Dimensional analysis

In engineering and science, dimensional analysis is the analysis of the relationships between different
physical quantities by identifying their base quantities (such as length, mass, time, and electric current) and
units of measurement (such as metres and grams) and tracking these dimensions as calculations or
comparisons are performed. The term dimensional analysis is also used to refer to conversion of units from
one dimensional unit to another, which can be used to evaluate scientific formulae.

Commensurable physical quantities are of the same kind and have the same dimension, and can be directly
compared to each other, even if they are expressed in differing units of measurement; e.g., metres and feet,
grams and pounds, seconds and years. Incommensurable physical quantities are of different kinds and have
different dimensions, and can not be directly compared to each other, no matter what units they are
expressed in, e.g. metres and grams, seconds and grams, metres and seconds. For example, asking whether
a gram is larger than an hour is meaningless.

Any physically meaningful equation, or inequality, must have the same dimensions on its left and right
sides, a property known as dimensional homogeneity. Checking for dimensional homogeneity is a common
application of dimensional analysis, serving as a plausibility check on derived equations and computations.
It also serves as a guide and constraint in deriving equations that may describe a physical system in the
absence of a more rigorous derivation.

The concept of physical dimension, and of dimensional analysis, was introduced by Joseph Fourier in
1822.[1]: 42

Formulation
The Buckingham π theorem describes how every physically meaningful equation involving n variables can
be equivalently rewritten as an equation of n − m dimensionless parameters, where m is the rank of the
dimensional matrix. Furthermore, and most importantly, it provides a method for computing these
dimensionless parameters from the given variables.

A dimensional equation can have the dimensions reduced or eliminated through nondimensionalization,
which begins with dimensional analysis, and involves scaling quantities by characteristic units of a system
or physical constants of nature.[1]: 43 This may give insight into the fundamental properties of the system, as
illustrated in the examples below.

The dimension of a physical quantity can be expressed as a product of the base physical dimensions such as
length, mass and time, each raised to an integer (and occasionally rational) power. The dimension of a
physical quantity is more fundamental than some scale or unit used to express the amount of that physical
quantity. For example, mass is a dimension, while the kilogram is a particular reference quantity chosen to
express a quantity of mass. The choice of unit is arbitrary, and its choice is often based on historical
precedent. Natural units, being based on only universal constants, may be thought of as being "less
arbitrary".
There are many possible choices of base physical dimensions. The SI standard selects the following
dimensions and corresponding dimension symbols:

time (T), length (L), mass (M), electric current (I), absolute temperature (Θ), amount of
substance (N) and luminous intensity (J).

The symbols are by convention usually written in roman sans serif typeface.[2] Mathematically, the
dimension of the quantity Q is given by

where a , b , c, d , e, f, g are the dimensional exponents. Other physical quantities could be defined as the
base quantities, as long as they form a linearly independent basis – for instance, one could replace the
dimension (I) of electric current of the SI basis with a dimension (Q) of electric charge, since Q = TI.

A quantity that has only b ≠ 0 (with all other exponents zero) is known as a geometric quantity. A
quantity that has only both a ≠ 0 and b ≠ 0 is known as a kinematic quantity. A quantity that has only all
of a ≠ 0 , b ≠ 0 , and c ≠ 0 is known as a dynamic quantity.[3] A quantity that has all exponents null is
said to have dimension one.[2]

The unit chosen to express a physical quantity and its dimension are related, but not identical concepts. The
units of a physical quantity are defined by convention and related to some standard; e.g., length may have
units of metres, feet, inches, miles or micrometres; but any length always has a dimension of L, no matter
what units of length are chosen to express it. Two different units of the same physical quantity have
conversion factors that relate them. For example, 1 in = 2.54 cm; in this case 2.54 cm/in is the conversion
factor, which is itself dimensionless. Therefore, multiplying by that conversion factor does not change the
dimensions of a physical quantity.

There are also physicists who have cast doubt on the very existence of incompatible fundamental
dimensions of physical quantity,[4] although this does not invalidate the usefulness of dimensional analysis.

Simple cases
As examples, the dimension of the physical quantity speed v is

The dimension of the physical quantity acceleration a is

The dimension of the physical quantity force F is

The dimension of the physical quantity pressure P is

The dimension of the physical quantity energy E is

The dimension of the physical quantity power P is

The dimension of the physical quantity electric charge Q is

The dimension of the physical quantity voltage V is

The dimension of the physical quantity capacitance C is

Rayleigh's method
In dimensional analysis, Rayleigh's method is a conceptual tool used in physics, chemistry, and
engineering. It expresses a functional relationship of some variables in the form of an exponential equation.
It was named after Lord Rayleigh.

The method involves the following steps:

1. Gather all the independent variables that are likely to influence the dependent variable.
2. If R is a variable that depends upon independent variables R1, R2, R3, ..., Rn, then the
functional equation can be written as R = F(R1, R2, R3, ..., Rn).
3. Write the above equation in the form R = C R1a R2b R3c ... Rnm, where C is a
dimensionless constant and a , b , c, ..., m are arbitrary exponents.
4. Express each of the quantities in the equation in some base units in which the solution is
required.
5. By using dimensional homogeneity, obtain a set of simultaneous equations involving the
exponents a , b , c, ..., m.
6. Solve these equations to obtain the values of the exponents a , b , c, ..., m.
7. Substitute the values of exponents in the main equation, and form the non-dimensional
parameters by grouping the variables with like exponents.
As a drawback, Rayleigh's method does not provide any information regarding number of dimensionless
groups to be obtained as a result of dimensional analysis.

Concrete numbers and base units

Many parameters and measurements in the physical sciences and engineering are expressed as a concrete
number—a numerical quantity and a corresponding dimensional unit. Often a quantity is expressed in terms
of several other quantities; for example, speed is a combination of length and time, e.g. 60 kilometres per
hour or 1.4 kilometres per second. Compound relations with "per" are expressed with division, e.g.
60 km/h. Other relations can involve multiplication (often shown with a centered dot or juxtaposition),
powers (like m2 for square metres), or combinations thereof.

