Manual Testing

Topics:
1. SDLC(Software Development Life Cycle)
2. STLC(Software Testing Life Cycle)
3. Software Testing-Definition
4. Importance of Testing in Software industry
5. Principles of testing
6. Good attributes of a Good test
7. Root causes of a defect
8. Main objectives of a Good tester
9. Methods of Testing
10.Black box Testing techniques
11.Levels of testing
12.Types of Testing
13.Test Case,Test Scenarios & Test Prioritization
14.Verification and Validation
15.Estimation
16.Defect
17.Defect Life Cycle
18.Defect- Severity and priority
19.How to Raise/Log a Defect
20.SDLC models
21.RTM
SDLC-Software Development Life Cycle:

SDLC is a systematic approach to develop the software. SDLC has the following
phases/Stages:

Requirement Gathering and Analysis

Design

Coding

Testing

Deployment

Maintenance

 Requirement gathering and analysis: Business requirements are

gathered in this phase. This phase is the main focus of the project
managers and stake holders. Meetings with managers, stake holders and
users are held in order to determine the requirements like; who is going
to use the system? How will they use the system? What data should be
input into the system? What data should be output by the system?
 These are general questions that get answered during a requirements
gathering phase. After requirement gathering these requirements are
analyzed for their validity and the possibility of incorporating the
requirements in the system to be development is also studied.

 Finally, a Requirement Specification document is created which serves

the purpose of guideline for the next phase of the model.

 2) Design: In this phase the system and software design is prepared

from the requirement specifications which were studied in the first
phase. System Design helps in specifying hardware and system
requirements and also helps in defining overall system architecture. The
system design specifications serve as input for the next phase of the
model.

 3) Implementation / Coding: On receiving system design documents,

the work code is produced so it is the main focus for the developer. This
is the longest phase of the software development life cycle.

 4) Testing: After the code is developed it is tested against the

requirements to make sure that the product is actually solving the needs
addressed and gathered during the requirements phase.

 5) Deployment: After successful testing the product is delivered /

deployed to the customer for their use.

6) Maintenance: Once when the customers starts using the developed system
then the actual problems comes up and needs to be solved from time to time.
This process where the care is taken for the developed product is known as
maintenance.

STLC-Software Testing Life Cycle:

STLC is the systematic approach to Test Software. It has the following

phases/Stages:
Requirement Analysis:
During this phase test team studies the requirements from a testing point of
view to identify the testable requirements. The QA team may interact with
various stakeholders (Client, Business Analyst, Technical Leads, and System
Architects etc) to understand the requirements in detail. Requirements could
be either Functional (defining what the software must do) or Non Functional
(defining system performance /security availability) .Automation feasibility for
the given testing project is also done in this stage.

Activities
 Log the clarifications (if any) in the clarification tracker during this
requirement analysis phase.
 Identify types of tests to be performed.
 Gather details about testing priorities and focus.
 Identify test environment details where testing is supposed to be carried
out.
 Automation feasibility analysis (if required).

Test Planning
This phase is also called Test Strategy phase. Typically , in this stage, a Senior
QA manager will determine effort and cost estimates for the project and would
prepare and finalize the Test Plan.
Activities
 Preparation of test plan/strategy document for various types of testing
 Test tool selection
 Test effort estimation
 Resource planning and determining roles and responsibilities.
 Training requirement

Deliverables
 Test plan /strategy document.
 Effort estimation document.

Test Case Development

This phase involves creation, verification and rework of test cases & test
scripts. Test data, is identified/created and is reviewed and then reworked as
well.

Activities
 Create test cases, automation scripts (if applicable)
 Review and baseline test cases and scripts
 Create test data (If Test Environment is available)

Deliverables
 Test cases/scripts
 Test data
Test Environment Setup
Test environment decides the software and hardware conditions under which
a work product is tested. Test environment set-up is one of the critical aspects
of testing process and can be done in parallel with Test Case Development
Stage. Test team may not be involved in this activity if the
customer/development team provides the test environment in which case
the test team is required to do a readiness check (smoke testing) of the given
environment.
Activities
 Understand the required architecture, environment set-up and prepare
hardware and software requirement list for the Test Environment.
 Setup test Environment and test data
 Perform smoke test on the build

Test Execution
During this phase test team will carry out the testing based on the test plans
and the test cases prepared. Bugs will be reported back to the development
team for correction and retesting will be performed.

