Article

Child Maltreatment
2023, Vol. 28(1) 66–75
Nonverbal Emotions While Disclosing Child © The Author(s) 2021

Abuse: The Role of Interviewer Support Article reuse guidelines:

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DOI: 10.1177/10775595211063497
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Yael Karni-Visel1 , Irit Hershkowitz2, Michael E. Lamb1, and

Uri Blasbalg2

Abstract
Statements by alleged victims are important when child abuse is prosecuted; triers-of-fact often attend to nonverbal emotional
expressions when evaluating those statements. This study examined the associations among interviewer supportiveness,
children’s nonverbal emotions, and informativeness during 100 forensic interviews with alleged victims of child abuse. Raters
coded the silent videotapes for children’s nonverbal emotional expressions while other raters coded the transcripts for
interviewer support, children’s verbal emotions, and informativeness. Results showed that children’s nonverbal signals were
more common than and preceded the verbal signs. Interviewer support was associated with children’s expressivity. When
children expressed more nonverbal emotions, they were more responsive during the pre-substantive phases and more in-
formative about the abuse. Nonverbal emotions partially mediated the association between support and informativeness. The
findings underline the value of nonverbal emotional expression during forensic interviews and demonstrate how the inter-
viewers’ supportive demeanor can facilitate children’s emotional displays and increase informativeness.

Keywords
investigative interviews, nonverbal behavior, child abuse, emotional expression

Background signals comprise a central communicative channel from early

childhood (Bullowa, 1979) and thus play an important role when
Legal practitioners commonly pay special attention to the levels alleged victims discuss traumatic events (Bonanno et al., 2002).
of children’s emotionality when they are testifying (Castelli & Katz and colleagues (Katz et al., 2012) compared nonverbal
Goodman, 2014; Golding et al., 2003; Regan & Baker, 1998), expressions of reluctance by suspected sexual abuse victims who
with nonverbal signals often used to judge the credibility of did and did not make allegations of abuse. Children in the
verbal testimony in the courtroom (Hillman et al., 2012; Nortje nondisclosure group were more disengaged physically than
& Tredoux, 2019; Vrij et al., 2019). Similarly, researchers have children in the disclosure group during both the introductory and
shown that expressions of negative emotions by alleged victims substantive phases of the interview. Because studies of verbal
of abuse (e.g., crying) were associated with increased per- reluctance showed that it was often displayed later in the in-
ceptions of credibility by laypersons (Bederian-Gardner & terview (Hershkowitz et al., 2006), Katz and colleagues (2012)
Goldfarb, 2014; Golding et al., 2003). Moreover, emotional speculated that children’s nonverbal signals may precede verbal
expressiveness is sometimes viewed as an indicator of chil- messages. They also emphasized the importance of attending to
dren’s cooperation (Matsumoto et al., 1986; Schug et al., 2010) nonverbal signs of reluctance in order to address any reluctance
and of the coherence of forensic statements (Snow et al., 2009; as early as possible and thus avoid or attenuate negative dynamics
Westcott & Kynan, 2004), which in turn predict whether which might prevent children from revealing possible abuse.
prosecutors file charges (Castelli & Goodman, 2014). Although nonverbal signals clearly affect the assessment of
Both verbal expressions and nonverbal behaviors may act as children’s reports, few field studies have addressed this issue
signals that communicate or reflect emotional experiences.
Communicating, especially in face-to-face contexts, is a multi-
faceted process in which vocal and visual channels are typically 1
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
2
coordinated and mutually complementary (e.g., Denham & University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
Onwuegbuzie, 2013; Jones & LeBaron, 2002). However, non-
Corresponding Author:
verbal signals appear to be more common than verbal signals: it Yael Karni-Visel, The Louis and Gabi Weisfeld School of Social Work, Bar Ilan
has been estimated that as much as 93% of interpersonal University, Ramat-Gan 5290002, Israel.
communications are nonverbal (Mehrabian, 1981). Nonverbal Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
Karni-Visel et al. 67