A set of base units for a system of measurement is a conventionally chosen set of units, none of which can
be expressed as a combination of the others and in terms of which all the remaining units of the system can
be expressed.[5] For example, units for length and time are normally chosen as base units. Units for volume,
however, can be factored into the base units of length (m3 ), thus they are considered derived or compound
units.

Sometimes the names of units obscure the fact that they are derived units. For example, a newton (N) is a
unit of force, which may be expressed as the product of mass (with unit kg) and acceleration (with unit
m⋅s−2 ). The newton is defined as 1 N = 1 kg⋅m⋅s−2 .

Percentages, derivatives and integrals

Percentages are dimensionless quantities, since they are ratios of two quantities with the same dimensions.
In other words, the % sign can be read as "hundredths", since 1% = 1/100.

Taking a derivative with respect to a quantity divides the dimension by the dimension of the variable that is
differentiated with respect to. Thus:

position (x) has the dimension L (length);

derivative of position with respect to time (dx/dt, velocity) has dimension T−1L—length from
position, time due to the gradient;
the second derivative (d 2x/dt 2 = d(dx/dt) / dt, acceleration) has dimension T−2L.
Likewise, taking an integral adds the dimension of the variable one is integrating with respect to, but in the
numerator.

force has the dimension T−2LM (mass multiplied by acceleration);

the integral of force with respect to the distance (s) the object has travelled ( , work) has
dimension T−2L2M.
In economics, one distinguishes between stocks and flows: a stock has a unit (say, widgets or dollars), while
a flow is a derivative of a stock, and has a unit of the form of this unit divided by one of time (say,
dollars/year).

In some contexts, dimensional quantities are expressed as dimensionless quantities or percentages by

omitting some dimensions. For example, debt-to-GDP ratios are generally expressed as percentages: total
debt outstanding (dimension of currency) divided by annual GDP (dimension of currency)—but one may
argue that, in comparing a stock to a flow, annual GDP should have dimensions of currency/time
(dollars/year, for instance) and thus debt-to-GDP should have the unit year, which indicates that debt-to-
GDP is the number of years needed for a constant GDP to pay the debt, if all GDP is spent on the debt and
the debt is otherwise unchanged.

Dimensional homogeneity (commensurability)

The most basic rule of dimensional analysis is that of dimensional homogeneity.[6]

Only commensurable quantities (physical quantities having the same dimension) may be compared,
equated, added, or subtracted.
However, the dimensions form an abelian group under multiplication, so:

One may take ratios of incommensurable quantities (quantities with different dimensions), and
multiply or divide them.
For example, it makes no sense to ask whether 1 hour is more, the same, or less than 1 kilometre, as these
have different dimensions, nor to add 1 hour to 1 kilometre. However, it makes sense to ask whether 1 mile
is more, the same, or less than 1 kilometre, being the same dimension of physical quantity even though the
units are different. On the other hand, if an object travels 100 km in 2 hours, one may divide these and
conclude that the object's average speed was 50 km/h.

The rule implies that in a physically meaningful expression only quantities of the same dimension can be
added, subtracted, or compared. For example, if mman, mrat and L man denote, respectively, the mass of
some man, the mass of a rat and the length of that man, the dimensionally homogeneous expression
mman + mrat is meaningful, but the heterogeneous expression mman + Lman is meaningless. However,
mman/L2man is fine. Thus, dimensional analysis may be used as a sanity check of physical equations: the
two sides of any equation must be commensurable or have the same dimensions.

Even when two physical quantities have identical dimensions, it may nevertheless be meaningless to
compare or add them. For example, although torque and energy share the dimension T−2 L2 M, they are
fundamentally different physical quantities.

To compare, add, or subtract quantities with the same dimensions but expressed in different units, the
standard procedure is first to convert them all to the same unit. For example, to compare 32 metres with 35
yards, use 1 yard = 0.9144 m to convert 35 yards to 32.004 m.

A related principle is that any physical law that accurately describes the real world must be independent of
the units used to measure the physical variables.[7] For example, Newton's laws of motion must hold true
whether distance is measured in miles or kilometres. This principle gives rise to the form that a conversion
factor between two units that measure the same dimension must take multiplication by a simple constant. It
also ensures equivalence; for example, if two buildings are the same height in feet, then they must be the
same height in metres.

Conversion factor
In dimensional analysis, a ratio which converts one unit of measure into another without changing the
quantity is called a conversion factor. For example, kPa and bar are both units of pressure, and
100 kPa = 1 bar. The rules of algebra allow both sides of an equation to be divided by the same expression,
so this is equivalent to 100 kPa / 1 bar = 1. Since any quantity can be multiplied by 1 without changing it,
the expression "100 kPa / 1 bar" can be used to convert from bars to kPa by multiplying it with the quantity
to be converted, including the unit. For example, 5 bar × 100 kPa / 1 bar = 500 kPa because
5 × 100 / 1 = 500, and bar/bar cancels out, so 5 bar = 500 kPa.

Applications
Dimensional analysis is most often used in physics and chemistry – and in the mathematics thereof – but
finds some applications outside of those fields as well.

Mathematics
A simple application of dimensional analysis to mathematics is in computing the form of the volume of an
n-ball (the solid ball in n dimensions), or the area of its surface, the n-sphere: being an n-dimensional
figure, the volume scales as xn, while the surface area, being (n − 1)-dimensional, scales as xn−1. Thus
the volume of the n -ball in terms of the radius is Cnr n, for some constant Cn. Determining the constant
takes more involved mathematics, but the form can be deduced and checked by dimensional analysis alone.

Finance, economics, and accounting

In finance, economics, and accounting, dimensional analysis is most commonly referred to in terms of the
distinction between stocks and flows. More generally, dimensional analysis is used in interpreting various
financial ratios, economics ratios, and accounting ratios.