Activities
 Execute tests as per plan
 Document test results, and log defects for failed cases
 Map defects to test cases in RTM
 Retest the defect fixes
 Track the defects to closure

Deliverables
 Completed RTM with execution status
 Test cases updated with results
 Defect reports

Test Cycle Closure

Testing team will meet, discuss and analyze testing artifacts to identify
strategies that have to be implemented in future, taking lessons from the
current test cycle. The idea is to remove the process bottlenecks for future test
cycles and share best practices for any similar projects in future.

Activities
 Evaluate cycle completion criteria based on Time, Test
coverage,Cost,Software,Critical Business Objectives , Quality
 Prepare test metrics based on the above parameters.
 Document the learning out of the project
 Prepare Test closure report

Deliverables
 Test Closure report
 Test metrics

Software Testing:

Software testing is a process of executing the system/software with the

intention of finding errors.
(OR)
Gaining a confidence or establishing a confidence that a system does, what a
system suppose to do.

Importance of Software testing:

Few incidents due to software bugs are as follows:

1. In 1994, China airlines airbus a300 crashed and 264 people died.
This is due to software bug.
2. In 1999, failed satellite launch lost around $1.2 billion due to
software bug.
3. 1996, An US bank’s 823 customers are credited with $920 million
due to software bug.
4. In 1985, Canada's Therac-25 radiation therapy machine
malfunctioned due to software bug and delivered lethal radiation
doses to patients, leaving 3 people dead and critically injuring 3
others.

Hence by seeing the above examples, it is clear that a software bug is

dangerous to human lives as well as expensive (money loss & human loss due
to software bug).

Principles of Software testing:

1. Test should be planned long before the testing begins

 2. Testing should begin early in the life cycle. It should start from
requirement phase gathering and analysis itself.
3. Testing should follow “pareto principle” (80%: 20%) i.e. 80% of defects
can be found with 20% of effective test cases.
4. All tests should be traceable to customer requirements.

Good attributes of a Good test:

1. Test case should have proper Input, output or an expected result.

2. Each Test case should be reviewed/inspected thoroughly.
3. Preparing test cases for valid, Invalid, Expected, Unexpected scenarios.
4. Planning test with high probability of finding errors.

Root causes of a defect:

“IMISMIS” will be the root causes of a defect as below:

I--Improper requirement (wrong requirement capture)

MMiscommunication
IInadequate training
SStandard non conformance
MMissed out
IImplementation of logic (Wrong design/Wrong coding)
SSub optimal implementation

Wrong test data, Wrong testing, Wrong test environment will also be the
causes for defects.

Main objectives of Good Tester:

1. Good Tester should hunt for errors and he should be constructive

destructor. I.e. he should break/destroy the code to find errors.
2. He should be uncompromised regarding defects.
3. He should add value to the team and should be a difference
maker.
4. Good tester should be proactive rather than being reactive.

Methods of Testing:
Black box and White box are the two methods of Testing
White box testing:
Testing done with internal knowledge of code.usually done by the developers.

White box testing methods:

1. Condition coverage(a>b)
2. Statement coverage(Check statements)
3. Path coverage(case loops)
4. Decision coverage(a>b,b>c)
Black box Testing:
Testing done without internal knowledge of code. It is based on requirements
and functionality done with broad perspective.

Black box Testing techniques:

Boundary value analysis(BVA):

 Boundary value analysis (BVA) is based on testing at the boundaries

between partitions.
 Here we have both valid boundaries (in the valid partitions) and invalid
boundaries (in the invalid partitions).

Eg: If the textbox “Username” accepts values from 25-45, then we can’t test
the values from 25 to 45 i.e. from 25, 26, 27...upto 45. It’s time
consuming.Hence opting BVA as below:

So we have to treat the boundary as a (25) and b (45)

Now we have to consider a-1, a, a+1 and b-1, b, b+1

24, 25, 26 and 44, 45, 46 are the values considered.

Equivalence partioning:

In this technique, you divide set of test condition into partition that can be
considered the same. To get a better idea let see an example.