(van Ham et al., 2020). Most of the existing research has supportive interviewing on informativeness (Karni-Visel
explored nonverbal behaviors associated with deceit, showing et al., 2019).
that most do not differentiate liars from truth-tellers (Hillman However, the potentially beneficial role of nonverbal
et al., 2012; Nortje & Tredoux, 2019; Vrij et al., 2019). Other emotional expressions in children’s informativeness has not yet
studies have examined the prevalence of nonverbal displays, been examined. The goal of the present study was to assess the
noting that children often show little or no emotion when relationships among interviewer support, children’s emotional
talking about abusive events during forensic interviews expressions, and children’s informativeness in forensic inter-
(Castelli & Goodman, 2014; Katz et al., 2012; Sayfan et al., views. In the current study, we focused on investigative in-
2008; Wood et al., 1996). However, Goodman and her col- terviews with children suspected of being abused by family
leagues (1992) reported that most children looked quite upset members because previous research shows that such children
when testifying in criminal court (Goodman et al., 1992) may be more susceptible to pressure from adults on whom they
while Katz and her colleagues showed that many children are dependent (Malloy et al., 2007) and thus more reluctant to
expressed positive emotions in forensic interviews before cooperate with forensic interviewers and provide information
interviewers switched focus to the abusive events (Katz et al., regarding alleged abusive events (e.g., Hershkowitz & Lamb,
2012). 2020; Hershkowitz et al., 2014). We hypothesized that non-
The interviewer’s demeanor can facilitate children’s emo- verbal emotional expressions would be associated with and
tional expressions. Professionals attuned to emotional signals would precede verbal emotional expressions. We expected that
can better assess children’s feelings and needs and act ac- support would be associated with an increase in the expression
cordingly (Karni-Visel et al., 2019; Kennedy-Moore & Watson, of nonverbal emotions, which in turn would be associated with
2001; Vatne et al., 2012). Laboratory analog (Ahern & Lyon, better performance by the child: higher responsiveness in the
2013; Klemfuss et al., 2013) and field studies (Karni-Visel et al., pre-substantive phases of the interview and greater informa-
2019; Lyon et al., 2012) have both shown that supportive in- tiveness in the substantive phase. Finally, we expected that
terviewers elicit more reports of internal processes as well as nonverbal emotional expression would mediate the association
more informative narratives than do less supportive inter- between interviewer support and children’s responsiveness/
viewers. A recent revision of The National Institute of Child informativeness just as verbal emotional expressiveness did
Health and Human Development (NICHD) Investigative In- in Karni-Visel et al.’s (2019) study.
terview Protocol was designed to assist interviewers conduct
more supportive forensic interviews (Hershkowitz et al., 2013;
Hershkowitz et al., 2017; Lamb et al., 2018) by including Method
guidance on enhanced rapport building and support. The RP
instructions advise interviewers to help children engage and
Participants
explore their emotions when describing experienced events in A total of 100 interviews of 3.46- to 13.90-year-old (M = 8.63,
both the pre-substantive and substantive portions of the in- SD = 2.45) children allegedly abused by an adult family
terview. Recent studies have revealed enhanced levels of in- member were examined. All interviews were conducted in
terviewer support and higher rate of disclosure in RP-guided Israel between August 2014 and February 2016 by 42 in-
interviews (Hershkowitz et al., 2014; Hershkowitz & Lamb, vestigators in the Ministry of Welfare and Social Services (for
2020) which are also characterized by more spontaneous more details see Hershkowitz et al., 2017). The interviews
(Ahern et al., 2019), informative, and coherent (Blasbalg et al., were selected from an archive comprising all child interviews
2018a, 2018b, 2019) statements than are SP (Standard Protocol) conducted within this time frame using the following selection
guided interviews. In a sequence analysis, Ahern and col- criteria: (a) there was an accessible and complete Digital Video
leagues (2014) showed that supportively addressing signs of Disc (DVD), (b) the suspects were family members, and (c)
reluctance immediately was associated with greater coopera- the case files included one or more of the following forms of
tiveness in the children’s next utterance. Most relevant to the corroboration: evidence independent of the interview, prior
current study, interviewer support is associated with children’s disclosure to professionals/disinterested persons, or forensic
more extensive and varied emotional expressions, both about statements by another victim. From the resulting pool, we
the interview situation as well as about the abusive events selected equal numbers of sexual and physical abuse alle-
(Karni-Visel et al., 2019). gations, equal numbers of male and female interviewees, and a
Referring to emotions in forensic interviews may en- diverse range of ages.
hance children’s memory recall (Dolcos et al., 2020; The children were allegedly abused by a biological family
Hamann & Stevens, 2014). Liwag and Stein (1995) were member (58%), step-parent (4%), or other relative (28%). 59%
the first to demonstrate that emotional cueing assisted of allegations were substantiated based on independent evi-
children provide rich narratives. Recently, Karni-Visel dence (30% eyewitness reports, 9% evidence of wounds and
and her colleagues showed that the verbal expression bruises, 20% suspect admissions). Other cases (41%) involved
of emotions was associated with the enhanced retrieval prior disclosures (15% to professionals; 26% to disinterested
of abuse-related details and mediated the effects of figures such as friends or their parents). The interviews took
68 Child Maltreatment 28(1)