For example, the P/E ratio has dimensions of time (unit: year), and can be interpreted as
"years of earnings to earn the price paid".
In economics, debt-to-GDP ratio also has the unit year (debt has a unit of currency, GDP has
a unit of currency/year).
Velocity of money has a unit of 1/years (GDP/money supply has a unit of currency/year over
currency): how often a unit of currency circulates per year.
Annual continuously compounded interest rates and simple interest rates are often
expressed as a percentage (adimensional quantity) while time is expressed as an
adimensional quantity consisting of the number of years. However, if the time includes year
as the unit of measure, the dimension of the rate is 1/year. Of course, there is nothing special
(apart from the usual convention) about using year as a unit of time: any other time unit can
be used. Furthermore, if rate and time include their units of measure, the use of different units
for each is not problematic. In contrast, rate and time need to refer to a common period if they
are adimensional. (Note that effective interest rates can only be defined as adimensional
quantities.)
In financial analysis, bond duration can be defined as (dV/dr)/V, where V is the value of a
bond (or portfolio), r is the continuously compounded interest rate and dV/dr is a derivative.
From the previous point, the dimension of r is 1/time. Therefore, the dimension of duration is
time (usually expressed in years) because dr is in the "denominator" of the derivative.

Fluid mechanics
In fluid mechanics, dimensional analysis is performed to obtain dimensionless pi terms or groups.
According to the principles of dimensional analysis, any prototype can be described by a series of these
terms or groups that describe the behaviour of the system. Using suitable pi terms or groups, it is possible to
develop a similar set of pi terms for a model that has the same dimensional relationships.[8] In other words,
pi terms provide a shortcut to developing a model representing a certain prototype. Common dimensionless
groups in fluid mechanics include:

Reynolds number (Re), generally important in all types of fluid problems:

Froude number (Fr), modeling flow with a free surface:

Euler number (Eu ), used in problems in which pressure is of interest:

Mach number (Ma), important in high speed flows where the velocity approaches or exceeds
the local speed of sound:

where c is the local speed of sound.

History
The origins of dimensional analysis have been disputed by historians.[9][10] The first written application of
dimensional analysis has been credited to François Daviet, a student of Lagrange, in a 1799 article at the
Turin Academy of Science.[10]

This led to the conclusion that meaningful laws must be homogeneous equations in their various units of
measurement, a result which was eventually later formalized in the Buckingham π theorem. Simeon Poisson
also treated the same problem of the parallelogram law by Daviet, in his treatise of 1811 and 1833 (vol I,
p. 39).[11] In the second edition of 1833, Poisson explicitly introduces the term dimension instead of the
Daviet homogeneity.

In 1822, the important Napoleonic scientist Joseph Fourier made the first credited important
contributions[12] based on the idea that physical laws like F = ma should be independent of the units
employed to measure the physical variables.

James Clerk Maxwell played a major role in establishing modern use of dimensional analysis by
distinguishing mass, length, and time as fundamental units, while referring to other units as derived.[13]
Although Maxwell defined length, time and mass to be "the three fundamental units", he also noted that
gravitational mass can be derived from length and time by assuming a form of Newton's law of universal
gravitation in which the gravitational constant G is taken as unity, thereby defining M = T−2 L3 .[14] By
assuming a form of Coulomb's law in which the Coulomb constant ke is taken as unity, Maxwell then
determined that the dimensions of an electrostatic unit of charge were Q = T−1 L3/2 M1/2 ,[15] which, after
substituting his M = T−2 L3 equation for mass, results in charge having the same dimensions as mass, viz.
Q = T−2 L3 .
Dimensional analysis is also used to derive relationships between the physical quantities that are involved in
a particular phenomenon that one wishes to understand and characterize. It was used for the first time in this
way in 1872 by Lord Rayleigh, who was trying to understand why the sky is blue.[16] Rayleigh first
published the technique in his 1877 book The Theory of Sound.[17]

The original meaning of the word dimension, in Fourier's Theorie de la Chaleur, was the numerical value
of the exponents of the base units. For example, acceleration was considered to have the dimension 1 with
respect to the unit of length, and the dimension −2 with respect to the unit of time.[18] This was slightly
changed by Maxwell, who said the dimensions of acceleration are T−2 L, instead of just the exponents.[19]

Examples

A simple example: period of a harmonic oscillator

What is the period of oscillation T of a mass m attached to an ideal linear spring with spring constant k
suspended in gravity of strength g ? That period is the solution for T of some dimensionless equation in the
variables T , m, k, and g . The four quantities have the following dimensions: T [T]; m [M]; k [M/T2 ]; and
g [L/T2 ]. From these we can form only one dimensionless product of powers of our chosen variables,
G1 = T 2k/m [T2 · M/T2 / M = 1], and putting G1 = C for some dimensionless constant C gives the
dimensionless equation sought. The dimensionless product of powers of variables is sometimes referred to
as a dimensionless group of variables; here the term "group" means "collection" rather than mathematical
group. They are often called dimensionless numbers as well.

The variable g does not occur in the group. It is easy to see that it is impossible to form a dimensionless
product of powers that combines g with k, m, and T , because g is the only quantity that involves the
dimension L. This implies that in this problem the g is irrelevant. Dimensional analysis can sometimes yield
strong statements about the irrelevance of some quantities in a problem, or the need for additional
parameters. If we have chosen enough variables to properly describe the problem, then from this argument
we can conclude that the period of the mass on the spring is independent of g : it is the same on the earth or
the moon. The equation demonstrating the existence of a product of powers for our problem can be written
in an entirely equivalent way: , for some dimensionless constant κ (equal to from the
original dimensionless equation).

When faced with a case where dimensional analysis rejects a variable (g , here) that one intuitively expects
to belong in a physical description of the situation, another possibility is that the rejected variable is in fact
relevant, but that some other relevant variable has been omitted, which might combine with the rejected
variable to form a dimensionless quantity. That is, however, not the case here.

When dimensional analysis yields only one dimensionless group, as here, there are no unknown functions,
and the solution is said to be "complete" – although it still may involve unknown dimensionless constants,
such as κ.