Suppose if we have larger value like address field should accept values from
100-200, if we go with BVA, then we will miss many values in-between them.
So we have to divide the values as classes below:
100-125

126-150

151-175

176-200

Now apply BVA for

100 to 125 (acceptable values are 99,100,101,124,125,126)

126 to 150 (acceptable values are 125,126,127,149,150,151){Here 125,126 can

be ignored since it is already covered in the class 100-125}

151-175(acceptable values are 150,151,152,174,175,176){Here 150,151 can be

ignored since it is already covered in the class 126-150)

176-200(acceptable values are 175,176,177, 199,200,201){Here 175,176 can be

ignored since it is already covered in class 151-175)

Error guessing:

Experience based technique where the test analyst uses his / her experience to
guess the problematic areas of the application. If the analyst guesses that the
login page is error prone, then the testers write more detailed test cases
concentrating on the login page. Testers can think of variety of combinations of
data to test the login page.

In date field we can’t give 1000, we can give 10/12/2015.

Error based testing:

Based on past history. Based on Previous projects experience testers can

analyse the areas where defects may arise in future.

Decision Table Testing

Decision Table Testing is a good way to deal with a combination of inputs, which
produce different results. It helps reduce test effort in verifying each and every
combinations of test data, at the same time ensuring complete coverage
Example: To understand the importance of Decision Table Making we will see an
example, let's consider the behavior of Search Flights Button for different
combinations of Fly From & Fly To.

Rule 1:When destination for both Fly From & Fly To are not set the Flight Icon is
disabled. In the decision table, we register values False for Fly From & Fly To and the
outcome would be False, which is Flights Button will be disabled. Likewise, you can
decide different outcome for different situation.

Rule 2: When Fly From destination is set but Fly to is not set, Flight button is
disabled. Correspondingly, you register True for Fly from destination in the decision
table, and the rest of the entries are false.
Rule 3: When Fly from destination is not set but Fly to destination is set, Flight button
is disabled and you make entries in the decision table.

Rule 4: only when Fly to and Fly from destinations are set, Flights button is enabled
and you make the corresponding entry in the decision table.

If you observe the outcomes for Rule 1, 2 & 3 it remains the same. So you can select
any one of them and rule 4 for your testing.

Levels of testing:

Unit Testing

Integration Testing

System Testing

User Acceptance Testing

Unit testing: This is the first level in Testing. Unit testing is testing the
individual components/units of software. Usually done by the developer. It is a
white box testing method. Also called as component testing. Javascript
assertion unit is one of the tool used for unit testing.

Integration testing:

In integration testing individual units are combined and tested as a group to

verify the data flow between them are proper.Also called as String or thread
testing.
Approaches/Methodologies/Strategies of Integration Testing:
The Software Industry uses variety of strategies to execute Integration testing
as below

1. Big Bang Approach

2. Incremental Approach: which is further divided into following
o 2.1 Top Down Approach
o 2.2 Bottom Up Approach
o 2.3 Sandwich Approach - Combination of Top Down and Bottom
Up
Below are the different strategies, the way they are executed and their
limitations as well advantages.

Big Bang Approach:

Here all component are integrated together at once, and then tested.

Advantages:
 Convenient for small systems.

Disadvantages:
 Given the sheer number of interfaces that need to be tested in this
approach, some interfaces links to be tested could be missed easily.
 Since the integration testing can commence only after "all" the modules
are designed, testing team will have less time for execution in the testing
phase.
Incremental Approach:
In this approach, testing is done by joining two or more modules that
are logically related. Then the other related modules are added and tested for
the proper functioning. Process continues until all of the modules are joined
and tested successfully.

This process is carried out by using dummy programs called Stubs and Drivers.
Stubs and Drivers do not implement the entire programming logic of the
software module but just simulate data communication with the calling
module.

Stub: Is called by the Module under Test.

Driver: Calls the Module to be tested.

Incremental Approach in turn is carried out by two different Methods:

 Bottom Up
 Top Down

Bottom up Integration
In the bottom up strategy, each module at lower levels is tested with higher
modules until all modules are tested. It takes help of Drivers for testing

Diagrammatic Representation:

Advantages:
 Fault localization is easier.
 No time is wasted waiting for all modules to be developed unlike Big-
bang approach

Disadvantages:
 Critical modules (at the top level of software architecture) which control
the flow of application are tested last and may be prone to defects.
 Early prototype is not possible
Top down Integration:
In Top to down approach, testing takes place from top to down following the
control flow of the software system.

Takes help of stubs for testing.

Diagrammatic Representation:

Advantages:
 Fault Localization is easier.
 Possibility to obtain an early prototype.
 Critical Modules are tested on priority; major design flaws could be
found and fixed first.