place in educational settings (47%), child protection centers down co-occurred with downward head movements, (5)
(25%), or other agencies (e.g., offices, hospitals, social service disgust was coded when the nose was wrinkled and the upper
agencies, police stations) (28%). The study was approved by lip was retracted, and (6) happiness was coded when children
the authors’ university and the Ministry of Social Services raised their inner eyebrows, cheeks, and upper lip with the lip
ethics committees. corners turned upward whether or not the teeth were visible
(including when smiling or laughing).
Children’s verbal expressions of emotion were coded whenever
The Revised NICHD Protocol the children used words describing emotions including all
The Revised NICHD Protocol (RP) represents a revision of the morphological variants of the word (for a detailed description of
Standard NICHD Investigative Protocol (SP) and is charac- the coding procedures, see Karni-Visel et al., 2019).
terized by an enhanced emphasis on supportive interviewing Each of the children’s utterances was coded as either re-
(for a detailed description of the principles, see Lamb et al., sponsive or not depending on whether it provided any relevant
2018; for a detailed description and a list of supportive com- information and whether or not it was novel. In addition, we
ments, see Karni-Visel et al., 2019). In addition, interviewers coded each child utterance for the presence or absence of
were specifically shown how to recognize nonverbal cues as forensic detail. Details were counted if children provided new
part of their training to use the RP. This designated training information and descriptions of individuals, objects, or events
included a day-long group session, in which the coding (for more details see Lamb, 1996; Yuille & Cutshall, 1986).
scheme was presented and illustrated by analyzing forensic The interviewer interventions and child responses described
interview videos followed by a two-hour individual super- below were coded as present or absent in each conversational
vision focused on nonverbal displays, their different forms, turn as in Hershkowitz et al.’s (2017) study and as in Karni-
and their characteristics. The interviewers received personal Visel et al.’s (2019) study. Indices of support included: (a)
feedback in order to improve their evaluation skills (Ahern Expressions of emotional support by accepting, echoing, or
et al., 2019). asking children about their feelings (“Tell me more about
being embarrassed to say that” [after the child indicated s/he
felt embarrassed]), (b) Initiating rapport by expressing interest
Data Coding in knowing the child (“I want to know more about you”) or by
DVD-recorded and transcribed interviews of 100 alleged being hospitable (“Would you like a glass of water/to take a
victims of child abuse were coded as follows: Children’s verbal short break?”), (c) Emphasizing rapport by expressing care or
and nonverbal emotions as well as their verbal responsivity and concern for the child (“I care about you and want to help”) or
production of details were recorded, while supportive com- by presenting him/herself as someone to whom children could
ments by the interviewers were also identified. The transcribed disclose because it was their duty to ensure children’s welfare
interviews were examined by two separate teams: (“My job is to keep children safe”), (d) Positive reinforce-
Two raters coded the silent videotapes for nonverbal indices ments of the child’s efforts by praising/thanking him/her for
of children’s nonverbal emotions in each utterance (as elaborated listening to questions or for providing many details (“Thanks
below). Two other raters independently identified and rated the for telling me about so many things”), and (e) Encouragement
interviewers’ supportive comments, children’s verbal emotions, by emphasizing the importance of reporting and the fact that
and forensic information. The members of the two teams were the child was a unique source of knowledge, expressing
blind to (unaware of) the ratings made by the raters in the other confidence in his or her abilities, legitimizing his/her re-
team and all raters were unaware of the study hypotheses. ports (“Here you can talk about everything”) or offering
Members of both teams only coded the pre-substantive phases assistance (“Would you prefer to write or to spell instead of
and explorations of the first investigated event in the sub- saying it?” and “Would it help if your teacher joined our
stantive phase. conversation?”).
Children’s nonverbal emotions were coded following a
technique first developed by Katz and her colleagues (Katz
Inter-Rater Reliability
et al., 2012) which included a focus on specific facial muscle
movements. The coders noted the presence or absence of Two pairs of raters first established inter-rater reliability on a
nonverbal emotions in each conversational turn. Nonverbal separate set of DVDs or transcripts in order to assess inter-
emotional expressions included displays of one of the fol- coder reliability. Once they had attained levels of agreement
lowing: (1) anger was coded when eyebrows were lowered that exceeded 90%, the coders began working with the target
and drawn together and lips were pressed together or parted in interviews. Reliability was re-checked for 20% of the inter-
a square shape, (2) fear was coded when eyebrows were raised views by having one rater in each pair recode randomly se-
and drawn together, eyes were wide open, and lips were lected DVDs or transcripts previously coded by the other rater.
stretched, (3) sadness was coded when inner eyebrows were K alpha inter-rater index coefficients (Hayes & Krippendorff,
drawn together and lip corners pulled down (including when 2007) for indices of support, verbal emotions, nonverbal emo-
crying and gazing down), (4) shame was coded when gazing tions, responsiveness, and informativeness were .88, .89, .80, .81,
Karni-Visel et al. 69

Table 1. Fixed Effect Estimates for the Multi-Level Model of Verbal Table 2. Fixed Effect Estimates for the Multi-Level Model of
Emotional Expression. Sequential Verbal Emotional Expression.

