stairs leading to Hujan Crater.
This area consists of mud pools with diameter of 2 - 4 meters and a mud vent with a diameter of 0.3
meters. There are clay and sulfur deposits, with a distinctive foul odor as a mixture of sulfide gas and
rotten plant stem (found plant stems falling into mud pool area). Measured temperature in the field is
60.5 - 88.8oC with an acidic pH (2.55 - 2.70). Mud pools are characterized by bubbles, some of which
produce a thump.

h. Hujan Crater
Hujan Crater is the main manifestation area for tourism attraction. This area consists of hot spring
(spouting spring) and steam vent (Figure 8). Hujan Crater area is about 30 x 15 m2 with lithology of
pyroclastic breccias. In addition, there are deposits of sulfur, iron oxides, and clay minerals.

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ITB International Geothermal Workshop 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1014 (2022) 012003 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

The hot spring temperatures are 91.4 to 94.5oC. The water can be classified as acidic water, with a
measured pH of 2.79 - 5.50. Some can be referred to as spouting springs that spurt with a height of
about 1.5 m and a reach of about 2 m. Meanwhile, steam vent comes with a fairly high temperature,
which is 94.5oC. H2S gas content in Hujan Crater according to [2] is 15 ppm.

Mud Pool

Figure 7. Mud Pool Complex.

Spouting Spring
Temperature: 93.4 °C Spouting Spring
pH: 5.55

Steam Vent
Temperature: 94.5 °C
H2S content: 15 ppm

Steam Vent
Temperature: 93 °C

Hot Spring Hot Pool

Temperature: 91.4°C Temperature: 92.1°C
pH: 2.79 Figure 8. Hujan Crater. pH: 4.98

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ITB International Geothermal Workshop 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1014 (2022) 012003 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

Figure 9. Loutak Crater.

i. Loutak Crater
Loutak Crater is located about 25 meters to the northwest of Hujan Crater, consists of mud pool and
steam vent. The area is about 10 x 5 m2 with surface deposits dominated by clay. Measurement of
temperature 58.8oC and pH 2.04 in mud pool was carried out at the manifestation edge. Steam vent
temperature is about 77.5°C. The mud in Loutak Crater is quiet with little bubbles. Figure 9 shows a
photo of Loutak Crater.

j. Baru Crater
Baru Crater is located west of Loutak Crater, about 30 meters away. This crater consists of a mud pool
and a water pool with turbulent characteristics that sound like sea waves. Access to Baru Crater is very
difficult, thus, temperature and pH measurements were not carried out. Baru Crater can be seen from
aerial photographs in Figure 10. It can be seen that there is a flow of water mixed with mud to the west
(Figure 10: direction of the red arrow).

k. Saar Crater
Saar Crater is a complex mud pool located in the northern area (about 200 meters northeast from
Manuk Crater). In general, manifestations in Saar Crater are found in lapilli lithology. Saar Crater
consists of a total of 49 mud pools which are dry and active, mud volcano of 10 - 100 cm high, mud
vent, and mud crack area. Temperature measured in mud pool is between 91.9 and 92.8oC, with an
acidic pH of 2.24 - 2.36.
There is also steaming ground manifestation to the south of Saar Crater. Its temperature is about
86.1oC, with sulfur, iron oxide, and clay mineral deposits. Saar Crater aerial photo (Figure 11) shows
invisible hot spots (possibly a mud pool) that are difficult to access in the south of Saar Crater.

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ITB International Geothermal Workshop 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1014 (2022) 012003 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

Figure 10. Baru Crater.

Figure 11. Saar Crater.

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ITB International Geothermal Workshop 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1014 (2022) 012003 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

l. Inactive Crater
This manifestation is located at the northernmost of research area; referred to as Inactive Crater by [2].
The naming is not quite correct considering manifestation appearance in the field as hot pool with
bubbles (Figure 12). The manifestation is in pyroclastic breccia lithology. The Measured temperature
in the field is around 79oC, and a pH of 3.60. Measurements were made at the pool edge, thus
temperature in middle pool may exceed that temperature. Inactive Crater is more than 1.5 meters deep.
There are also man-made embankments and pipes to drain water.

Figure 12. Inactive Crater.

m. Steam Vent
The “Steam Vent” name were given after [2], refers to manifestation area at a distance of about 25
meters to the northeast of Kereta Api Crater (KMJ-3 well). The area is approximately 15 x 10 m2,
consists of a steam vent (Figure 13A), a hot pool (Figure 13B), and a steaming ground (Figure 13C).
Steam vent temperature is about 94oC, while steaming ground is approximately 86.1oC. The hot
pool is characterized by boiling, bubbling, and some turbulence that indicates a large flow rate. Hot
pool temperature is around 92.4oC, with a pH of 1.29. At this area, faults (and their breccia) were also
found with a position of N187oE / 70o.