A more complex example: energy of a vibrating wire

Consider the case of a vibrating wire of length ℓ (L) vibrating with an amplitude A (L). The wire has a
linear density ρ (M/L) and is under tension s (LM/T2 ), and we want to know the energy E (L2 M/T2 ) in the
wire. Let π 1 and π 2 be two dimensionless products of powers of the variables chosen, given by

The linear density of the wire is not involved. The two groups found can be combined into an equivalent
form as an equation

where F is some unknown function, or, equivalently as

where f is some other unknown function. Here the unknown function implies that our solution is now
incomplete, but dimensional analysis has given us something that may not have been obvious: the energy is
proportional to the first power of the tension. Barring further analytical analysis, we might proceed to
experiments to discover the form for the unknown function f. But our experiments are simpler than in the
absence of dimensional analysis. We'd perform none to verify that the energy is proportional to the tension.
Or perhaps we might guess that the energy is proportional to ℓ , and so infer that E = ℓs. The power of
dimensional analysis as an aid to experiment and forming hypotheses becomes evident.

The power of dimensional analysis really becomes apparent when it is applied to situations, unlike those
given above, that are more complicated, the set of variables involved are not apparent, and the underlying
equations hopelessly complex. Consider, for example, a small pebble sitting on the bed of a river. If the river
flows fast enough, it will actually raise the pebble and cause it to flow along with the water. At what critical
velocity will this occur? Sorting out the guessed variables is not so easy as before. But dimensional analysis
can be a powerful aid in understanding problems like this, and is usually the very first tool to be applied to
complex problems where the underlying equations and constraints are poorly understood. In such cases, the
answer may depend on a dimensionless number such as the Reynolds number, which may be interpreted by
dimensional analysis.

A third example: demand versus capacity for a rotating disc

Consider the case of a thin, solid, parallel-sided rotating disc of axial thickness t (L) and radius R (L). The
disc has a density ρ (M/L3 ), rotates at an angular velocity ω (T−1 ) and this leads to a stress S (T−2 L−1 M) in
the material. There is a theoretical linear elastic solution, given by Lame, to this problem when the disc is
thin relative to its radius, the faces of the disc are free to move axially, and the plane stress constitutive
relations can be assumed to be valid. As the disc becomes thicker relative to the radius then the plane stress
solution breaks down. If the disc is restrained axially on its free faces then a state of plane strain will occur.
However, if this is not the case then the state of stress may only be determined though consideration of
three-dimensional elasticity and there is no known
theoretical solution for this case. An engineer
might, therefore, be interested in establishing a
relationship between the five variables.
Dimensional analysis for this case leads to the
following (5 − 3 = 2) non-dimensional groups:

demand/capacity = ρR 2ω 2/S
thickness/radius or aspect ratio = t/R

Through the use of numerical experiments using,

for example, the finite element method, the nature
of the relationship between the two non- Dimensional analysis and numerical experiments for a
rotating disc
dimensional groups can be obtained as shown in
the figure. As this problem only involves two non-
dimensional groups, the complete picture is provided in a single plot and this can be used as a
design/assessment chart for rotating discs.[20]

Properties

Mathematical properties
The dimensions that can be formed from a given collection of basic physical dimensions, such as T, L, and
M, form an abelian group: The identity is written as 1; L0 = 1, and the inverse of L is 1/L or L−1 . L raised to
any integer power p is a member of the group, having an inverse of L−p or 1/Lp. The operation of the
group is multiplication, having the usual rules for handling exponents (Ln × Lm = Ln+m). Physically, 1/L
can be interpreted as reciprocal length, and 1/T as reciprocal time (see reciprocal second).

An abelian group is equivalent to a module over the integers, with the dimensional symbol Ti Lj Mk
corresponding to the tuple (i, j, k). When physical measured quantities (be they like-dimensioned or
unlike-dimensioned) are multiplied or divided by one other, their dimensional units are likewise multiplied
or divided; this corresponds to addition or subtraction in the module. When measurable quantities are raised
to an integer power, the same is done to the dimensional symbols attached to those quantities; this
corresponds to scalar multiplication in the module.

A basis for such a module of dimensional symbols is called a set of base quantities, and all other vectors are
called derived units. As in any module, one may choose different bases, which yields different systems of
units (e.g., choosing whether the unit for charge is derived from the unit for current, or vice versa).

The group identity, the dimension of dimensionless quantities, corresponds to the origin in this module,
(0, 0, 0).
In certain cases, one can define fractional dimensions, specifically by formally defining fractional powers of
1/2
one-dimensional vector spaces, like V L .[21] However, it is not possible to take arbitrary fractional powers
of units, due to representation-theoretic obstructions.[22]
One can work with vector spaces with given dimensions without needing to use units (corresponding to
coordinate systems of the vector spaces). For example, given dimensions M and L , one has the vector
spaces V M and V L, and can define V ML := V M ⊗ V L as the tensor product. Similarly, the dual space
can be interpreted as having "negative" dimensions.[23] This corresponds to the fact that under the natural
pairing between a vector space and its dual, the dimensions cancel, leaving a dimensionless scalar.

The set of units of the physical quantities involved in a problem correspond to a set of vectors (or a matrix).
The nullity describes some number (e.g., m) of ways in which these vectors can be combined to produce a
zero vector. These correspond to producing (from the measurements) a number of dimensionless quantities,
{π1, ..., πm}. (In fact these ways completely span the null subspace of another different space, of powers
of the measurements.) Every possible way of multiplying (and exponentiating) together the measured
quantities to produce something with the same unit as some derived quantity X can be expressed in the
general form

Consequently, every possible commensurate equation for the physics of the system can be rewritten in the
form

Knowing this restriction can be a powerful tool for obtaining new insight into the system.