Predictors B SE Odds 95% CI Predictors B SE Odds 95% CI

(Intercept) 4.68*** 0.46 0.01 0.00,0.02 (Intercept) 4.16*** 0.31 0.02 0.01,0.03
Gender–girls 0.06 0.22 1.06 0.69,1.62 Gender–girls 0.03 0.15 1.03 0.77,1.40
Age 0.13** 0.05 1.13 1.04,1.24 Age 0.08** 0.03 1.09 1.02,1.16
Type of abuse–sexual 0.24 0.22 0.78 0.51,1.20 Type of abuse–sexual 0.11 0.15 0.90 0.67,1.21
NV emotional expressions 0.43** 0.15 1.53 1.13,2.08 NV emotional expression in 0.56*** 0.10 1.74 1.44,2.10
previous utterance
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

and .83, respectively. All coders were blind to the research

hypotheses.
Analyses revealed that the expression of nonverbal emotions was
significantly associated with the expression of verbal emotions (β
Analytic Approach = .43, SE = .15, p = .006, 95% CI [1.13, 2.08]).
The sequence of verbal and nonverbal emotional expres-
For the current study, the Generalized Linear Mixed Models
sions was then examined (see Table 2). Analyses revealed that
(GLMM) approach was tested (for more details see Karni-Visel
nonverbal emotional expressions preceded verbal ones and
et al., 2019). In order to examine the order in which emotional
were associated with those in the next utterance (β = .56, SE
expressions appeared, we used a lag-sequential analysis
= .10, p < .001, 95% CI [1.44, 2.10]), whereas there was no
referring to the position of a target code relative to a given
significant predictive association between verbal expressions
criterion code: first, the proportion of nonverbal emotional
and nonverbal expressions in the next utterance (β = .09, SE =
expressions occurring at lag 1 were calculated, then the pro-
portion of verbal emotional expressions occurring at lag 1 were .16, NS, 95% CI [.79, 1.51].
calculated. Two GLMM analyses tested the order in which
emotional expressions appeared: whether verbal emotions Conditional Support and Nonverbal
preceded nonverbal emotions and then whether nonverbal Emotional Expressions
emotions preceded verbal emotions. In order to examine the
The association between conditional support and nonverbal
effects of supportive comments that followed the nonverbal
emotional expressions in the next utterance was then examined.
expression of emotions, conditional support was coded when
Analyses revealed that conditional support in a given utterance
a supportive comment was made immediately after the child
expressed an emotion. In each of these analyses, the outcome was associated with an increase in the nonverbal expression of
emotions in the next utterance (β = .54, SE = .14, p < .001, 95%
variables were dichotomous (the presence or absence of
CI [1.31, 2.23]).
emotions or details in each utterance). Child’s age, gender, and
type of abuse (physical, sexual) were controlled for statistically
in all the analyses reported below. The Monte-Carlo method Responsiveness During the Preliminary Phases of the
was used to determine whether children’s nonverbal emotional Interview (Rapport Building and Transitional phases)
expressiveness mediated the effects of interviewer support on
the child’s responsiveness and informativeness (Preacher & The associations among supportive comments, nonverbal
Selig, 2012). emotional expressions, and responsiveness during the pre-
liminary phases of the interview were then examined.
Supportive comments were positively associated with the
Results nonverbal expression of emotions (β = .64, SE = .05, p <
.001, 95% CI [1.71, 2.11]) (see Table 3) The nonverbal
Interrelations of Nonverbal and Verbal Expressions
expression of emotions was positively correlated with
Children expressed nonverbal emotions in approximately half children’s verbal responsiveness (β = .25, SE = .04, p < .001,
(M = .49, SD = .49) and verbal emotions in only .04 (SD = .20) 95% CI [1.17, 1.39]) while supportive comments were
of their utterances. In the substantive phase, children provided negatively associated with responsiveness (β = .82, SE =
forensically relevant new details in approximately one third of .05, p < .001, 95% CI [.40, .49]) (see Table 4). The nonverbal
their utterances (M = .34, SD = .47). Supportive comments, expression of emotions partially mediated the association
collapsed across all categories, were provided in approximately between support and responsiveness. A Monte Carlo model
one eighth of the interviewers’ utterances (M = .12, SD = .33). showed that the indirect effect of support on responsiveness
First, the relationship between nonverbal emotional expres- was significant [95% confidence interval (Lower Level (LL)
sion and verbal emotional expression was tested (see Table 1). = .1074, Upper Level (UP) = .2184, p < .05)].
70 Child Maltreatment 28(1)