Disadvantages:
 Needs many Stubs.
 Modules at lower level are tested inadequately.
Hybrid/sandwitch: Combination of both top down and bottomup approach

System testing
  The process of testing an integrated system to verify that it meets specified
requirements. Testing the overall system requirements is system testing.

User acceptance testing:

This testing is done by the end users of the software. Usually clients will
perform UAT to decide whether to accept the software or not.

Types of Testing:

Functional and Non functional testing are the major classifications.

Functional testing: Testing based on the functional specifications provided by

the client. Validating behaviour of the application.

Under functional testing, we have:

1. Unit testing
2. Integration testing
3. System testing
4. User acceptance testing
5. Smoke testing
6. Sanity testing
7. Regression testing

Smoke testing:

This testing is done to verify/validate whether the basic and critical

functionalities are working fine in software. It is also called as BVT (Build
Verification Testing). This is done to check the stability of the system. It is a
formal scripted testing (i.e. separate smoke test cases will be in place).

Sanity testing:

This is a subset of regression testing. This is done when minor bug fixes/minor
changes in the application had happened. This is done before releasing the
product to the customer (before UAT).

This is mostly non scripted testing (without test cases)

Regression testing:
This is done to verify because of new changes in the application whether the
existing functionalities are not getting affected. During Change
Request/Enhancement request/Bug fixes, testers will run the regression test
cases to ensure the existing functionalities are not getting affected/impacted.

Non functional testing:

Testing done based out of non functional requirements such as

performance,security....

Types:

1. Performance(Load , Stress testing)

2. Security testing
3. Compatibility testing
4. Usability testing

Load testing:

Load testing is meant to test the system by constantly and steadily increasing
the load on the system till the time it reaches the threshold limit. It is the
simplest form of testing which employs the use of automation tools such as
LoadRunner or any other good tools, which are available. Load testing is also
famous by the names like volume testing and endurance testing.

Stress testing: Verify how the system behaves during the stressed conditions.

Like in open office, enter beyond 65,000 characters and system should
smoothly handle the stressed condition and it should not accept more than
65000 characters.

Security testing:

Testing whether the application or software is secured or not.

Eg are Testing the Authentication(Allowing only valid users to access the

application), authorization, user privileges

Compatibility testing:

Testing whether the application is compatible and working fine in different

platforms like browsers, OS...
Usability testing:

Testing in perspective of user. Like navigations, resizing windows, tab, scroll

bar, user friendly error messages

Test cases , Test scenarios & Test Prioritization:

A set of input values, execution preconditions, expected results and execution

Post conditions, developed for a particular objective or test condition, such as
to exercise a particular program path or to verify compliance with a specific
requirement.

Test case is “How to be tested”

Test scenarios & Test Prioritization:

Test scenarios will tell us about “What to test”?

Verification & Validation:

Verification:

>>This is process oriented.

>>Are we doing job right?

>>Behaving according to user specification

All reviews, Inspections, walkthrough, Audit comes under the verification

activity.

Validation:

>>Are we doing right job?

>> Product oriented. Actual testing comes under validation activity.

>>Meeting customers’ expectations.

Estimation:

Why test estimation?

Two questions you can expect from your clients when discussing potential test
engagements are

For small projects, these questions are relatively easy to answer. But for the
big project you must think hard to answer those questions.

What to Estimate?
 Resources: Resources are required to carry out any project tasks. They
can be people, equipment, facilities, funding, or anything else capable of
definition required for the completion of a project activity.
 Times : Time is the most valuable resource in a project. Every project has
a deadline to delivery.
 Human Skills : Human skills mean the knowledge and the experience of
the Team members. They affect to your estimation. For example, a team,
whose members have low testing skills, will take more time to finish the
project than the one which has high testing skills.
 Cost: Cost is the project budget. Generally speaking, it means how
much money it takes to finish the project.

How to estimate ?

Following are the popular test estimation technique-

Following is the 4 Step process to arrive at an estimate

You will learn how to combine these techniques to find the estimate for
Bankcase study.
Step1) Divide the whole project task into subtasks
Task is a piece of work that has been given to someone. To do this, you can use
the Work Breakdown Structure technique.