Mechanics
The dimension of physical quantities of interest in mechanics can be expressed in terms of base dimensions
T, L, and M – these form a 3-dimensional vector space. This is not the only valid choice of base
dimensions, but it is the one most commonly used. For example, one might choose force, length and mass
as the base dimensions (as some have done), with associated dimensions F, L, M; this corresponds to a
different basis, and one may convert between these representations by a change of basis. The choice of the
base set of dimensions is thus a convention, with the benefit of increased utility and familiarity. The choice
of base dimensions is not entirely arbitrary, because they must form a basis: they must span the space, and
be linearly independent.

For example, F, L, M form a set of fundamental dimensions because they form a basis that is equivalent to
T, L, M: the former can be expressed as [F = LM/T2 ], L, M, while the latter can be expressed as [T =
(LM/F)1/2 ], L, M.

On the other hand, length, velocity and time (T, L, V) do not form a set of base dimensions for mechanics,
for two reasons:

There is no way to obtain mass – or anything derived from it, such as force – without
introducing another base dimension (thus, they do not span the space).
 Velocity, being expressible in terms of length and time (V = L/T), is redundant (the set is not
linearly independent).

Other fields of physics and chemistry

Depending on the field of physics, it may be advantageous to choose one or another extended set of
dimensional symbols. In electromagnetism, for example, it may be useful to use dimensions of T, L, M and
Q, where Q represents the dimension of electric charge. In thermodynamics, the base set of dimensions is
often extended to include a dimension for temperature, Θ. In chemistry, the amount of substance (the
number of molecules divided by the Avogadro constant, ≈ 6.02 × 1023 mol−1 ) is also defined as a base
dimension, N. In the interaction of relativistic plasma with strong laser pulses, a dimensionless relativistic
similarity parameter, connected with the symmetry properties of the collisionless Vlasov equation, is
constructed from the plasma-, electron- and critical-densities in addition to the electromagnetic vector
potential. The choice of the dimensions or even the number of dimensions to be used in different fields of
physics is to some extent arbitrary, but consistency in use and ease of communications are common and
necessary features.

Polynomials and transcendental functions

Bridgman’s theorem restricts the type of function that can be used to define a physical quantity from general
(dimensionally compounded) quantities to only products of powers of the quantities, unless some of the
independent quantities are algebraically combined to yield dimensionless groups, whose functions are
grouped together in the dimensionless numeric multiplying factor.[24][25] This excludes polynomials of
more than one term or transcendental functions not of that form.

Scalar arguments to transcendental functions such as exponential, trigonometric and logarithmic functions,
or to inhomogeneous polynomials, must be dimensionless quantities. (Note: this requirement is somewhat
relaxed in Siano's orientational analysis described below, in which the square of certain dimensioned
quantities are dimensionless.)

While most mathematical identities about dimensionless numbers translate in a straightforward manner to
dimensional quantities, care must be taken with logarithms of ratios: the identity
log(a/b) = log a − log b, where the logarithm is taken in any base, holds for dimensionless numbers a
and b , but it does not hold if a and b are dimensional, because in this case the left-hand side is well-defined
but the right-hand side is not.[26]

Similarly, while one can evaluate monomials (xn) of dimensional quantities, one cannot evaluate
polynomials of mixed degree with dimensionless coefficients on dimensional quantities: for x2, the
expression (3 m)2 = 9 m2 makes sense (as an area), while for x2 + x, the expression
(3 m)2 + 3 m = 9 m2 + 3 m does not make sense.

However, polynomials of mixed degree can make sense if the coefficients are suitably chosen physical
quantities that are not dimensionless. For example,
This is the height to which an object rises in time t if the acceleration of gravity is 9.8
metres per second per second and the initial upward speed is 500 metres per second. It is not necessary for t
to be in seconds. For example, suppose t = 0.01 minutes. Then the first term would be

Combining units and numerical values

The value of a dimensional physical quantity Z is written as the product of a unit [Z ] within the dimension
and a dimensionless numerical value or numerical factor, n .[27]

When like-dimensioned quantities are added or subtracted or compared, it is convenient to express them in
the same unit so that the numerical values of these quantities may be directly added or subtracted. But, in
concept, there is no problem adding quantities of the same dimension expressed in different units. For
example, 1 metre added to 1 foot is a length, but one cannot derive that length by simply adding 1 and 1. A
conversion factor, which is a ratio of like-dimensioned quantities and is equal to the dimensionless unity, is
needed:

is identical to

The factor 0.3048 m/ft is identical to the dimensionless 1, so multiplying by this conversion factor changes
nothing. Then when adding two quantities of like dimension, but expressed in different units, the
appropriate conversion factor, which is essentially the dimensionless 1, is used to convert the quantities to
the same unit so that their numerical values can be added or subtracted.

Only in this manner is it meaningful to speak of adding like-dimensioned quantities of differing units.

Quantity equations
A quantity equation, also sometimes called a complete equation, is an equation that remains valid
independently of the unit of measurement used when expressing the physical quantities.[28]

In contrast, in a numerical-value equation, just the numerical values of the quantities occur, without units.
Therefore, it is only valid when each numerical values is referenced to a specific unit.

For example, a quantity equation for displacement d as speed s multiplied by time difference t would be:

d=st
for s = 5 m/s, where t and d may be expressed in any units, converted if necessary. In contrast, a
corresponding numerical-value equation would be:
 D=5T
where T is the numeric value of t when expressed in seconds and D is the numeric value of d when
expressed in metres.

Generally, the use of numerical-value equations is discouraged.[28]

Dimensionless concepts

Constants
The dimensionless constants that arise in the results obtained, such as the C in the Poiseuille's Law problem
and the κ in the spring problems discussed above, come from a more detailed analysis of the underlying
physics and often arise from integrating some differential equation. Dimensional analysis itself has little to
say about these constants, but it is useful to know that they very often have a magnitude of order unity. This
observation can allow one to sometimes make "back of the envelope" calculations about the phenomenon
of interest, and therefore be able to more efficiently design experiments to measure it, or to judge whether it
is important, etc.