Table 3. Fixed Effect Estimates for the Multi-Level Model of Table 5. Fixed Effect Estimates for the Multi-Level Model of
Nonverbal Emotional Expression During the Preliminary Phases of Nonverbal Emotional Expression.
the Interview.
Predictors B SE Odds 95% CI
Predictors B SE Odds 95% CI
(Intercept) 1.23** 0.46 0.29 0.12,0.73
(Intercept) 1.36*** 0.46 0.26 0.10,0.63 Gender–girls 1.21*** 0.23 3.34 2.11,5.29
Gender–girls 1.20*** 0.23 3.30 2.09,5.23 Age 0.04 0.05 1.04 0.95,1.15
Age 0.05 0.05 1.05 0.96,1.16 Type of abuse–sexual 0.23 0.23 1.26 0.79,1.99
Type of abuse–sexual 0.20 0.23 1.22 0.77,1.93 Interviewer’s support 0.65*** 0.05 1.92 1.74,2.12
Interviewer’s support 0.64*** 0.05 1.90 1.71.2.11

not significantly associated with the expression of nonverbal

Table 4. Fixed Effect Estimates for the Multi-Level Model of
emotions. Girls expressed more nonverbal emotions than did
Responsiveness During the Preliminary Phases of the Interview.
boys (β = .93, SE = .24, p < .001, 95% CI [1.58, 4.07] (see
Predictors B SE Odds 95% CI Table 7) but child gender did not predict the expression of
verbal emotions or the number of details provided. The type of
(Intercept) 0.26 0.22 0.77 0.49,1.19
abuse was significantly associated with informativeness;
Gender–girls 0.20* 0.11 0.82 0.66,1.03
children who disclosed sexual abuse provided more details
Age 0.04* 0.02 1.04 0.99,1.09
that children who disclosed physical abuse (β = .19, SE = .09,
Type of abuse–sexual 0.13 0.11 1.14 0.91,1.43
p = .04, 95% CI [1.01, 1.46] (see Table 6) but the type of abuse
Interviewer’s support 0.82*** 0.05 0.44 0.40,0.49
Children NV emotional 0.25*** 0.04 1.28 1.17,1.39
was not significantly associated with verbal or nonverbal
expressions emotional expressions.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Discussion
In legal contexts, practitioners often rely on children’s sub-
Forensic Informativeness in the Substantive Phase jective reactions when assessing their statements (Castelli &
Goodman, 2014; Golding et al., 2003; Regan & Baker, 1998).
The associations among supportive comments, the nonverbal Emotional reactions expressed both verbally and (especially)
expression of emotions, and the number of forensically important nonverbally are used as indicators of cooperation (Schug et al.,
details in the substantive phase were then examined. Supportive 2010) and as indicators of narrative coherence (Snow et al.,
comments were positively associated with the nonverbal ex- 2009; Westcott & Kynan, 2004) and credibility (Vrij et al.,
pression of emotions (β = .65, SE = .05, p < .001, 95% CI [1.74, 2004; Vrij et al., 2019) in the forensic arena. This study aimed
2.12]) (see Table 5) Age and abuse type were not significant to examine, for the first time, the associations among inter-
predictors. The expression of nonverbal emotions was positively viewer support, the nonverbal expression of emotions, and
correlated with the number of details reported (β = .46, SE = .06, informativeness in the course of forensic interviews with
p < .001, 95% CI [1.40, 1.78]) while the number of supportive suspected victims of child abuse.
comments was negatively associated with the number of new The data showed that the nonverbal and verbal expression
details reported (β = 1.69, SE = .07, p < .001, 95% CI [.16, of emotions were significantly correlated, suggesting that the
.21]) (see Table 6). The nonverbal expression of emotions verbal and nonverbal channels often co-occur and should not be
partially mediated the association between support and infor- seen as alternative means of expression. Our results are con-
mativeness. A Monte-Carlo model showed that the indirect effect sistent with other evidence that verbal and nonverbal channels
of interviewers’ support via children’s nonverbal expressions on are often coordinated when communicating emotions (e.g.,
their informativeness was significant [95% confidence interval Denham & Onwuegbuzie, 2013; Jones & LeBaron, 2002).
(Lower Level (LL) = .0374, Upper Level (UP) = .245, p < .05)]. However, nonverbal expressions were 10 times more common
than verbal expressions, underlining the superiority of non-
verbal communication especially by children (e.g., Bullowa,
Child and Abuse Characteristics 1979; Mehrabian, 1981).
Child age was significantly associated with the expression of Our results also shed light on the controversy about children’s
verbal emotions; older children expressed more emotions than displays of emotion when testifying. Although Goodman and
did younger children (β = .13, SE = .05, p = .006, 95% CI her colleagues (1992) reported that most children were quite
[1.04, 1.24] (see Tables 1 and 2). Age was also positively upset when testifying in criminal court, other studies found that
correlated with informativeness, as older children provided children showed little or no emotion when reporting abusive
more details than did younger children (β = .05, SE = .03, p = events in forensic interview contexts (Castelli & Goodman,
.01, 95% CI [1.02, 1.10] (see Table 6) although child age was 2014; Katz et al., 2012; Sayfan et al., 2008; Wood et al., 1996).
Karni-Visel et al. 71