In this technique, a complex project is divided into modules. The modules are
divided into sub-modules. Each sub-module is further divided into
functionality. It means divide the whole project task into the smallest tasks.
Use the Work Break Down structure to break out the Bank project into 5
smaller tasks-

After that, you can break out each task to the sub-task. The purpose of this
activity is create task as detailedas possible.

Task Sub task

Analyze software requirement Investigate the soft requirement specs
specification
Interview with the developer & other stakeholders to kno
the website

Create the Test Specification Design test scenarios

Create test cases

Review and revise test cases

Execute the test cases Build up the test environment

Execute the test cases

Review test execution results

Report the defects

Create the defect reports

Report the defects

Step 2) Allocate each task to team member

In this step, each task is assigned to the appropriate member in the project team.
You can assigned task as follows

Task Members

Analyze software requirement All the members

specification
Create the test specification Tester/Test Analyst

Build up the test environment Test Administrator

Execute the test cases Tester, Test Administrator

Report defects Tester

Step 3) Estimate the effort for tasks

There are 2 techniques which you can apply to estimate the effort for tasks

1. Functional Point Method

2. Three Point Estimation

Method 1) Function Point Method

In this method, the Test Manager estimates Size, Duration and Cost for the
tasks

Step 4) Validate the estimation

Once you create an aggregate estimate for all the tasks mentioned in the WBS,
you need to forward it to themanagement board, who
will review and approve it.
The member of management board could comprise of Project Manager &
other stakeholders.

The management board will review and discuss your estimation plan with you.
You may explain them your estimation logically and reasonably so that they
can approve your estimation plan.

Defects: Defects are deviations/variations from desired product attribute. I.e. if

the developed product is not matching with the requirements, then the testers
will raise or log these variations which are known as defects.

Defect Life Cycle:

The following diagram depicts the Defect Life Cycle:

Step1: If the Tester finds a new defect, he will log/raise the defect, and then
the status of the Defect will be “NEW”.

Step2: Now the development Manager will analyse the defect, he will perform
the following actions:

1. If the defect is not a valid defect, then Dev Manager will reject the
defect. Now the status of the defect will be REJECTED. E.g.: Invalid
test data. In the flight reservation application, if the tester enters
the wrong password as selenium (the expected password is
mercury).
2. If the defect is not in scope, then he can defer the defect. Now the
status of the defect will be DEFFERED. E.g.: In banking project, if
the “View mini statement” is not scoped for that release, if the
tester finds defect in that module, then dev team can defer the
defect for the future releases. I.e. defect can be resolved in the
future builds.
3. If the defect is already raised, then he can make the status of the
defect to “DUPLICATE” which indicates the defect has been
already raised by the testers.

Step3: If the Defects are Valid, in scope, not duplicate, then the development
team will start fixing the defect. At this point of time, they will change the
status as “IN PROGRESS” which indicates that they have started working on
the defect.

Step4: If the developer fixes the defect, then he will change the status as
“FIXED”.

Step5: If the tester retest the defect, if the defect has been fixed then he will
change the status as “Closed”. If the defect has NOT been fixed, then he will
change the status as “Reopen”.

Also if the tester closes the defect in Release1, then in Release2 if the same
defect appears, then he can reopen the closed defect. E.g.: In Release1, if
tester raises defect in Delete customer functionality (i.e. if he is unable to
delete the customer and logs this defect [defect id –D1001), after developer
fixes this defect, if the defect works fine, he will close the defect. In Release2, if
the same defect arises, i.e. if the tester is unable to delete the customer, then
he can reopen the closed defect (D1001) in Release1.

Defect –Severity & Priority:

Severity:

Severity is the attribute that describes the Degree of impact (DOI) on the
system.

Different severities are listed below:

1. Critical
2. High
3. Medium
4. Low

Critical: This is the show stopper. This severity will be provided to defect when
the Major functionality is broken , System crashes or hangs, if there is no
workaround for the issue.

Eg: If user tries to login into the banking site, he is unable to login and system
crashes immediately.
High: This severity type will be provided to the defect when the
feature/function is significantly affected or it does not work. There might be
workaround but it is difficult to user or impractical.

Eg: In the registration form, upon entering all the values, if the user tries to
click on save button, system hangs or does not save the file. Workaround might
be user has to enter all the values in the registration form, and shall save the
file in the File >Save menu.

Medium: This severity type will be provided to the defect when a medium
functionality is affected. There might be workaround for this issue.