Formalisms
Paradoxically, dimensional analysis can be a useful tool even if all the parameters in the underlying theory
are dimensionless, e.g., lattice models such as the Ising model can be used to study phase transitions and
critical phenomena. Such models can be formulated in a purely dimensionless way. As we approach the
critical point closer and closer, the distance over which the variables in the lattice model are correlated (the
so-called correlation length, χ) becomes larger and larger. Now, the correlation length is the relevant length
scale related to critical phenomena, so one can, e.g., surmise on "dimensional grounds" that the non-
analytical part of the free energy per lattice site should be ~ 1/χd, where d is the dimension of the lattice.

It has been argued by some physicists, e.g., Michael J. Duff,[4][29] that the laws of physics are inherently
dimensionless. The fact that we have assigned incompatible dimensions to Length, Time and Mass is,
according to this point of view, just a matter of convention, borne out of the fact that before the advent of
modern physics, there was no way to relate mass, length, and time to each other. The three independent
dimensionful constants: c, ħ , and G, in the fundamental equations of physics must then be seen as mere
conversion factors to convert Mass, Time and Length into each other.

Just as in the case of critical properties of lattice models, one can recover the results of dimensional analysis
in the appropriate scaling limit; e.g., dimensional analysis in mechanics can be derived by reinserting the
constants ħ , c, and G (but we can now consider them to be dimensionless) and demanding that a
nonsingular relation between quantities exists in the limit c → ∞ , ħ → 0 and G → 0 . In problems
involving a gravitational field the latter limit should be taken such that the field stays finite.

Dimensional equivalences
Following are tables of commonly occurring expressions in physics, related to the dimensions of energy,
momentum, and force.[30][31][32]

SI units

Energy, E
T−2L2M Expression Nomenclature

F = force, d = distance
S = action, t = time, P = power
Mechanical
m = mass, v = velocity, p = momentum
L = angular momentum, I = moment of inertia, ω = angular
velocity

Ideal gases
p = pressure, V = volume, T = temperature, N = amount of
substance

Waves
A = area of wave front, I = wave intensity, t = time, S =
Poynting vector

q = electric charge, ϕ = electric potential (for changes this

is voltage)

E = electric field, B = magnetic field,

ε = permittivity, μ = permeability,
Electromagnetic
V = 3d volume
p = electric dipole moment, m = magnetic moment,
A = area (bounded by a current loop), I = electric current in
loop

Momentum, p
−1
T LM Expression Nomenclature

m = mass, v = velocity, F = force, t = time

Mechanical
S = action, L = angular momentum, r = displacement

= root mean square velocity, m = mass (of a

Thermal
molecule)

Waves ρ = density, V = volume, v = phase velocity

Electromagnetic A = magnetic vector potential
 Force, F
T−2LM Expression Nomenclature

Mechanical m = mass, a = acceleration

Thermal
S = entropy, T = temperature, r = displacement (see
entropic force)

Electromagnetic
E = electric field, B = magnetic field, v = velocity, q =
charge

Programming languages
Dimensional correctness as part of type checking has been studied since 1977.[33] Implementations for
Ada[34] and C++[35] were described in 1985 and 1988. Kennedy's 1996 thesis describes an implementation
in Standard ML,[36] and later in F#.[37] There are implementations for Haskell,[38] OCaml,[39] and
Rust,[40] Python,[41] and a code checker for Fortran.[42][43]
Griffioen's 2019 thesis extended Kennedy's Hindley–Milner type system to support Hart's matrices.[44][45]
McBride and Nordvall-Forsberg show how to use dependent types to extend type systems for units of
measure.[46]

Mathematica 13.2 has a function for transformations with quantities named

NondimensionalizationTransform that applies a nondimensionalization transform to an equation.[47]
Mathematica also has a function to find the dimensions of a unit such as 1 J named UnitDimensions.[48]
Mathematica also has a function that will find dimensionally equivalent combinations of a subset of physical
quantities named DimensionalCombations.[49] Mathematica can also factor out certain dimension with
UnitDimensions by specifying an argument to the function UnityDimensions.[50] For example, you can use
UnityDimensions to factor out angles.[50] In addition to UnitDimensions, Mathematica can find the
dimensions of a QuantityVariable with the function QuantityVariableDimensions.[51]

Geometry: position vs. displacement

Affine quantities
Some discussions of dimensional analysis implicitly describe all quantities as mathematical vectors. In
mathematics scalars are considered a special case of vectors; vectors can be added to or subtracted from
other vectors, and, inter alia, multiplied or divided by scalars. If a vector is used to define a position, this
assumes an implicit point of reference: an origin. While this is useful and often perfectly adequate, allowing
many important errors to be caught, it can fail to model certain aspects of physics. A more rigorous
approach requires distinguishing between position and displacement (or moment in time versus duration, or
absolute temperature versus temperature change).

Consider points on a line, each with a position with respect to a given origin, and distances among them.
Positions and displacements all have units of length, but their meaning is not interchangeable:

adding two displacements should yield a new displacement (walking ten paces then twenty
paces gets you thirty paces forward),
adding a displacement to a position should yield a new position (walking one block down
 the street from an intersection gets you to the next intersection),
subtracting two positions should yield a displacement,
but one may not add two positions.
This illustrates the subtle distinction between affine quantities (ones modeled by an affine space, such as
position) and vector quantities (ones modeled by a vector space, such as displacement).

Vector quantities may be added to each other, yielding a new vector quantity, and a vector
quantity may be added to a suitable affine quantity (a vector space acts on an affine space),
yielding a new affine quantity.
Affine quantities cannot be added, but may be subtracted, yielding relative quantities which
are vectors, and these relative differences may then be added to each other or to an affine
quantity.
Properly then, positions have dimension of affine length, while displacements have dimension of vector
length. To assign a number to an affine unit, one must not only choose a unit of measurement, but also a
point of reference, while to assign a number to a vector unit only requires a unit of measurement.

Thus some physical quantities are better modeled by vectorial quantities while others tend to require affine
representation, and the distinction is reflected in their dimensional analysis.