Table 6. Fixed Effect Estimates for the Multi-Level Model of Children’s characteristics also predicted their emotional
Forensic Informativeness. expressions. Although verbal emotional expressiveness in-
Predictors B SE Odds 95% CI
creased with age, there were no age differences in nonverbal
emotional expression. These results are consistent with pre-
(Intercept) 1.43*** 0.19 0.24 0.17,0.35 vious research (Karni-Visel et al., 2019; Katz et al., 2016). As
Gender–girls 0.13 0.09 0.88 0.73,1.06 expected, girls expressed their emotions nonverbally more
Age 0.05** 0.02 1.05 1.02,1.10 than boys (for meta-analytic review see Chaplin & Aldao,
Type of abuse–sexual 0.19* 0.09 1.21 1.01,1.46 2013). However, gender was not significantly associated with
Interviewer’s support 1.69*** 0.07 0.18 0.16,0.21 the use of emotional language (as also reported by Ahern &
Children NV emotional 0.17*** 0.05 1.19 1.08,1.31 Lyon, 2013; Sayfan et al., 2008), contradicting reports that
expressions girls tend to mention verbal emotions more often than boys do
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001. (Karni-Visel et al., 2019; Katz et al., 2016). Further research
exploring the associations among gender, emotional valance
(positive vs. negative), and type of emotion (internalizing vs.
Table 7. Fixed Effect Estimates for the Multi-Level Model of externalizing) may shed light on the differential effects of
Nonverbal Emotional Expression. gender on types of emotional expression.
The current study also showed that responding to nonverbal
Predictors B SE Odds 95% CI expressions of emotion with support encouraged children to
(Intercept) 0.65 0.50 0.52 0.19.1.40 increase their expressiveness. This is consistent with previous
Gender–girls 0.93*** 0.24 2.53 1.58.4.07 findings from laboratory (Ahern & Lyon, 2013; Klemfuss et al.,
Age 0.07 0.05 1.07 0.97.1.19 2013) and field (Karni-Visel et al., 2019; Lyon et al., 2012)
Type of abuse–sexual 0.12 0.24 0.89 0.55.1.42 studies examining the role of interviewer support in facilitating
Interviewer’s support following 0.54*** 0.14 1.71 1.31.2.23 the verbal expressions of emotion. For example, Karni-Visel
NV emotional expressions and colleagues (2019) showed that a supportive approach fa-
cilitated the extensive and varied expression of emotions about
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
both the interview situation and the abusive events. Moreover,
the current results are consistent with Ahern et al.’s (2014)
This inconsistency can be related to differences in methodol- findings that immediate support in response to children’s ex-
ogy; the current study used a micro-level approach and closely pressions leads to reductions in their expressions of reluctance
analyzed sequences during the interview, whereas many pre- (Ahern et al., 2014). However, whereas the beneficial effects of
vious studies examined global impressions at a macro-level support were previously documented in studies focused on
(e.g., Sayfan et al., 2008). Micro-level observation can capture verbal displays, we showed similar effects in a study of non-
the subtle expressions that are common (e.g., Gerholm, 2011; verbal expressions, suggesting the importance of nonverbal
Vatne et al., 2012) but may be missed when macro-level ap- communication during forensic interviews with children.
proaches are adopted (Katz et al., 2012). The more nonverbal emotions were expressed, the more
Importantly, the current study also showed that nonverbal responsive children were during the pre-substantive phases of
signals often preceded verbal expressions of emotion. No the interview and the more informative they were about the
previous studies have examined both verbal and nonverbal alleged abuse. The current results are consistent with those
expressions of emotion, there has only been indirect evidence obtained in a previous field study (Karni-Visel et al., 2019) as
that nonverbal signs of reluctance (e.g., changes in posture) well as in previous analog studies in which attention to emotions
precede verbal signs (Katz et al., 2012). enhanced the retrieval of information from memory about per-
This sequence was clearly evident in the current study, sonally relevant events (Hamann & Stevens, 2014). Our results
suggesting that nonverbal signals can guide interviewers’ re- are also consistent with previous studies showing how emotions
sponses before children say anything about their emotions. modulate children’s recollection of personally relevant events
Relying on nonverbal expressions of emotion, which appear (Ackil et al., 2003; Bauer & Larkina, 2017; Fivush et al., 2003;
earlier and are much more frequent, can assist interviewers in reviewed by Goodman et al., 2010).
evaluating and formulating their reactions as early as possible, However, in examining the association between emotional
before children’s reluctance grows. Researchers studying co- displays and responsiveness in the courtroom, Goodman and
operative and reluctant child witnesses have recommended that colleagues showed that children who appeared more frightened
forensic interviewers should respond supportively to the earliest to face the defendant while testifying were less able to answer
signs of emotion in order to prevent the escalation of negative the prosecutors’ questions (Goodman et al., 1992). This dif-
dynamics (Hershkowitz et al., 2006; Katz et al., 2012). The ference can be explained by the different settings (forensic
current data show that it is possible to catch potentially in- interviews vs. courtroom testimony) and the specific stressors
hibiting negative emotions early and address them more ef- that challenge children when testifying in a courtroom (e.g.,
fectively if interviewers are sensitive to nonverbal displays. encountering the defendant, testifying in front of a jury). Our
72 Child Maltreatment 28(1)