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ITB International Geothermal Workshop 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1014 (2022) 012003 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

Figure 13. “Steam Vent” area consists of (A) steam vent, (B) hot pool, (C) steaming ground.

n. Tengah Crater
Similar to Timur Crater and Mud Pool Complex, this manifestation area has also not been named in
previous studies. Therefore, in this discussion, this area of manifestation is called Tengah (middle)
Crater (because of its position in the middle of Kamojang Nature Park).
Tengah Crater is a manifestation complex consists of steaming ground, mud pool, and hot pool.
Figure 14 shows an aerial photo of Tengah Crater. Steaming ground in Tengah Crater has a
temperature of around 94.7oC with 120 ppm H2S gas content (measured by Gastec Gas Detector
Tubes). The mud pool is characterized by bubbling, temperature 67oC, and pH 2.42. Meanwhile, the
hot pool characteristics are boiling, bubbling, temperature of around 94.3oC and a pH of 4.92. There
are also sulfur deposits on the hot pool edge.
Additionally, many hot spots can be observed in the field as white steam, as well as from aerial
photographs. However, these hotspots are difficult to reach due to heavy vegetation and safety reasons
(soil is very unstable). Distribution of these hotspots is shown in Figure 14 as a red circle lines.

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ITB International Geothermal Workshop 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1014 (2022) 012003 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

Hot Spots

Steaming Ground
Temperature: 94.6 °C

Steaming Ground
Temperature: 90.3°C

Mud Pool
Temperature: 67.0 °C
pH: 2.42

Steaming Ground Hot Pool

Temperature: 94.7°C Temperature: 94.3°C
H2S content: 120 ppm pH: 4.92

Figure 14. Tengah Crater.

3.2. Ground Temperature

Surface temperature is measured directly in the field using a thermocouple thermometer. Measured
object is soil temperature at a depth of about 20 cm. The detected surface temperature ranges from 17
to 95°C from blue to red color scale (Figure 15). Soil temperature measurement at a depth of 20 cm
aims to reduce solar radiation effects, and thus temperature obtained will reflect heat loss from below
the surface.
In general, high temperature area (80 – 95oC) correlates with occurrence of geothermal
manifestations. Temperature anomaly distribution is a NW-SE trend in the direction of Manuk,
Berecek, Sekarat, Kamojang, and Cikahuripan Crater, as well as a NE-SW trend pattern in line with
Cikahuripan, Loutak, Baru, Saar, and Inactive Crater. These are in agreement with NW-SE and NE-
SW geological structures in Kamojang Natural Park area which controls occurrence of geothermal
manifestations.

4. Discussion
Thermal manifestations in the form of hot springs and steam vents will emerge in andesite (lava) and
pyroclastic breccia, while mud pools emerge in tuff. This shows that tuff resistance is lower than
andesite and pyroclastic breccia against acidic fluids. Hot steam and acidic condensate fluid meet tuff
lithology, dissolve it into clay, then manifest on the surface in mud forms such as mud pools, mud
vents, and mud volcano. Meanwhile, if the fluids meet andesite or pyroclastic breccia, which are
relatively more resistant than tuff, steam and condensate fluid will manifest as steam vents and hot
springs on the surface.

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 ITB International Geothermal Workshop 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1014 (2022) 012003 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1014/1/012003

New found discharges or manifestations that have not been mapped previously in [2], such as
Timur Crater, Tengah Crater, and Mud Pool Complex, may indicate changes in hydrothermal fluid
activity below the surface. Whether these phenomena are related to changes in reservoir conditions,
due to fluid production for power plants, is to be seen and investigated further. It is recommended to
carry out monitoring studies, especially on chemical composition of manifestation fluid.

Figure 15. Surface Temperature Map. Ground temperature anomaly (>80oC) is associated with
existence of surface thermal manifestation.

References
[1] Kamah, M. Y., Armando, A., Rahmani, D. L., and Paramitha, S. 2018. Enhancement of
Subsurfave Geologic Structure Model based on Gravity, Magnetotelluric, and Well Log
Data in Kamojang Geothermal Field, IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science,
doi :10.1088/1755-1315/103/1/012013
[2] Mulyanto, Nani, A., Zuhro, A. A., and Ahmad, Y. 2010. Surface Thermal Manifestation
Monitoring of Kamojang Geothermal Field, West Java, Indonesia, Proceeding, World
Geothermal Congress 2010, Bali, Indonesia

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