This distinction is particularly important in the case of temperature, for which the numeric value of absolute
zero is not the origin 0 in some scales. For absolute zero,

−273.15 °C ≘ 0 K = 0 °R ≘ −459.67 °F,

where the symbol ≘ means corresponds to, since although these values on the respective temperature scales
correspond, they represent distinct quantities in the same way that the distances from distinct starting points
to the same end point are distinct quantities, and cannot in general be equated.

For temperature differences,

1 K = 1 °C ≠ 1 °F = 1 °R.

(Here °R refers to the Rankine scale, not the Réaumur scale). Unit conversion for temperature differences is
simply a matter of multiplying by, e.g., 1 °F / 1 K (although the ratio is not a constant value). But because
some of these scales have origins that do not correspond to absolute zero, conversion from one temperature
scale to another requires accounting for that. As a result, simple dimensional analysis can lead to errors if it
is ambiguous whether 1 K means the absolute temperature equal to −272.15 °C, or the temperature
difference equal to 1 °C.

Orientation and frame of reference

Similar to the issue of a point of reference is the issue of orientation: a displacement in 2 or 3 dimensions is
not just a length, but is a length together with a direction. (In 1 dimension, this issue is equivalent to the
distinction between positive and negative.) Thus, to compare or combine two dimensional quantities in
multi-dimensional Euclidean space, one also needs a bearing: they need to be compared to a frame of
reference.
This leads to the extensions discussed below, namely Huntley's directed dimensions and Siano's
orientational analysis.

Huntley's extensions
Huntley has pointed out that a dimensional analysis can become more powerful by discovering new
independent dimensions in the quantities under consideration, thus increasing the rank of the dimensional
matrix.[52]

He introduced two approaches:

The magnitudes of the components of a vector are to be considered dimensionally

independent. For example, rather than an undifferentiated length dimension L, we may have
Lx represent dimension in the x-direction, and so forth. This requirement stems ultimately
from the requirement that each component of a physically meaningful equation (scalar,
vector, or tensor) must be dimensionally consistent.
Mass as a measure of the quantity of matter is to be considered dimensionally independent
from mass as a measure of inertia.

Directed dimensions
As an example of the usefulness of the first approach, suppose we wish to calculate the distance a
cannonball travels when fired with a vertical velocity component and a horizontal velocity component
, assuming it is fired on a flat surface. Assuming no use of directed lengths, the quantities of interest are
then R, the distance travelled, with dimension L, , , both dimensioned as T−1 L, and g the downward
acceleration of gravity, with dimension T−2 L.

With these four quantities, we may conclude that the equation for the range R may be written:

Or dimensionally

from which we may deduce that and , which leaves one exponent
undetermined. This is to be expected since we have two fundamental dimensions T and L, and four
parameters, with one equation.

However, if we use directed length dimensions, then will be dimensioned as T−1 Lx, as T−1 Ly, R as
Lx and g as T−2 Ly. The dimensional equation becomes:

and we may solve completely as a = 1 , b = 1 and c = −1 . The increase in deductive power gained by
the use of directed length dimensions is apparent.

Huntley's concept of directed length dimensions however has some serious limitations:
 It does not deal well with vector equations involving the cross product,
nor does it handle well the use of angles as physical variables.
It also is often quite difficult to assign the L, Lx, Ly, Lz, symbols to the physical variables involved in the
problem of interest. He invokes a procedure that involves the "symmetry" of the physical problem. This is
often very difficult to apply reliably: It is unclear as to what parts of the problem that the notion of
"symmetry" is being invoked. Is it the symmetry of the physical body that forces are acting upon, or to the
points, lines or areas at which forces are being applied? What if more than one body is involved with
different symmetries?

Consider the spherical bubble attached to a cylindrical tube, where one wants the flow rate of air as a
function of the pressure difference in the two parts. What are the Huntley extended dimensions of the
viscosity of the air contained in the connected parts? What are the extended dimensions of the pressure of
the two parts? Are they the same or different? These difficulties are responsible for the limited application of
Huntley's directed length dimensions to real problems.

Quantity of matter
In Huntley's second approach, he holds that it is sometimes useful (e.g., in fluid mechanics and
thermodynamics) to distinguish between mass as a measure of inertia (inertial mass), and mass as a measure
of the quantity of matter. Quantity of matter is defined by Huntley as a quantity only proportional to
inertial mass, while not implicating inertial properties. No further restrictions are added to its definition.

For example, consider the derivation of Poiseuille's Law. We wish to find the rate of mass flow of a viscous
fluid through a circular pipe. Without drawing distinctions between inertial and substantial mass, we may
choose as the relevant variables:

Symbol Variable Dimension

mass flow rate T−1M

pressure gradient along the pipe T−2L−2M

ρ density L−3M

η dynamic fluid viscosity T−1L−1M

r radius of the pipe L

There are three fundamental variables, so the above five equations will yield two independent
dimensionless variables:

If we distinguish between inertial mass with dimension and quantity of matter with dimension ,
then mass flow rate and density will use quantity of matter as the mass parameter, while the pressure
gradient and coefficient of viscosity will use inertial mass. We now have four fundamental parameters, and
one dimensionless constant, so that the dimensional equation may be written:
where now only C is an undetermined constant (found to be equal to by methods outside of
dimensional analysis). This equation may be solved for the mass flow rate to yield Poiseuille's law.

Huntley's recognition of quantity of matter as an independent quantity dimension is evidently successful in

the problems where it is applicable, but his definition of quantity of matter is open to interpretation, as it
lacks specificity beyond the two requirements he postulated for it. For a given substance, the SI dimension
amount of substance, with unit mole, does satisfy Huntley's two requirements as a measure of quantity of
matter, and could be used as a quantity of matter in any problem of dimensional analysis where Huntley's
concept is applicable.

Siano's extension: orientational analysis

Angles are, by convention, considered to be dimensionless quantities (although the wisdom of this is
contested [53]) . As an example, consider again the projectile problem in which a point mass is launched
from the origin (x, y) = (0, 0) at a speed v and angle θ above the x-axis, with the force of gravity directed
along the negative y-axis. It is desired to find the range R, at which point the mass returns to the x-axis.
Conventional analysis will yield the dimensionless variable π = R g/v2, but offers no insight into the
relationship between R and θ.