Eg: If the Delete customer functionality is not working and this is medium
severity issue.

Low: This severity type will be provided to the defect which does not
affect/impact the system functionality much.

Eg: Spelling mistakes, font size.

How to Raise/Log a Defect:

While raising the defect, the tester has to provide the following details:

Defect ID:

If the tester raises the defect in excel sheet, then he has to provide the unique
defect ID. If the tester raises the defect in Defect tracking tool, the defect ID
will be auto generated. Eg: AM_DEF_01, AM_DEF_02, AM_DEF_03....

Defect Summary:

This is the short description about the defect. Mostly it should be one liner as
well as it should describe what the defect is all about.

Eg: NewCusCreation_Improper error message for First char space in Name

field.(It would be better to give the module name initially for future references
and more clarity).

Status:
If the defect is newly raised by the tester, then its status will be New.

Raised by:

Tester name (who found the defect) must be provided under this section.

Assigned to:

Developer name (who has to fix the defect) should be provided under this
section.

Tested on Version:

In which Build version the tester has found the defect.

Eg: V1

Test case ID:

Relevant Test case ID’s should be provided under this section.

Steps to reproduce:

This is the important section and it should contain the detailed steps required
to replicate the issue.

Eg:

1) Click on New customer link.

2)In the Name field,Enter First character Blank space

3) Verify the display of proper error message

Expected Result:

An error message "First character cannot be space" must be shown In Name

Field

Actual result:

An error message "Numbers are not allowed" has been displayed.

Severity: Based on the impact, the tester has to provide the severity for the
defect.
Eg: Medium

Attachments: Tester has to attach the screenshots of the issue with clear steps
under this section.

SDLC Models:
1. Waterfall model
2. V Model
3. Incremental model
4. Agile model
5. Iterative model
6. Spiral model

Waterfall model:

The Waterfall Model was first Process Model to be introduced. It is also

referred to as a linear-sequential life cycle model. It is very simple to
understand and use. In a waterfall model, each phase must be completed fully
before the next phase can begin. This type of model is basically used for the
project which is small and there are no uncertain requirements. In this model
the testing starts only after the development is complete. In waterfall model
phases do not overlap.

Diagram of Waterfall-model:
Advantages of waterfall model:

 This model is simple and easy to understand and use.

 It is easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model – each phase has
specific deliverables and a review process.
 In this model phases are processed and completed one at a time. Phases
do not overlap.
 Waterfall model works well for smaller projects where requirements are
very well understood.
Disadvantages of waterfall model:

 Once an application is in the testing stage, it is very difficult to go back

and change something that was not well-thought out in the concept stage.
 High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
 Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to
high risk of changing.
When to use the waterfall model:

 This model is used only when the requirements are very well known,
clear and fixed.
 Product definition is stable.
 Technology is understood.
 There are no ambiguous requirements
 Ample resources with required expertise are available freely
 The project is short.
Very less customer enter action is involved during the development of the
product. Once the product is ready then only it can be demoed to the end
users. Once the product is developed and if any failure occurs then the cost of
fixing such issues are very high, because we need to update everywhere from
document till the logic.

V-Model:

V- Model means Verification and Validation model. Testing of the product is

planned in parallel with a corresponding phase of development.

Diagram of V-model:

The various phases of the V-model are as follows:

Requirements like BRS and SRS begin the life cycle model just like the waterfall
model. But, in this model before development is started, a system test plan is
created. The test plan focuses on meeting the functionality specified in the
requirements gathering.

The high-level design (HLD) phase focuses on system architecture and design.
It provide overview of solution, platform, system, product and service/process.
An integration test plan is created in this phase as well in order to test the
pieces of the software systems ability to work together.

The low-level design (LLD) phase is where the actual software components are
designed. It defines the actual logic for each and every component of the
system. Class diagram with all the methods and relation between classes
comes under LLD. Component tests are created in this phase as well.

The Coding phase is, again, where all coding takes place. Once coding is
complete, the path of execution continues up the right side of the V where the
test plans developed earlier are now put to use.

Advantages of V-model:

 Simple and easy to use.

 Testing activities like planning, test designing happens well before
coding. This saves a lot of time. Hence higher chance of success over the
waterfall model.
 Proactive defect tracking – that is defects are found at early stage.
 Avoids the downward flow of the defects.
 Works well for small projects where requirements are easily understood.
Disadvantages of V-model:

 Very rigid and least flexible.