results are especially relevant for those countries in which better perform cognitively during the interview (Parkinson,
recordings of forensic interviews are used as evidence in court, 2005). Further testing of these possible mechanisms in con-
while future studies should explore whether the beneficial ef- trolled studies is needed.
fects of support might be also relevant when children are re- To our knowledge, this study was the first to examine the
quired to testify in person. advantages of responding supportively to nonverbal signals and
Further analyses showed that nonverbal expressions par- provided additional evidence that it may be beneficial to use the
tially mediated the association between support and forensic RP. The RP encourages interviewers to pay attention to emotions
informativeness. Supportive comments were negatively as- throughout the interview and to respond nonsuggestively to
sociated with verbal responsiveness during the pre-substantive children’s expressions of emotion (Hershkowitz et al., 2017;
parts and also associated with less detailed reporting during Karni-Visel et al., 2019). Encouraging and supporting children’s
the substantive part. We assume that interviewers responded expressions of feelings may help them feel comfortable and
with more supportive comments when children were unre- secure, perhaps allowing then to better regulate their emotions and
sponsive or not providing many details as they were instructed provide sensitive information about their abusive experiences.
by the RP Protocol (Hershkowitz et al., 2017). As previously
mentioned, children in the sample were suspected of being
abused by family members and thus were likely to be espe-
Limitations
cially reluctant to provide information during forensic inter- The present findings should be interpreted in light of several
views (e.g., Hershkowitz & Lamb, 2020; Hershkowitz et al., limitations. First, nonverbal expressions can include additional
2014). Importantly, the mediation model suggests that the indicators such as the direction of gaze, verbal tone, and timing
beneficial effects of support on informativeness depend on the (Argyle, 1969), all of which were not examined in the current
extent to which support elicits nonverbal displays of emotion. study but may affect communication. In addition, because
Prior literature has suggested that memory retrieval is not coding was extremely demanding and time consuming, and at
directly derived from interviewer support but occurs via a the same time yielded enormous amounts of information, the
number of emotional mechanisms (Saywitz et al., 2016) in- study focused on reports of the first abusive event described. The
cluding perceived self-efficacy (Bottoms et al., 2007; Davis & first described event is usually the best recalled event, and thus
Bottoms, 2002), decreased anxiety (Quas et al., 2004), or the one on which interviewers tend to focus when attempting to
reluctance (Blasbalg et al., 2019). Similarly, in a recent field obtain event-specific information (Brubacher et al., 2014; Fivush
study, Karni-Visel et al. (2019) showed that emotional ex- et al., 2003). Finally, the current study only included interviews
pressiveness accounted for the association between supportive that were conducted in Israel and the sample was relatively
interviewing and informativeness. However, their study only homogenous ethnically. Although nonverbal emotions are
focused on verbally expressed emotions, whereas the current considered universal, emotional displays may be different in
study showed the same mediation when examining the non- other cultural contexts (Hamilton et al., 2016; Marsh et al., 2003).
verbal emotions that appear earlier and more frequently and are
therefore easier to address effectively.
Implications for Practice and Policy
The direct and indirect associations between nonverbal
expressions and responsiveness in the pre-substantive part and The study demonstrated the important role played by children’s
informativeness in the substantive part can be explained in nonverbal expressions of emotion during forensic interviews. We
several ways. As mentioned earlier, theoretical predictions (e.g., showed that providing support during the interview encouraged
Boone & Buck, 2003) and research (e.g., Schug et al., 2010) children to express emotional signals and be more informative.
suggest that emotional expressivity in itself can serve as a Although most previous research has explored nonverbal be-
marker of an individual’s cooperative disposition, suggesting haviors as indicators of deceit, the current study demonstrated that
that both verbal and nonverbal reactions are indicators of co- nonverbal emotions may signal active engagement in the inter-
operation. However, other explanations may be related to the view context. Encouraging children’s subjective reactions was
role of emotional expressions in intra- and inter-individual associated with increases in informativeness, both of which may
regulation processes. For example, expressing emotions non- convey greater coherence and credibility. Because attention to
verbally may have helped children to regulate their emotions nonverbal displays of emotion appears to be strategically im-
(Izard, 1990). Effective processes of self-regulation may have portant, forensic interviewers should be trained to incorporate this
helped the children better cope with the interviews’ emotional strategy into their everyday work. Specifically, we recommend
and cognitive challenges and thereby improved the children’s guidance that explains and describes common nonverbal displays,
performance (Izard & Ackerman, 2000). Furthermore, it is their different forms, and their characteristics, and includes
possible that children who reveal their emotions using facial practice analyzing recordings of forensic interviews with feed-
expressions signaled their needs to the interviewer (e.g., Frith, back designed to improve evaluation skills. Future efforts
2009; Kaiser & Wehrle, 2001; Parkinson, 2005). As elaborated should include the development and evaluation of supportive
above, the interviewer’s supportive demeanor may in turn have interviewing techniques that while not being suggestive, foster
helped the children to regulate their (negative) emotions and nonverbal communication in children, especially boys, known
Karni-Visel et al. 73