Siano has suggested that the directed dimensions of Huntley be replaced by using orientational symbols
1x 1 y 1 z to denote vector directions, and an orientationless symbol 10 .[54] Thus, Huntley's Lx becomes
L1x with L specifying the dimension of length, and 1 x specifying the orientation. Siano further shows that
the orientational symbols have an algebra of their own. Along with the requirement that 1 i−1 = 1 i, the
following multiplication table for the orientation symbols results:

The orientational symbols form a group (the Klein four-group or "Viergruppe"). In this system, scalars
always have the same orientation as the identity element, independent of the "symmetry of the problem".
Physical quantities that are vectors have the orientation expected: a force or a velocity in the z-direction has
the orientation of 1 z. For angles, consider an angle θ that lies in the z-plane. Form a right triangle in the z-
plane with θ being one of the acute angles. The side of the right triangle adjacent to the angle then has an
orientation 1 x and the side opposite has an orientation 1 y. Since (using ~ to indicate orientational
equivalence) tan(θ) = θ + ... ~ 1 y/1 x we conclude that an angle in the xy-plane must have an orientation
1y/1x = 1 z, which is not unreasonable. Analogous reasoning forces the conclusion that sin(θ) has
orientation 1 z while cos(θ) has orientation 10 . These are different, so one concludes (correctly), for
example, that there are no solutions of physical equations that are of the form a cos(θ) + b sin(θ), where
a and b are real scalars. An expression such as is not dimensionally inconsistent
since it is a special case of the sum of angles formula and should properly be written:

which for and yields . Siano distinguishes between

geometric angles, which have an orientation in 3-dimensional space, and phase angles associated with time-
based oscillations, which have no spatial orientation, i.e. the orientation of a phase angle is .

The assignment of orientational symbols to physical quantities and the requirement that physical equations
be orientationally homogeneous can actually be used in a way that is similar to dimensional analysis to
derive more information about acceptable solutions of physical problems. In this approach, one solves the
dimensional equation as far as one can. If the lowest power of a physical variable is fractional, both sides of
the solution is raised to a power such that all powers are integral, putting it into normal form. The
orientational equation is then solved to give a more restrictive condition on the unknown powers of the
orientational symbols. The solution is then more complete than the one that dimensional analysis alone
gives. Often, the added information is that one of the powers of a certain variable is even or odd.

As an example, for the projectile problem, using orientational symbols, θ, being in the xy-plane will thus
have dimension 1 z and the range of the projectile R will be of the form:

Dimensional homogeneity will now correctly yield a = −1 and b = 2 , and orientational homogeneity
requires that . In other words, that c must be an odd integer. In fact, the required
function of theta will be sin(θ)cos(θ) which is a series consisting of odd powers of θ.

It is seen that the Taylor series of sin(θ) and cos(θ) are orientationally homogeneous using the above
multiplication table, while expressions like cos(θ) + sin(θ) and exp(θ) are not, and are (correctly)
deemed unphysical.

Siano's orientational analysis is compatible with the conventional conception of angular quantities as being
dimensionless, and within orientational analysis, the radian may still be considered a dimensionless unit.
The orientational analysis of a quantity equation is carried out separately from the ordinary dimensional
analysis, yielding information that supplements the dimensional analysis.

See also
Buckingham π theorem
Dimensionless numbers in fluid mechanics
Fermi estimate – used to teach dimensional analysis
Numerical-value equation
Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis
Similitude – an application of dimensional analysis
 System of measurement

Related areas of mathematics

Covariance and contravariance of vectors
Exterior algebra
Geometric algebra
Quantity calculus

Notes
1. Bolster, Diogo; Hershberger, Robert E.; Donnelly, Russell E. (September 2011). "Dynamic
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2. BIPM (2019). "2.3.3 Dimensions of quantities". SI Brochure: The International System of
Units (SI) (https://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure) (PDF) (in English and French)
(v. 1.08, 9th ed.). pp. 136–137. ISBN 978-92-822-2272-0. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
3. Yalin, M. Selim (1971). "Principles of the Theory of Dimensions" (https://link.springer.com/ch
apter/10.1007/978-1-349-00245-0_1). Theory of Hydraulic Models. pp. 1–34.
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ISBN 978-1-349-00247-4.
4. Duff, M.J.; Okun, L.B.; Veneziano, G. (September 2002), "Trialogue on the number of
fundamental constants", Journal of High Energy Physics, 2002 (3): 023,
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−1
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Further reading
Giancoli, Douglas C. (2014). "1. Introduction, Measurement, Estimating §1.8 Dimensions
and Dimensional Analysis". Physics: Principles with Applications (7th ed.). Pearson.
ISBN 978-0-321-62592-2. OCLC 853154197 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/853154197).

External links
List of dimensions for variety of physical quantities (https://web.archive.org/web/2010041014
2839/http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Fluids/Dimension_Analysis.html)
Unicalc Live web calculator doing units conversion by dimensional analysis (http://www.calc
hemy.com/uclive.htm)
A C++ implementation of compile-time dimensional analysis in the Boost open-source
libraries (http://www.boost.org/doc/libs/1_66_0/doc/html/boost_units.html)
Buckingham's pi-theorem (http://www.math.ntnu.no/~hanche/notes/buckingham/buckingham
-a4.pdf)
Quantity System calculator for units conversion based on dimensional approach (http://Quant
itySystem.CodePlex.com) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171224025732/http://qua
ntitysystem.codeplex.com/) 24 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine
Units, quantities, and fundamental constants project dimensional analysis maps (http://www.
outlawmapofphysics.com)
Bowley, Roger (2009). "Dimensional Analysis" (http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/dimensi
onal.htm). Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
Dureisseix, David (2019). An introduction to dimensional analysis (https://cel.archives-ouvert
es.fr/cel-01380149) (lecture). INSA Lyon.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dimensional_analysis&oldid=1230929451"