 Software is developed during the implementation phase, so no early
prototypes of the software are produced.
 If any changes happen in midway, then the test documents along with
requirement documents has to be updated.
When to use the V-model:
 The V-shaped model should be used for small to medium sized projects
where requirements are clearly defined and fixed.
 The V-Shaped model should be chosen when ample technical resources
are available with needed technical expertise.
High confidence of customer is required for choosing the V-Shaped model
approach. Since, no prototypes are produced, there is a very high risk involved
in meeting customer expectations.

Incremental model:

In incremental model the whole requirement is divided into various builds.

Multiple development cycles take place here, making the life cycle a“multi-
waterfall” cycle. Cycles are divided up into smaller, more easily managed
modules. Each module passes through the requirements, design,
implementation and testing phases. A working version of software is produced
during the first module, so you have working software early on during
the software life cycle. Each subsequent release of the module adds function
to the previous release. The process continues till the complete system is
achieved.

For example:

In the diagram above when we

work incrementally we are adding piece by piece but expect that each piece is
fully finished. Thus keep on adding the pieces until it’s complete. As in the
image above a person has thought of the application. Then he started building
it and in the first iteration the first module of the application or product is
totally ready and can be demoed to the customers. Likewise in the second
iteration the other module is ready and integrated with the first module.
Similarly, in the third iteration the whole product is ready and integrated.
Hence, the product got ready step by step.

Diagram of Incremental model:

Advantages of Incremental model:

 Generates working software quickly and early during the software life
cycle.
 This model is more flexible – less costly to change scope and
requirements.
 It is easier to test and debug during a smaller iteration.
 In this model customer can respond to each build.
 Lowers initial delivery cost.
 Easier to manage risk because risky pieces are identified and handled
during it’s iteration.
Disadvantages of Incremental model:

 Needs good planning and design.

 Needs a clear and complete definition of the whole system before it can
be broken down and built incrementally.
 Total cost is higher than waterfall.
When to use the Incremental model:

 This model can be used when the requirements of the complete system
are clearly defined and understood.
 Major requirements must be defined; however, some details can evolve
with time.
 There is a need to get a product to the market early.
 A new technology is being used
 Resources with needed skill set are not available
 There are some high risk features and goals.
Agile Model:

Agile development model is also a type of Incremental model. Software is

developed in incremental, rapid cycles. This results in small incremental
releases with each release building on previous functionality. Each release is
thoroughly tested to ensure software quality is maintained. It is used for time
critical applications. Extreme Programming (XP) is currently one of the most
well known agile development life cycle model.

Diagram of Agile model:

Advantages of Agile model:

 Customer satisfaction by rapid, continuous delivery of useful software.

 People and interactions are emphasized rather than process and tools.
Customers, developers and testers constantly interact with each other.
 Working software is delivered frequently (weeks rather than months).
 Face-to-face conversation is the best form of communication.
 Close, daily cooperation between business people and developers.
 Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design.
 Regular adaptation to changing circumstances.
 Even late changes in requirements are welcomed
Disadvantages of Agile model:
 In case of some software deliverables, especially the large ones, it is
difficult to assess the effort required at the beginning of the software
development life cycle.
 There is lack of emphasis on necessary designing and documentation.
 Only senior programmers are capable of taking the kind of decisions
required during the development process. Hence it has no place for
newbie programmers, unless combined with experienced resources.
When to use Agile model:

 When new changes are needed to be implemented. The freedom agile

gives to change is very important. New changes can be implemented at
very little cost because of the frequency of new increments that are
produced.
 Unlike the waterfall model in agile model very limited planning is
required to get started with the project. Agile assumes that the end users’
needs are ever changing in a dynamic business and IT world. Changes can
be discussed and features can be newly effected or removed based on
feedback. This effectively gives the customer the finished system they want
or need.
 Both system developers and stakeholders alike, find they also get more
freedom of time and options than if the software was developed in a more
rigid sequential way. Having options gives them the ability to leave
important decisions until more or better data or even entire hosting
programs are available; meaning the project can continue to move forward
without fear of reaching a sudden standstill.

Iterative model:

An iterative life cycle model does not attempt to start with a full specification
of requirements. Instead, development begins by specifying and implementing
just part of the software, which can then be reviewed in order to identify
further requirements. This process is then repeated, producing a new version
of the software for each cycle of the model.