to be more reticent in emotional expression (Chaplin & Aldao, abuse. Applied Developmental Science, 23(3), 227–238.þ
2013). https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2017.1387057
Finally, the current study showed that children frequently Ahern, E. C., Hershkowitz, I., Lamb, M. E., Blasbalg, U., & Winstanley,
display emotions nonverbally when describing their experiences. A. (2014). Support and reluctance in the pre-substantive phase
Close and continuous assessment of children’s facial expres- of alleged child abuse victim investigative interviews: Revised
sions throughout the interview may enable interviewers to versus Standard NICHD Protocols. Behavioral Sciences & the
capture the subtle and passing expressions of emotion (e.g., Law, 32(6), 762–774. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2149.
Gerholm, 2011; Vatne et al., 2012). Practitioners should Ahern, E. C., & Lyon, T. D. (2013). Facilitating maltreated children’s
minimize possible distractions (e.g., simultaneous writing, use of emotional language. Journal of Forensic Social Work, 3(2),
camera operation), focus on children’s facial expressions, and 176–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/1936928X.2013.854124.
maintain eye contact with the children. Minimizing distraction Van Ham, K., Hoytema van Konijnenburg, E. M. M., Brilleslijper-Kater,
may make it easier to appraise children’s emotional signals and S. N., Schepers, A., Daams, J. G., Teeuw, A. H., Van Rijn, R. R., &
respond to them appropriately. Van der Lee, J. H. (2020). A systematic review of instruments used
to assess nonverbal emotional signs in children during an inves-
tigative interview for suspected sexual abuse. Child Abuse Review,
Conclusion 29(1), 12–26. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.2601.
Children tend to express emotions nonverbally more often and Argyle, M. (1969). Social interaction. Atherton. https://doi.org/10.
earlier than they do so verbally when disclosing abuse. 4324/9781315129556.
Interviewer support enhances the level of nonverbal commu- Bauer, P. J., & Larkina, M. (2017). Predictors of age-related and individual
nication, and this increases informativeness. Supporting chil- variability in autobiographical memory in childhood. Memory, 27(1),
dren while they are describing abuse can help them express their 63–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2017.1381267.
emotions and enhance the quality of their forensic statements in Bederian-Gardner, D., & Goldfarb, D. (2014). Expectations of
numerous ways. emotions during testimony: The role of communicator and
perceiver characteristics. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 32(6),
Acknowledgments 829–845. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1002/bsl.2146.
Blasbalg, U., Hershkowitz, I., & Karni-Visel, Y. (2018). Support,
We would like to thank the youth investigators who made this study
reluctance, and production in child abuse investigative inter-
possible, and the children whose statements made this study both
views. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 24(4), 518–527.
possible and necessary. We also thank Ella Pud, Izees Kabiya, and
https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000183.
Noga Schiff for their assistance with data coding.
Blasbalg, U., Hershkowitz, I., Karni-Visel, Y., & Lamb, M. E. (2019).
The effects of interviewer’s support on the coherence of child
Declaration of Conflicting Interests abuse forensic statements: Comparing the Revised and Stan-
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to dard NICHD Protocols. In Paper Presented at the International
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Investigative Interviewing Research Group Annual Conference.
Stavern, Norway, 2019.
Funding Blasbalg, U., Hershkowitz, I., Lamb, M. E., Karni-Visel, Y., & Ahern,
E. C. (2018). Is interviewer support associated with the reduced
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for
reluctance and enhanced informativeness of alleged child abuse
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This re-
victims? Law and Human Behavior, 43(2), 156–165. https://doi.
search was supported by grants from the Nuffield and Jacobs
org/10.1037/lhb0000303.
Foundations, whose generous assistance is gratefully acknowledged.
Bonanno, G. A., Keltner, D., Noll, J. G., Putnam, F. W., Trickett,
Dr. Uri Blasbalg was supported by the Haruv Institute.
P. K., LeJeune, J., & Anderson, C. (2002). When the face reveals
what words do not: Facial expressions of emotion, smiling, and
ORCID iD
the willingness to disclose childhood sexual abuse. Journal of
Yael Karni-Visel  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5754-1957 Personality and Social Psychology, 83(1), 94–110. https://doi.
org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.94.
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