For example:
In the diagram above when we work iteratively we create rough product or
product piece in one iteration, then review it and improve it in next iteration
and so on until it’s finished. As shown in the image above, in the first iteration
the whole painting is sketched roughly, then in the second iteration colors are
filled and in the third iteration finishing is done. Hence, in iterative model the
whole product is developed step by step.

Diagram of Iterative model:

Advantages of Iterative model:

 In iterative model we can only create a high-level design of the

application before we actually begin to build the product and define the
design solution for the entire product. Later on we can design and built a
skeleton version of that, and then evolved the design based on what had
been built.
 In iterative model we are building and improving the product step by
step. Hence we can track the defects at early stages. This avoids the
downward flow of the defects.
 In iterative model we can get the reliable user feedback. When
presenting sketches and blueprints of the product to users for their
feedback, we are effectively asking them to imagine how the product will
work.
 In iterative model less time is spent on documenting and more time is
given for designing.
Disadvantages of Iterative model:

 Each phase of an iteration is rigid with no overlaps

 Costly system architecture or design issues may arise because not all
requirements are gathered up front for the entire lifecycle
When to use iterative model:

 Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and

understood.
 When the project is big.
 Major requirements must be defined; however, some details can evolve
with time.

Spiral model:

The spiral model is similar to the incremental model, with more emphasis
placed on risk analysis. The spiral model has four phases: Planning, Risk
Analysis, Engineering and Evaluation. A software project repeatedly passes
through these phases in iterations (called Spirals in this model). The baseline
spiral, starting in the planning phase, requirements are gathered and risk is
assessed. Each subsequent spirals builds on the baseline spiral.

Planning Phase: Requirements are gathered during the planning phase.

Requirements like ‘BRS’ that is ‘Bussiness Requirement Specifications’ and
‘SRS’ that is ‘System Requirement specifications’.

Risk Analysis: In the risk analysis phase, a process is undertaken to identify risk
and alternate solutions. A prototype is produced at the end of the risk analysis
phase. If any risk is found during the risk analysis then alternate solutions are
suggested and implemented.

Engineering Phase: In this phase software is developed, along with testing at

the end of the phase. Hence in this phase the development and testing is done.

Evaluation phase: This phase allows the customer to evaluate the output of
the project to date before the project continues to the next spiral.

Diagram of Spiral model:

Advantages of Spiral model:

 High amount of risk analysis hence, avoidance of Risk is enhanced.

 Good for large and mission-critical projects.
 Strong approval and documentation control.
 Additional Functionality can be added at a later date.
 Software is produced early in the software life cycle.
Disadvantages of Spiral model:

 Can be a costly model to use.

 Risk analysis requires highly specific expertise.
 Project’s success is highly dependent on the risk analysis phase.
 Doesn’t work well for smaller projects.
When to use Spiral model:

 When costs and risk evaluation is important

 For medium to high-risk projects
 Long-term project commitment unwise because of potential changes to
economic priorities
 Requirements are complex
 Significant changes are expected (research and exploration)
Choosing right model for developing of the software product or application is
very important. Based on the model the development and testing processes
are carried out.

Different companies based on the software application or product, they select

the type of development model whichever suits to their application. But these
days in market the ‘Agile Methodology’ is the most used model. ‘Waterfall
Model’ is the very old model. In ‘Waterfall Model’ testing starts only after the
development is completed. Because of which there are many defects and
failures which are reported at the end. So, the costs of fixing these issues are
high. Hence, these days’ people prefer ‘Agile Model’. In ‘Agile Model’ after
every sprint there is a demo-able feature to the customer. Hence customer can
see the features whether they are satisfying their need or not.

‘V-model’ is also used by many of the companies in their product. ‘V-model’ is

nothing but ‘Verification’ and ‘Validation’ model. In ‘V-model’ the developer’s
life cycle and tester’s life cycle are mapped to each other. In this model testing
is done side by side of the development.

Likewise ‘Incremental model’, ‘Iterative model’ and ‘Spiral model’ are also used
based on the requirement of the customer and need of the product.

RTM(Requirement Traceability Matrix):

The main purpose of Requirement Traceability Matrix is to see that all

Requirements are covered in the test cases so that no functionality should miss
while testing.
Advantage of Requirement Traceability Matrix
 It confirms 100% test coverage
 It highlights any requirements missing or document inconsistencies